American Literature

Compiled by Abdullah Khan Page 1
 American Literature :
 American literature, the body of written works produced in the
English language in the United States.
 For almost a century and a half, America was merely a group of
colonies scattered along the eastern seaboard of the North American
continent—colonies from which a few hardy souls tentatively
ventured westward.
1. Native American (Before 1600) :
 The traditional oral and written literature of the indigenous peoples of
North America is known as Native American literature, also called
Indian literature or American Indian literature.
 Characterized by different genres such as oral traditions, epic poems,
creation myths, songs, and poetry. In addition, there are ancient
hieroglyphic and pictographic texts that were passed down for
generations through storytellers and survived in contemporary
American Indian writers’ language works.
 Native American literature was well-established long before European
settlers arrived. Recently, authors like Sherman Alexie have revived
the tradition with insightful stories about life on reservations.
2. Colonial and Early American Literature (17th and 18th
centuries):
 This period saw the emergence of literature in the English colonies of
North America.
 Writers like Anne Bradstreet, America's first published poet, and
Jonathan Edwards, a theologian and preacher known for his sermons,
were prominent figures.
 Much of the literature of this period was religious and focused on
themes of faith, exploration, and the challenges of life in the New
World.
3. Revolutionary, Age of Reason, Enlightenment (1750-1800)

 Consisting mostly of philosophers and scientists, Enlightenment
writers sought to understand the world around them through reason
and deduction rather than faith.
 The types of literature of this period were frequently satirical and
skeptical.
 One of the most notable figures during this time was Benjamin
Franklin. In addition to his published autobiography, he wrote many
articles that advocated for things like free speech and religious
tolerance, which were not common at the time.
4. Romanticism, American Gothic (1800-1865)
 This era valued feeling, intuition, and idealism. It placed faith in
interior experience and imagination. Individual freedom and worth
were paramount, and poetry was seen as the highest expression of the
mind.
 The Dark Romantics, or American Gothic writers, combined these
values with dark supernatural themes and settings.
 Edgar Allan Poe was the most famous writer of this genre. His work
often explored death and despair, which he saw as an inevitable part
of life.
5. Transcendentalism (1840-1860)
 Transcendentalists advocated self-reliance and individualism over
authority and conformity to tradition, believing institutions and
organizations were responsible for corrupting the inherent goodness
of people.
 In their poetry, drama, and prose writing, transcendentalists
commonly reflect on nature, a unified “divine spirit,” common to all
people and community.
 Henry David Thoreau was a notable figure of this movement. He is
best known for his book Walden, which reflects upon living the
simple life in nature, as he did on Walden Pond in Concord,
Massachusetts.
6. Realism, Naturalism & Regionalism (1865-1914)

 As America suffered from growing pains, this movement was marked
by feelings of disillusionment. Familiar types of literature subjects
included ghettos of rapidly growing cities, the Industrial Revolution,
and corrupt politicians.
 The authors focused on painting a realistic setting of everyday life and
ordinary people, including local color, while also seeking to explain
human behavior.
 This era valued accuracy over emotion and downplayed idealistic
notions of human nature. It was motivated in part by the Industrial
Revolution, which resulted in a new urban way of life.
 One of the most famous realist writers was Mark Twain, whose
novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn are still beloved today.
7. Modernism (1914-1945)
 On the American literary timeline, Modernism began as an extension
of realism but made efforts to break with literary and poetic traditions.
 Authors of this era were bold and experimental in style; an example
of this is the “stream of consciousness.” Commonly dealing with the
struggles of individuals, modernist literature can seem bleak but is
characterized by the optimistic belief that people can change the
world around them.
 Ernest Hemingway was one of the most notable modernist writers.
His work is characterized by terse, straightforward prose and
accessible, relatable characters.
8. The Harlem Renaissance (1917-1937)
 Alongside modernism, African American culture in Harlem, New
York, was flourishing. Much of the style is derived from poetry
rhythms based on spirituals, jazz lyrics on the blues, and the use of
slang in everyday diction. These influences intersected with
prohibition, reactions to WWI, and the sultry nightlife of the big city
to produce an energetic progressive culture.
 Langston Hughes was an influential writer of the Harlem

Renaissance. His poetry often dealt with racial injustice and
celebrated African Amer
9. Postmodernism (1950-Present)
 Literature since WWII has been heavily influenced by studies of
media, language, and information technology. It rejects the idea that
anything is truly “unique,” proposing that culture endlessly duplicates
itself.
 Postmodern literature especially is marked by irony in the form of
parody, unreliable narrators, absurdity, self-awareness, and
deconstruction.
 New literary forms and techniques focused on intense dialogue,
blending fiction with nonfiction, and the overall appearance of the
work.
 Thomas Pynchon, Toni Morrison, Bret Easton Ellis, and Margaret
Atwood are some of the most well known contemporary and
postmodern writers.
 Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow is a prime example of postmodern
fiction, with its large cast of characters, non-linear plot, and extensive
use of pop culture references.
 Morrison was the first African American woman to win the Nobel
Prize in Literature, and her work often deals with race relations in
America. Ellis is known for his novels Less Than Zero and American
Psycho, which explore the dark side of celebrity culture and
consumerism. Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale is a dystopian novel
set in a near-future theocracy, which has been turned into an Emmy-
winning television series.
 Writers :
1. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 – 1864)
Nathaniel Hawthorne was a novelist and short story writer. Hawthorne’s
works have been labelled ‘dark romanticism,’ dominated as they are by
cautionary tales that suggest that guilt, sin, and evil are the most inherent
natural qualities of humankind. His novels and stories, set in a past New
England, are versions of historical fiction used as a vehicle to express

themes of ancestral sin, guilt and retribution.
2. Edgar Allan Poe (1809 –1849)
Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. He is
best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of
mystery and suspense. He is generally considered the inventor of
detective fiction. Poe’s work as an editor, a poet, and a critic had a
profound impact on American and international literature. In addition to
his detective stories he is one of the originators of horror and science
fiction. He is often credited as the architect of the modern short story.
3. Herman Melville (1819 – 1891)
Herman Melville was an American writer of novels, short stories and
poems. He is best known for the novel Moby-Dick and a romantic
account of his experiences in Polynesian life. His whaling novel, Moby-
Dick is often spoken of as ‘the great American novel’ ’vying with Scott
Fitgerald’s The Great Gatsby and Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn for
that title.
4. Walt Whitman (1819-1892)
Walt Whitman was a poet, essayist, and journalist who transformed
poetry around the world with his disregard for traditional rhyme and
meter and his celebration of democracy and sensual pleasure. His
masterpiece, Leaves of Grass, a collection of poems, is widely studied by
poets, students and academics, set to music, translated into numerous
languages, and is widely quoted.
5. Emily Dickinson (1830 – 1886)
Unknown as a poet during her lifetime, Emily Dickinson is now regarded
by many as one of the most powerful voices of American culture. Her
poetry has inspired many other writers, including the Brontes. In 1994
the critic, Harold Bloom, listed her among the twenty-six central writers
of Western civilization. After she died her sister found the almost two
thousand poems the poet had written.
6. Mark Twain (1835 – 1910)

Samuel Langhorne Clemens , far better known as Mark Twain, was an
American writer, businessman, publisher and lecturer. He progressed
from his day job as pilot of a Mississippi riverboat to legend of American
literature. His work shows a deep seriousness and at the same time, it is
hilariously satirical, as seen in his many quotes on all aspects of life. His
masterpiece is the novel, Huckleberry Finn, which is regularly referred to
as ‘the great American novel.’
7. Henry James (1843 – 1916)
Henry James is regarded as one of the key figures of 19th-century literary
realism. He is noted for writing from a character’s point of view’ which
allowed him to explore consciousness and perception. His imaginative
use of point of view, interior monologue and unreliable narrators brought
a new depth to narrative fiction, all of which were influential on the
writing of the novelists who followed him. He was nominated for the
Nobel prize for literature three times.
8. T.S. Eliot (1888 – 1965)
Thomas Stearns Eliot was an American-born, British, poet, essayist,
playwright, critic, now regarded as
one of the twentieth century’s major poets. He received more rewards
than almost any other writer of the past two centuries, including the
Nobel prize, the Dante Gold Medal, the Goethe prize, the US Medal of
Freedom and the British Order of Merit.
9. F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896 – 1940)
Francis Scott Fitzgerald was an American novelist, widely regarded as
one of the greatest, if not the greatest, American writers of the 20th
century. He is best known for his novel, The Great Gatsby, which vies for
the title ‘Great American Novel’ with Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn
and Herman Melville’s MobyDick.
10. William Faulkner (1897 –1962)

William Cuthbert Faulkner was a Nobel Prize laureate, awarded the
literature prize in 1949. He wrote novels, short stories, poetry, and
screenplays. He is known mainly for his novels and short stories set in
the fictional Yoknapatawpha Country, Mississippi. Faulkner is one of the
most celebrated American writers.
11. Tennessee Williams (1911-1983)
Thomas Lanier Williams III, known as Tennessee Williams is one of
America’s most popular playwrights and now regarded as one of the
most significant writers of the twentieth century. He wrote more than
thirty plays, some of which have become classics of Western drama. He
also wrote novels and short stories but is known almost exclusively for
his plays. His genius was in the honesty with which he represented
society and the art of presenting that in the form of absorbing drama.
12. Arthur Miller (1915 – 2005)
Arthur Miller was a playwright and ‘great man’ of American theatre,
which he championed throughout his long life. His many dramas were
among the most popular by American authors and several are considered
to be among the best American plays, among them the classics, The
Crucible, All My Sons, A View from the Bridge and, above all, the
iconic American drama, Death of a Salesman.
13. Joseph Heller (1923 – 1999)
Joseph Heller was an American writer of satirical novels, short stories
and plays. Although he wrote several acclaimed novels, his reputation
rests firmly on his masterpiece, the great American anti-war satire, Catch
22. Because of the quality of the novel and the impact it has made on
American culture it has catapulted Heller into the ranks of the great
American writers.
14. Ernest Hemingway (1899 – 1961)
Ernest Hemingway was a novelist, short story writer, and journalist. He
published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction
works, and won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. More works,
including three novels, four short story collections, and three non-fiction
works, were published posthumously.
1993.
17. Vladimir Nabokov (1899 – 1977)
Vladimirovich Nabokov was a Russian-American novelist, and also a
famous entomologist, specialising in butterflies, a topic on which he
wrote several academic books. He wrote nine novels in Russian, but it
was when he began writing in English that he achieved international
recognition.
19. John Steinbeck (1902 – 1968)
John Ernst Steinbeck was the author of 16 novels and various other
works, including five short story collections. He is widely known for the
novels, East of Eden, Of Mice and Men, and particularly, the Puliter
Prize winning novel, The Grapes of Wrath, his masterpiece, which is one
of the great American novels: it has sold more than 15 million copies so
far.
 Themes of the American Literature :
1. The American Dream :
The ideal that every US citizen should have an equal opportunity to
achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination, and
initiative.
2. Loss of Innocence :
It is usually thought of as an experience or period in a child's life that
widens their awareness of evil, pain or suffering in the world around
them.
3. Social Justice and Inequality :
American literature has often served as a platform for addressing social
issues such as racism, sexism, classism, and injustice. Writers have used
their voices to advocate for change and challenge the status quo.
4. Technology and Modernity :

Themes of technology, progress, and the impact of modernity on
American society are prevalent in contemporary American literature,
reflecting the rapid pace of change and the challenges of navigating an
increasingly complex world.
 Romanticism :
 Popular in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Romanticism was a
literary movement that emphasized nature and the importance of
emotion and artistic freedom.
 In Romanticism, emotion is much more powerful than rational
thought.
 Nature, in all its unbound glory, plays a huge role in Romantic
literature. Nature, sometimes seen as the opposite of the rational, is a
powerful symbol in work from this era. Romantic poets and writers
give personal, deep descriptions of nature and its wild and powerful
qualities.
 A focus on emotion is a key characteristic of nearly all writing from
the Romantic period. When you read work of this period, you’ll see
feelings described in all forms, including romantic and filial love,
fear, sorrow, loneliness, and more.
 In contrast to the previous generations’ focus on reason, writers of the
Romantic movement explored the importance of imagination and the
creative impulse. Romantic poets and prose writers celebrated the
power of imagination and the creative process, as well as the artistic
viewpoint. They believed that artists and writers looked at the world
differently, and they celebrated that vision in their work.
 Romantic literature also explores the theme of aesthetic beauty, not
just of nature but of people as well. This was especially true with
descriptions of female beauty. Writers praised women of the
Romantic era for their natural loveliness, rather than anything
artificial or constrained.
 Writers of the Romantic era believed that creative inspiration came
from solitary exploration. They celebrated the feeling of being alone,
whether that meant loneliness or a much-needed quiet space to think

and create.
 The writers of the Romantic era did not turn away from the darker
side of emotion and the mysteries of the supernatural. They explored
the contrast between life and death.
 Many works of Romantic-era literature are deeply personal, and they
often explore the self of the writer. You’ll see autobiographical
influences in poems and prose of the period.
 Transcendentalism :
 Transcendentalism was a religious, literary, and political movement
that evolved from New England Unitarianism in the 1820s and
1830s.
 Arising from a faction of the Unitarian denomination that felt its
theology did not place enough emphasis on the role of intuition in
religion,
 this movement is typically dated as starting in 1836 with the
publication of Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essay on “Nature” and
gradually faded as an active movement at the approach of the
American Civil War, with the exception of Walt Whitman.
 transcendentalists extended the Unitarian theological rebellion against
Puritan Calvinism, moving toward a post-Christian spirituality that
held each man and woman capable of spiritual development and
fulfillment.
 The Transcendentalists believed there is a divine spirit in nature and
in every living soul. Through individualism and self-reliance human
beings could reunite with God.
 Realism :
 Literary realism was part of the broader realist movement that started
in the nineteenth-century, in France, as a reaction to Romanticism.
 It lasted until the early twentieth century and was determined to focus
on the real world, allowing readers and viewers, or art, novels, plays,
and more, to encounter their lives, worlds, and an accurate depiction
of others, in the movement. Some of the best-known realist writers
were : Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) , Stephen Crane , George Eliot
etc
 Artists and writers strove for detailed realistic and factual description.
They tried to represent events and social conditions as they actually
are, without idealization.
 Realism focused on the truthful treatment of the common, average,
everyday life. Realism focuses on the immediate, the here and now
 Realists are concerned with the effect of the work on their reader and
the reader's life.
 Emphasis on psychological, optimistic tone, details, pragmatic,
practical, slow-moving plot
 Realists--show us rather than tell us
 Emphasis on morality, usually intrinsic, relativistic between people
and society.
 Humans are in control of their own destiny and are superior to their
circumstances.
 Naturalism :
 Naturalism was first proposed and formulated by French Novelist
Emile Zola, and it was introduced to America by American novelist
Frank Norris.
 A literary movement from the late 19th and early 20th centuries that
analyzed human through a scientific, objective and detached
perspective.
 The term naturalism describes a type of literature that attempts to
apply scientific principles of objectivity and detachment to its study of
human beings. Unlike realism, which focuses on literary technique.
 naturalism implies a philosophical position: for naturalistic writers,
since human beings are, in Emile Zola’s phrase, “human beasts,”
characters can be studied through their relationships to their
surroundings.
 Through this objective study of human beings, naturalistic writers
believed that the laws behind the forces that govern human lives
might be studied and understood.
 Naturalistic writers thus used a version of the scientific method to
write their novels; they studied human beings governed by their
instincts and passions as well as the ways in which the characters’
lives were governed by forces of heredity and environment.
 Naturalism rejected movements such as romanticism , which

embraced subjectivity, the individual and imagination, it also differ
from realism by applying the scientific method to the narrative
structure.
 Definition of Existentialism :
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual
existence, freedom, and choice. It asserts that individuals are responsible
for creating their own meaning in life and that they must confront the
challenges and uncertainties of existence. Existentialism focuses on the
subjective experience of the individual and explores themes related to
freedom, authenticity, and the search for personal identity and purpose.
 History of Existentialism :
Existentialism emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, with roots in the
works of philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. It
gained significant prominence in the mid-20th century, with influential
figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus contributing to its
development.
 Characteristics of Existentialism:
1. Individual Freedom :
Existentialism emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and

choice. It asserts that individuals have the autonomy to make decisions
and shape their lives.
2. Existential Anxiety :
Existentialists often explore the anxiety and dread that arise when
individuals confront the inherent uncertainties and challenges of
existence.
3. Absence of Inherent Meaning :
Existentialism rejects the notion of inherent or objective meaning in life.

It suggests that individuals must create their own meaning and values.
 Existentialism vs. Nihilism :
Existentialism and nihilism share some similarities, as both philosophies

challenge conventional beliefs and the search for objective meaning.
However, existentialism embraces the idea that individuals can create
their own meaning, while nihilism tends to reject the possibility of
meaning altogether.
 Existentialism in Literature :
Existentialist themes are prevalent in literature, particularly in the works

of authors like Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Franz Kafka. These
authors explore the human condition, freedom, and the search for
meaning in a seemingly indifferent world.
 Existentialism vs. Absurdism :
Existentialism and absurdism share some common themes, such as the

absence of inherent meaning. However, absurdism, as exemplified by
Albert Camus, specifically explores the human response to the absurdity
of life, often in the face of irrationality and indifference.
 Absurdism :
Absurdism is a philosophical belief that highlights the inherent conflict

between the human need for meaning,purpose in life and the apparent
meaninglessness of the universe. It suggests that life lacks intrinsic
meaning, and individuals must create their own purpose in an indifferent
world.
 Definition of Absurdism:
Absurdism is the idea that life has no inherent meaning, and individuals
must create their own purpose and values
1. Origin and Influences :
Absurdism emerged in the mid-20th century as a philosophical response

to the existentialist movement. Influential thinkers like Albert Camus and
Jean-Paul Sartre contributed to its development.
 The term "absurd" is derived from the Latin word "absurdus,"

meaning "out of harmony." Absurdism explores the disharmony
between human desire for meaning and the universe's apparent lack of
purpose.
2. The Absurd Condition :
 Absurdism posits that humans inherently seek meaning and purpose in

life, but the universe is indifferent and devoid of inherent meaning.
 The conflict between human longing for meaning and the
meaninglessness of the universe creates the "absurd condition."
3. The Myth of Sisyphus :
Albert Camus's essay, "The Myth of Sisyphus," is a foundational work
in absurdism. It portrays the story of Sisyphus, a figure from Greek
mythology condemned to roll a boulder uphill, only for it to roll back
down, symbolizing life's repetitive and seemingly futile nature.
 Camus argues that despite life's absurdity, individuals can find
purpose through revolt, freedom, and passion.
 Characteristics of Absurdism :
1. Absurdism acknowledges the existential angst or anxiety that arises

from the realization of life's lack of inherent meaning.
2. Individuals are responsible for creating their own values and
purpose in a meaningless universe.
3. Absurdism encourages acceptance and embrace of life's absurdity
without succumbing to despair.
4. Instead of despairing in the face of meaninglessness, absurdism
advocates for rebellion through the creation of personal meaning.
 Influence on Literature and Theater:
 Absurdist themes are prominent in literature and theater. Absurdist

plays, such as Samuel Beckett's "Waiting for Godot," showcase
characters trapped in meaningless situations, highlighting the
absurdity of life.
 Absurdist literature often features unconventional narratives,

fragmented structures, and surreal elements to convey the sense of the
absurd.
 Legacy and Impact:
 Absurdism continues to influence contemporary philosophy,

literature, and art. Its exploration of the human condition resonates
with audiences seeking to understand existence in an uncertain world.
 Absurdist ideas have also seeped into popular culture, inspiring
movies, television shows, and music that reflect the absurdity and
complexity of modern life.
 Ralph Waldo Emerson :

 Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25, 1803, in Boston,
Massachusetts.
 He was the son of William and Ruth Emerson; his father was a
clergyman.
 Emerson attended Harvard College, where he studied divinity and
developed a keen interest in philosophy, literature, and nature.
 He was licensed as a minister in 1826 and ordained to the Unitarian
church in 1829.
 Emerson married Ellen Tucker in 1829. When she died of tuberculosis
in 1831, he was grief-stricken. Her death, added to his own recent
crisis of faith, caused him to resign from the clergy.
 Emerson is best known for his role as a leader in the Transcendentalist
movement and for his philosophical essays and lectures.
 In 1832 Emerson traveled to Europe, where he met with literary
figures Thomas Carlyle, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William
Wordsworth.
 Writing style :
Ralph Waldo Emerson, a leading figure in the transcendentalist
movement of the 19th century, had a distinctive writing style
characterized by;
1. Emerson's writing often reflects the transcendentalist philosophy,
which holds that individuals have inherent goodness and intuition, and
can transcend the physical world to connect with spiritual truths.
2. Emerson's work delves into profound philosophical concepts such as
the nature of existence, the relationship between humanity and nature,
the importance of self-reliance, and the pursuit of individualism.
3. Emerson's prose is often infused with poetic language, employing
vivid imagery, metaphor, and symbolism to convey his ideas.
4. Central to Emerson's writing is the idea of individualism and the
celebration of the individual's unique perspective and potential. He
encourages readers to trust their own intuition, cultivate their talents,
and forge their own paths in life.
 Poem No 1
 Concord Hymn by Emerson :
"Concord Hymn" is a poem written by Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1837 to
commemorate the Battle of Concord, which took place on April 19, 1775,
during the American Revolutionary War.
 Summary :
 Stanza 1 :
By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled,
Here once the embattled farmers stood
And fired the shot heard round the world.
In the first stanza, Emerson describes the scene at the North Bridge in
Concord, Massachusetts, where the first shots of the Revolutionary War
were fired. He describes the "rude bridge" and the flag raised "to April's
breeze unfurled." The stanza celebrates the bravery of the "embattled
farmers" who fought for their country's freedom.
 Stanza 2 :
The foe long since in silence slept;
Alike the conqueror silent sleeps;
And Time the ruined bridge has swept
Down the dark stream which seaward creeps.
In the second stanza, Emerson reflects on the passage of time since the
battle took place. He notes that both the British soldiers and the
American patriots who fought in the battle are now dead and buried. He
also observes that the "ruined bridge" has been swept away by the
passage of time.
 Stanza 3 :
On this green bank, by this soft stream,
We set to-day a votive stone;
That memory may their deed redeem,
When, like our sires, our sons are gone.
In the third stanza, Emerson describes the setting of the poem and
explains that a "votive stone" has been set up as a memorial to the
soldiers who fought and died in the battle. He hopes that future
generations will remember and honor the sacrifice of the soldiers, just as
their ancestors did.
 Stanza 4 :
Spirit, that made those heroes dare
To die, and leave their children free,
Bid Time and Nature gently spare
The shaft we raise to them and thee.
In the final stanza, Emerson addresses the spirit of freedom and

independence that inspired the soldiers to fight and die for their country.
He asks that time and nature spare the memorial stone that has been
erected in their honor, so that future generations may remember and
honor their sacrifice.
 Themes :
1. Theme of Patriotism and national identity :
Concord Hymn" celebrates the ideals of freedom, independence, and
patriotism. It pays tribute to the brave soldiers who fought for their
country's freedom during the American Revolutionary War.
2. Courage :
“Concord Hymn” underscores the courage of the Revolutionary soldiers.
As the first stanza notes, they were really just "embattled farmers" or
normal people. Despite this, they were possessed of a "spirit" that made
them truly heroic and willing to die so that future generations might have
a better life as free citizens of their own country.
3. Memory :
One purpose of a monument is, of course, to preserve the memory of a
person or event. “Concord Hymn” underscores the necessity of building
such a monument by noting how the bridge where this historical event
occurred was completely neglected, “ruined” by time.
 Structure and Rhyme scheme :

The poem consists of eight quatrains, with a regular rhyme scheme of
ABAB. This regularity contributes to the hymn-like quality of the poem
and adds to its celebratory tone.
 Tone :
The tone of the poem is celebratory and triumphant. Emerson celebrates
the bravery and sacrifice of the soldiers who fought for their country, and
he honors their memory with reverence and respect.
 Historical context :
The poem is set at the North Bridge in Concord, Massachusetts, where
the first shots of the Revolutionary War were fired. Emerson describes
the "rude bridge that arched the flood" and the "embattled farmers" who
fought for their freedom against the British soldiers.
 Imagery :
Emerson uses vivid imagery to bring the scene to life. He describes the
"rude bridge" and the "breeze unfurled" as the soldiers raise their flag in
the wind. The imagery evokes the chaos and excitement of the battle, as
well as the bravery and determination of the soldiers.
 Symbolism :
The flag raised "to April's breeze unfurled" symbolizes the birth of a new
nation and the ideals of freedom and independence. It represents the unity
and strength of the American people as they fight for their rights and
liberties.
 Poem No 2 :
 Fate :
“Fate" is a poem written by Ralph Waldo Emerson that delves into the
concept of fate and its impact on human life. Published in 1860 as part of
his collection of poems titled "The Conduct of Life," Emerson explores

the tension between fate and free will and reflects on the role of fate in
shaping human destiny.
1. Theme of Fate :
The central theme of the poem is fate and its role in shaping human life.
Emerson reflects on the idea that each person's fate is predetermined and
that it is beyond their control. He explores the tension between fate and
free will, and considers the ways in which individuals can assert their
agency in the face of an uncertain future.
2. Structure :
“Fate" is a poem written in six stanzas, each consisting of varying
numbers of lines. The poem does not follow a strict rhyme scheme or
meter, but instead relies on free verse.
3. Tone :
The tone of the poem is reflective and philosophical. Emerson explores
the concept of fate and its implications for human life with a sense of awe
and wonder.
4. Acceptance :
Emerson suggests that while fate may be beyond our control, we can still
accept it and integrate it into our lives.
5. Personification :
The last to own / The Genius from its cloudy throne" - Fate is personified
as a Genius that controls the course of events.
6. Metaphor :
For the prevision is allied / Unto the thing so signified" - Fate is
metaphorically linked to the ability to foresee the future.
7. Symbolism :
“the nimble streamlet's blow" - The small stream symbolizes the ability
of man to influence his fate, even if only in a small way.
 Summary :
 Stanza 1 :
Deep in the man sits fast his fate
To mold his fortunes, mean or great:
Unknown to Cromwell as to me
Was Cromwell's measure or degree;
Unknown to him as to his horse,
If he than his groom be better or worse.
In the first stanza, Emerson reflects on the idea that fate determines the
course of human life. He suggests that each person's fate is predetermined
and that it is beyond their control. He uses the example of Cromwell to
illustrate this point, noting that even Cromwell himself did not fully
understand his own fate.
 Stanza 2 :
He works, plots, fights, in rude affairs,
With squires, lords, kings, his craft compares,
Till late he learned, through doubt and fear,
Broad England harbored not his peer:
Obeying time, the last to own
The Genius from its cloudy throne.
In the second stanza, Emerson describes how Cromwell worked, plotted,

and fought in order to achieve his goals. However, he ultimately learned
that he was not the equal of the Genius of fate, which controlled the
course of events.
 Stanza 3 :
For the prevision is allied
Unto the thing so signified;
Or say, the foresight that awaits
Is the same Genius that creates.
In the third stanza, Emerson suggests that the ability to foresee the future
is connected to the thing that is being foreseen. In other words, the same
Genius that creates events also has the ability to foresee them.
 Stanza 4 :
Man cannot bar the river's flow,
Yet turns the nimble streamlet's blow:
He may cross the clouds so light
They are but curtains to his flight.
In the fourth stanza, Emerson acknowledges that while man cannot

control the flow of the river, he can redirect the course of a small stream.
Similarly, while man cannot control fate, he can still assert his agency
and influence the course of events.
 Stanza 5 :
’Tis not in the advance of fate
To raise and meet its dark estate,
But stand, as if I prayed, dumb and dim,
Before the coming bulk of him.
In the fifth stanza, Emerson suggests that it is not possible to advance fate
or to change its course. Instead, he advises that one should stand silently
and passively before fate, accepting it as it comes.
 Stanza 6 :
Thus have I, — if the world will pardon,
An individual man so hardened,
— Thus have I, — so at least men ken me,—
— Fortified myself, my haughty spirit,
At the fount, at the fountain-head of Evil,
Drinking therefrom whatever might be
Sweet, or bitter, and diluting
My drink with draughts of fate.
In the final stanza, Emerson reflects on his own approach to fate. He

suggests that he has fortified himself against fate by drinking from the
fountain-head of Evil and diluting his drink with draughts of fate. He
acknowledges that he has accepted both the good and the bad aspects of
fate, and has integrated them into his life.
 Poem No 3 :
 The Bell :
“The Bell" was first published in 1847 as part of Emerson's collection of
poetry titled "Poems." The poem uses the image of a bell tolling to evoke
a sense of the passage of time and the way in which it affects all things.
Emerson suggests that change and transformation are inevitable, and that
they should be embraced rather than feared.
1. Structure :
The Bell" is a poem written in five stanzas, each consisting of varying
numbers of lines. The poem does not follow a strict rhyme scheme or
meter, but instead relies on free verse.
2. Tone :
The tone of the poem is reflective and contemplative. Emerson uses the
image of the bell tolling to evoke a sense of the passage of time and the
inevitability of change.
3. Themes :
i. The Passage of time :
The poem explores the theme of the passage of time and the way in
which it affects all things.
ii. Change and transformation :
Emerson reflects on the inevitability of change and transformation, and
suggests that it is something to be embraced rather than feared.
“The bell strikes one. We take no note of time / But from its loss" - The
bell is personified as an entity that strikes the hours and marks the
passage of time.
5. Metaphor :
“Old haps depart, / New converse and new pain" - Time is
metaphorically compared to an entity that brings about change and
transformation.
6. Imagery :
“The past returns no more, / And we, the citizens of time, / Take up the
envious minutes" - Emerson uses vivid imagery to evoke a sense of the
passage of time and the way in which it affects all things.
 Summary :
 Stanza 1 :
I love thy music, mellow bell,
I love thine iron chime,
To life or death, to heaven or hell,
Which calls the sons of Time.
In the first stanza, Emerson expresses his love for the sound of the bell
and its "mellow" and "iron" chime. He reflects on the universal nature of
the bell, which calls the "sons of Time" to life, death, heaven, or hell.
 Stanza 2 :
Thy voice upon the deep
The home-bound sea-boy hails,
It charms his cares to sleep,
It cheers him as he sails.
n the second stanza, Emerson describes how the bell's voice can be heard
by the sea-boy as he sails the deep. The sound of the bell helps to comfort
and cheer the sea-boy, easing his cares and helping him to sleep.
 Stanza 3 :
To house of God and heavenly joys
The living waters knell;
And to the grave their noise
The dead man's passing bell.
In the third stanza, Emerson reflects on the dual nature of the bell's
sound. It calls the faithful to the house of God and the promise of
heavenly joys, but it also tolls for the dead, marking their passage to the
grave.
 Stanza 4 :
And thou, O silver bell!
Thy bridal song dost know,
When hearts of youth are wed,
Or maiden's form lies low.
In the fourth stanza, Emerson describes how the bell also rings out for
weddings, marking the union of hearts in youth, as well as for funerals,
marking the passing of a maiden.
 Stanza 5 :
Within the hall it knells,
And at the sable bier;

It rings the matin peal,
And knells the parting year.
In the fifth stanza, Emerson reflects on the various occasions when the
bell tolls within the hall, at the bier, for the morning peal, and to mark the
end of the year.
 Stanza 6 :
Thy tongue is like the thunder,
Its boom doth shake the sky!
Thy tones are sweeter far than love,
They make us laugh or cry.
In the final stanza, Emerson describes the power of the bell's tongue,
which is like thunder and can shake the sky. He reflects on the sweet
tones of the bell, which have the power to make us laugh or cry, and
evoke a range of emotions.
Emily Dickinson :
 Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in

Amherst, Massachusetts, into a prominent family.
 Emily was educated at Amherst Academy, where she excelled in her

studies and developed a love for literature.
 Dickinson began writing poetry at a young age and was deeply
influenced by the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Emily Bronte,
among others.
 Dickinson's poetry is characterized by its unique style, including short
lines, unconventional punctuation, and vivid imagery.
 During her lifetime, Dickinson published only a handful of poems,
mostly anonymously and without her consent.
 After her death in 1886, her sister Lavinia discovered nearly 1,800
poems among Dickinson's papers.
 The first volume of Dickinson's poetry was published in 1890, and
since then, she has become one of the most important and influential
American poets.
 Emily Dickinson died on May 15, 1886, in Amherst, Massachusetts,
at the age of 55.
 Writing style :
Here are some key features of her writing style:
1. Brevity :
Dickinson's poems are often short and concise, with many of them
consisting of only a few lines or stanzas.
2. Unconventional punctuation and capitalization :
Dickinson's use of dashes, unconventional punctuation, and capitalization

is a hallmark of her style. She often employed dashes to create pauses or
to indicate shifts in thought, and she capitalized certain words for
emphasis, giving her poems a distinctive visual appearance.
3. Rich imagery and symbolism :

Dickinson's poetry is filled with vivid imagery and symbolism drawn

from nature, everyday life, and the inner workings of the human mind.
4. Exploration of themes :
Dickinson's poems explore a wide range of themes, including love, death,

nature, faith, and the human condition.
5. Ambiguity and complexity :
Dickinson's poems are known for their ambiguity and complexity, with
layers of meaning that invite multiple interpretations. She frequently
employed irony, paradox, and wordplay to challenge conventional
wisdom and to explore the mysteries of existence.
 Emily Dickinson is a poet of nature :
Emily Dickinson, the popularly known poet of seclusion and solitariness,

is talking about love and death and time and eternity in her poems.
Irritated with the human society, Dickinson found refuge in nature. The
lap of nature also supplied to Dickinson the thought of love. Emily
Dickinson is a poet of nature not in the traditional sense of the term. She
lived in a life of secrecy and self chosen confinement. Human society
was never a matter of interest to her.Rather she found solace and comfort
in the lap of nature. Thus Dickinson is a poet with difference and the
study of Dickinson as a poet of nature is matter of scholarly interest for
years after years,
Dickinson did not pretend to read ultimate meanings in nature. For her,
nature was an endless carnival of entertainment. It was also a source of
metaphor to illustrate the truths of her interior world, the one she created
and the only one she could understand. So, from the supposed tangibles
of the external world she turned to the intangibles of the spirit
Dickinson‟s absorption in the world of feeling found some relief in

associations with nature. The spectacle of nature has in her eyes a more
fugitive glory, a lesser consolation that it had for Wordsworth. Emily
Dickinson is often called the American Romantic. True to this popular
movement‟s basic concept, Dickinson‟s poems are real recollections of
tranquility. Nature, the world of harmony did not give birth to any
philosophy in the poet‟s mind.
Dickinson‟s keen observation and close associations with nature

provided her the chance to present the neglected and grotesque aspects of
nature. The rat, the mushroom, the fly, the bat, the snake, the frog, the
stones, all are enlivened before us through Emily‟s Poems. The
Romantics avoided these aspects, the moralists ignored; but Emily
Dickinson found in them the true representation of nature
 “I heard a Fly buzz”
Written in 1862, “I Heard a Fly Buzz—When I Died—” was first

published in Emily Dickinson’s third posthumous collection of
poetry, Poems by Emily Dickinson, third series, 1896. The poem has been
an object of much critical debate, for there is disagreement over the
meaning of the fly as a symbol and its relationship to the death of the
poem’s speaker.
Stanza 1 :
I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –

The Stillness in the Room
Was like the Stillness in the Air –
Between the Heaves of Storm –
 Summary :
The opening line serves as an intrigue to the readers and they are
immediately drawn towards the line that states that someone has heard a
fly buzz after dying. It is indeed paradoxical but the speaker offers such
realistic description that one cannot help but wonder whether it is
possible or not. The idea of death doesn’t always stir an interest in
everyone but when the speaker mentions that in a still room even after
dying it could hear a fly buzz that interests the readers. The sharp contrast
has been established in the very first stanza. The speaker goes on to
describe the room which is so still that calm can settle between storms.
 Analysis :
The poem starts with the juxtaposition of life and death in one room. As
the speaker breathes its last, a fly buzzes inside the room. The bountiful
life clashes with the solemn death sharply. The speaker, who is
apparently dead, marks the fact that the stillness and sombreness of the
room is cut by the entry of a fly. The trivial fly shows that even after
death life must go on. Death is just another part in life which is bound to
happen. Everything remains silent around the speaker’s deathbed yet the
only thing that sparkles with life is the fly buzzing around. The poem
undermines the otherwise idea of death as a grand moment in a person’s
life.
Stanza 2 :
The Eyes around – had wrung them dry –

And Breaths were gathering firm
For that last Onset – when the King
Be witnessed – in the Room –
 Summary :
In the second stanza, the speaker’s focus shifts from that of the fly to the
stillness of the room as she begins to talk about the people mourning
there. Even though people around the speaker are mourning, apparently
their eyes were “dry” as no one has cried over the narrator’s death. And
this is solely because everyone had already shed all the tears they had to
shed. The speaker continues by saying that the room is so still, one could
hear the breaths of everyone present there. “The King” which could
either refer to God or to Death is someone the speaker is expecting to
show up at any moment and be done with the existence.
 Analysis :
Here the readers note that even before dying the speaker has anticipated
her own death. She is awakened by the rude interruption of a fly in an
otherwise quiet room. The speaker comments that the room filled with
the mourners was rather quiet and lacked anxiety. The mourners were
plunged into a deep grief but no longer were they crying. Death here has
been presented as a serious affair. One always wails and grieves
vehemently at the loss of a loved one. The final moments of the departing
soul is always viewed as a journey to the unknown and the others weep
for that unknown. The mourners surround the dying person and appear as
if they are accompanied with pomp and show. “The King” stands a bit
abstract but everyone, including the speaker, are waiting for its arrival
with bated breath. One can assume everyone is quiet so as not to miss the
departing moment of the speaker’s life.
Stanza 3 :
I willed my Keepsakes – Signed away

What portion of me be
Assignable – and then it was
There interposed a Fly –
 Summary :
The speaker of “I heard a Fly buzz – when I died” implies in the third
verse that all was ideal, and the speaker was prepared to pass away until
the intrusive fly intervened. The speaker asserts that it had each of its
“keepsakes” assigned to particular individuals. The narrator’s wishes
were in accord. The atmosphere in the space was calm and still. But
when the speaker was about to pass away peacefully, the fly began to
buzz.
 Analysis :
The passing away of the speaker brings forth a forlorn mood of despair
for the mourners. They are all gathered around to pay their respects to the
dying person and are terribly sad. The journey to heaven is apparently
considered a sight worth witnessing as seen by the mourners. The dying
speaker has shed all earthly attachments and is departing. However the
main interest in death doesn’t lie in the eyes of the person actually dying
but to the people watching it. Death as an act is taken very seriously by
them. Ironically it is the little fly that has interrupted the grand process
marking how trivial it is.
Stanza 4 :
With Blue – uncertain – stumbling Buzz –

Between the light – and me –
And then the Windows failed – and then
I could not see to see
 Summary :
Things become unsure in this final verse, and viewers can sense the
speaker’s concern as it portrays the fly in his doubt. He buzzes around,
uncertain of where to settle. The speaker is disturbed by this ominous
buzzing as one nears death. People often talk of the beacon that they
journey towards when they recount their close calls to death. The speaker
loses her ability to see the outside world abruptly, followed by its total
loss of vision. The speaker provides the listeners with this mental picture
of the final moments: blackness and an unsettling fly. It appears that the
speaker thinks that a vibrant inviting light ought to have been there at the
exact time of death. In the calm of the room, the speaker must have been
accompanied by those who adore the narrator.
 Analysis :
What the speaker intends to say is that there’s an illumination like that,
but a fly hums in front of her. There was a disturbance in her serene time
of death, which was intended to be when she accompanied the bright
illumination from this existence to the last. The uncertainty of a fly’s
motion is paralleling the speaker’s state of mind. The intervening light
acts as a curtain between life and death; between mortality and
immortality. The materialistic life on earth is coming to an end for the
speaker as the windows in front of her fades to a background till it’s no
longer there. Death diminishes all other immaterial things from sight,
hence the speaker is unable to see anything at the time of her death.
 “I Heard a Fly Buzz” as a Representative of Death :

As this poem is about death, the poet illustrates what happens when she
dies. She says that she hears a fly buzzing when she dies then details the
moments that eventually lead to her death. In the first stanza, she sets the
scene for the upcoming event, death. She says that the room is quiet and
calm. Then she presents a graphic detail of the mourners gathered around
her. They are also quiet with their dried eyes waiting for the speaker’s
expected death. She willingly gives away her worldly possessions and is
ready for the journey ahead. Just then, a fly interposes and blocks her
worldly sight. Therefore, “buzzing of the fly” refers to the presence of
death. However, the “fly” which comes between light and her, represents
the last vision she sees before death, or it could be the death that has put a
full stop before her life.
 Major themes :
Death and acceptance are the major themes of the poem. The poet
foregrounds these themes in a simple language. She accepts the
unavoidable death and embraces it by signing her will. She adds that
when she is giving away her possessions, a fly comes and blocks her
vision. Using figurative language, she creates an image of death which is
not ruthless, or brutal. Instead, it is represented as a king that makes his
presence known when he arrives.
 Literary devices :
Literary devices are tools used to express their feelings, ideas, and
emotions effectively and clearly. Emily has used some literary devices to
bring uniqueness and richness in the poem. The analysis of some of the
literary devices used in this poem has been detailed below.
1. Imagery :
The use of imagery makes the reader visualize the writer’s feelings and
emotions. Emily had used images such as, “Between the Heaves of
Storm” “Between the light – and me” “There interposed a Fly” and “I
heard a Fly buzz – when I died.” The first attracts the sense of sight,
while the second and third attract the sense of hearing.
2. Simile :
It is used to draw a comparison of one object with another to make the

description more vivid. The second line of the first stanza “The Stillness
in the Room- Was like the Stillness in the Air” is an example of a simile.
Here she compares the quietness of the room with the stillness of the air.
Personification is used to give human characteristics to non-human

things. The last two lines of the second stanza are examples
of personification “when the King Be witnessed – in the Room,” as if the
death is a human, and he is seen in the room.
4. Assonance :
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the same line such as the
sound of /e/ in “And Breaths were gathering firm” and /i/ sound in “I
heard the fly buzz.”
5. Enjambment :
Enjambment refers to the continuation of a sentence without a pause

beyond the end of a line, couplet or stanza such as,
“The Stillness in the Room

Was like the Stillness in the Air.”
6. Oxymoron :
It is a figure of speech in which contains contradictory terms that appear

close to each other. For example, “Last” Here “last Onset” in Line 7
means the last breath the person takes when he or she dies.
7. Onomatopoeia :
It refers to the word which imitates the natural sounds of the things.
Emily has used the word “buzz” in the first and the last stanzas of the
poem.
8. Anaphora :
It refers to the repetition of any word or expression at the beginning of

a clause. Emily has repeated the word “stillness” to emphasize the feeling
of the room in the first two lines of the poem,
“The Stillness in the Room

Was like the Stillness in the Air.”
 “Because I could not stop for death”
Introduction
In the early 1863, Emily Dickinson wrote the poem “Because I could not
stop for death.” The speaker of the poem describes how “Death,”
portrayed as a “kindly” gentleman, visited her and offered to take her for
a trip in his carriage. The speaker appears to be riding through portrayals
of the many stages of life until coming to a stop at what is probably her
own funeral. A Christian afterlife in paradise can be anticipated in the
poem.
 Exploration of death :
At its core, the poem explores the theme of mortality and the inevitability
of death. Dickinson personifies Death as a courteous gentleman who
kindly stops to take the speaker on a carriage ride towards eternity.
 Imagery and symbolism :

Dickinson's use of vivid imagery and symbolism is striking in this poem.
The carriage ride with Death symbolizes the journey from life to death,
with each stage of the journey representing different aspects of the
human experience. The imagery of the setting sun, the passing of time,
and the final destination of the grave all contribute to the poem's
meditation on the passage of time and the transience of human existence.
 Mortality and immortality :

The poem grapples with the theme of mortality and the inevitability of
death. Dickinson personifies Death as a courteous gentleman who comes
to take the speaker on a carriage ride towards eternity. The journey
symbolizes the passage from life to death, highlighting the transient

nature of human existence. However, the poem also hints at the
possibility of immortality or an afterlife, as the journey continues into
eternity.
 Summary :
Stanza 1 :
Because I could not stop for Death—

He kindly stopped for me—
The Carriage held but just Ourselves—
And Immortality.
A chariot ride occurred because it is the woman’s time to pass away, not
because she wants it to happen, as the first stanza quite interestingly
indicates. Death has a duty to stop for her because she “could not stop for
Death” and very few individuals would choose to do so. As she boards
Death’s chariot, the woman makes a more puzzling discovery. She
describes those in the vehicle, saying that in addition to herself and
Death, “Immortality” is present as well.
 Stanza 2
We slowly drove—He knew no haste

And I had put away
My labor and my leisure too,
For His Civility—
Death wasn’t in a hurry as they travelled at a comfortable pace. To

honour his courteous attitude and his invitation to escort her, the lady had
left all of her duties and pleasures behind.
 Stanza 3
We passed the School, where Children strove

At Recess—in the Ring—
We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain—

We passed the Setting Sun—
They passed a school where kids were seated in a circle playing during
lunchtime. Then they moved past farms that appeared to be staring at
them as well as the setting sun.
 Stanza 4
Or rather—He passed us—

The Dews drew quivering and chill—
For only Gossamer, my Gown—
My Tippet—only Tulle—
The sun actually passed them, not the other way around. Dew began to
develop as it did so, shivering and freezing. Because she was only
dressed in a flimsy gown and a thin scarf, the speaker was also cold.
 Stanza 5
We paused before a House that seemed

A Swelling of the Ground—
The Roof was scarcely visible—
The Cornice—in the Ground—
Their next visit was at a building that appeared to be a house but was
actually partially buried in the soil. The roof was barely visible to the
poet; even the ceiling was submerged beneath the surface.
 Stanza 6
Since then—’tis Centuries—and yet

Feels shorter than the Day
I first surmised the Horses’ Heads
Were toward Eternity—
Several centuries have gone by since that time. The poet suddenly
recognized that Death’s horses were riding into immortality, and it
seemed like less than a day has passed since her time on the carriage
 “Hope” is the thing with feathers :
"Hope" is the thing with feathers is a beloved poem by Emily Dickinson,

one of America's most renowned poets. Written in the 19th century, this
short but powerful poem captures Dickinson's unique style and her ability
to convey profound truths in simple yet evocative language. The poem
uses the metaphor of hope as a bird with feathers to explore the idea of
hope as a resilient and enduring force in the face of adversity. With its
vivid imagery and profound insight, "Hope" is the thing with feathers
continues to resonate with readers around the world.
 Form :
The poem is composed of three quatrains, or stanzas of four lines each,
adhering to an ABCB rhyme scheme. This structure is typical of
Dickinson’s poetry, which often features short stanzas and simple rhyme
patterns that contradict the complexity of her themes.
 Metaphorical representation of hope :
The poem personifies hope as a bird ("the thing with feathers") that
resides in the soul. This metaphor suggests that hope is a natural, innate
quality of the human spirit, much like a bird's instinct to sing.
 Symbolism of feathers :
Feathers are symbols of lightness, flight, and freedom. By describing
hope as a bird with feathers, Dickinson conveys the idea that hope lifts
the spirit, enabling it to soar above adversity and despair.
 Theme of Hope :
At its core, the poem explores the theme of hope and its resilience in the
face of adversity. Dickinson personifies hope as a bird, emphasizing its
intangible yet palpable presence in the human soul. This theme of hope is
central to Dickinson's poetry, reflecting her fascination with the human
spirit's ability to endure and find solace even in the darkest of times.
 Summary :
 Stanza 1 :
“Hope” is the thing with feathers -

That perches in the soul -
And sings the tune without the words -
And never stops - at all -
The poet speaks of hope as a thing with feathers. She implies that it
settles in a person’s soul. It sings a tune but without any words, this is a
rather remarkable implication that although hope is cardinal, it is the
actions that make a story successful. The tune is hope and the words are
the actions. Hope is forever. To be hopeful is to be alive.
 Stanza 2 :
And sweetest - in the Gale - is heard -

And sore must be the storm -
That could abash the little Bird
That kept so many warm -
Hope is always singing, but it sounds the sweetest when the wind gets
rougher. The storm rages and the song sweetens. When life gets tough, it
is hoped that serves as a ray of light in the storm of darkness. When
everything turns somber, hope is all one holds onto. It is what keeps one
moving forward. Hope provides a safe haven for many people. It would
take a lot for a storm to weaken hope.
 Stanza 3 :
I’ve heard it in the chillest land -

And on the strangest Sea -
Yet - never - in Extremity,
It asked a crumb - of me.
Here the poet says that she has witnessed hope in the most adverse
events, and yet it has never asked for even a tiny part of a person’s self.
Everything in life comes with a price, except hope. It comes from within.
Hope strengthens one against all extremities of life and acts as an unsung
hero.
 The Power and Perseverance of Hope :

The theme of the poem centers on the power of hope. Described
metaphorically as a bird, hope is depicted as a resilient force that endures
through all conditions. It is a source of comfort and strength that sings
ceaselessly within the soul, never demanding anything in return.
This portrayal of hope serves as a reminder of its vital role in helping
individuals persevere through life’s challenges. The poem suggests that
hope is an innate quality that can outlast even the most difficult
circumstances, providing a sense of possibility and optimism.
 Robert Frost :
 Robert Frost (1874–1963) was an American poet known for his
depictions of rural life in New England and his exploration of
complex themes such as nature, human existence, and the passage of
time
 Born in San Francisco, Frost spent much of his early life in New
England, where he developed a deep connection to the landscape and
people of the region.
 Frost's poetry is characterized by its use of simple language, vivid
imagery, and profound insights into the human condition.
 Some of his most famous poems include "The Road Not Taken,"
"Birches," and "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening."
 Writing style :
 Frost often used plain language and the speech patterns of ordinary
people. His poems are accessible and conversational, yet they carry
deep meanings and insights.
 Frost frequently employed vivid imagery of the natural world to

explore complex human emotions and philosophical ideas.
 Despite his modern themes, Frost adhered to traditional poetic forms
and structures, such as blank verse, sonnets, and rhymed quatrains.
His adherence to meter and rhyme schemes gives his poetry a musical
quality.
 Frost’s poetry delves into universal themes such as life and death,
isolation, individualism, the passage of time, and the human condition
 Frost often infused his poems with ambiguity and irony, leading to
multiple layers of meaning.
 Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening :

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening is one of Robert Frost’s finest
poems. It was written in 1922 and was published in 1923 in his volume
“New Hampshire”. Robert Frost won Pulitzer Prize and vast recognition
as an important American Writer for this collection. He wrote this poem
while living in the village of Franconia in New Hampshire. It seems that
he was inspired to write the poem Stopping by Wood on a Snowy
Evening by watching the woods near the village and the village
mentioned in the poem is probably Franconia. Frost claimed that he
wrote this poem in a single sitting one night, though it was a very tough
task to do so.
 Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening consists of four stanzas of
four lines each. In each stanza the first, second and fourth lines rhyme
but the third line does not. The third line rather determines the rhyme
of the next stanza.
 For instance, in the first stanza ‘know’, ‘though’ and ‘snow’ rhyme,
but ‘here’ rhymes with ‘queer’, ‘near’ and ‘year’ in the next stanza.
As an exception, in the last stanza, all four lines are rhyming though.
So the rhyme scheme is AABA-BBCB-CCDC-DDDD.
 it is written in Iambic tetrameter, having four stressed syllables in
each line. These are all about the poetic elements used in the poem. 
 Line by Line Explanation of Stopping by Woods on a Snowy

Evening :
 Stanza 1 :
“Whose woods these are I think I know.
His house is in the village, though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.”
— The narrator (may be the poet himself) of the poem Stopping by

Woods on a Snowy Evening stops by some woods on his way one
evening. The narrator knows the owner of the woods and even where he
lives. He is a bit relaxed thinking that the owner of the woods lives in the
village and so he won’t see the narrator stopping here. Therefore he can
continue watching the natural beauty of his snow covered woods.
 Stanza 2
“My little horse must think it queer
To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.”
— In the second stanza, the narrator of the poem says that his dear horse,
whom he is using as his carriage, must think it strange to stop here
between the woods and the frozen lake in a dark evening, as he normally
stops near a farmhouse. The narrator calls his horse “my little horse”, as
it is very dear to him or may be the horse is a little one in the literal
sense, i.e., a pony. It may also suggest that the speaker is a humble and
ordinary citizen and cannot afford to buy an expensive horse. He also
personifies the horse by indicating that it has a thought process and also
referring it as “he” in the next stanza. In this stanza the narrator suggest
that the weather is cold enough to freeze a lake. The expression ‘darkest
evening’ could suggest several things. May be the narrator-traveller was
very depressed due to his long journey or the cold weather. Otherwise it
may also refer to the longest night of the year – the night with the most
hours of darkness. In that case, it is 21st or 22nd December, when the
winter solstice occurs in the northern hemisphere.
 Stanza 3
“He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sounds the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.”
— The horse is shaking its head ringing the bell attached to its harness,
as if ‘he’ is asking his master whether there is any problem, as it is
unusual for him to stop by the woods in the darkness. And the important
thing in this stanza of the poem Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
is the sound imageries. There is only three sounds – the sounds of the
harness bell, light wind and the snowflakes.
 Stanza 4
“The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.”
— Here in the last stanza the narrator describes the woods using three
adjectives – lovely, dark and deep. This indicates that he is enjoying the
scene and wants to do so for long. But he has other responsibilities in life.
He has to go a long way before he sleeps. So he cannot get the enjoyment
for long. He has to move on. And the important thing here is that the poet
repeats the last line to attract the attention of the readers. In this very last
line lies the allegorical interpretation. Here “sleep” may refer to death.
We, in our real life, have many things to look at with awe, many things to
enjoy, but in most cases we cannot simply because we have other things
to do in our short lifespan, so we have to move on.
 Themes :
1. Nature and its beauty :
The poem vividly depicts a serene winter scene, highlighting the beauty
and tranquility of nature. The imagery of snow-filled woods creates a
peaceful and almost enchanting atmosphere.
2. Isolation and solitude :
The speaker finds himself alone in the woods, enjoying a moment of
solitude. This isolation allows for introspection and a connection with
nature away from societal obligations.
3. Temptation VS Duty :
The speaker is tempted to stay longer in the beautiful, tranquil woods but
is reminded of his responsibilities and commitments. This theme explores
the tension between the desire for rest and contemplation versus the
demands of everyday life.
 Figure of speech :
1. Metaphor :
“The woods are lovely, dark and deep," is a metaphor comparing the
woods to something beautiful and mysterious.
“The only other sound's the sweep," personifies the sound, giving it the
human action of sweeping.
3. Alliteration :
“Whose woods these are I think I know," uses alliteration with the
repetition of the "w" sound.
4. Imagery :
“The woods are lovely, dark, and deep," creates a vivid image of the
woods covered in snow and darkness.
 Poem NO 2 :
 The road not taken :
The Road Not Taken’ by Robert Frost is one of the most well-known and
frequently analyzed poems in American literature. Written in 1915 and
published in 1916 as part of Frost's collection 'Mountain Interval,' the
poem is often interpreted as an exploration of the choices we make in life
and their consequences.
“Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.”
 Summary :
 Lines 1-5
The poet travels on foot in the woods. He reaches a junction where two
roads diverged. Suddenly, he realizes that as a single traveler, he can’t
travel both roads. Here, two roads are used as a metaphor for two ways of
life. The forest is yellow, which means that it is autumn and the trees are
shedding their yellow leaves.
As the speaker can’t travel both the roads, he stands there to try to select
which path he is going to travel to. However, the poet wants to go down
both roads. He is thinking about it hard. He is looking down one road. He
tries to see where it goes. The thickness of the woods blocks the view of
the speaker. Also, the road is bent in shape and not linear.
 Lines 6-10
The phrase “as just as it is fair” means righteous and equal. This phrase is
an example of a simile. The speaker decides to examine the other path
because he finds the other road to be less traveled and full of grass
“Wanted wear” is an example of personification. The speaker has
personified the grassy road and says that it wanted people to walk on it.
After traveling through the road, the speaker explores that both the roads
are equally traveled. At first, the speaker finds the first road to be the
more traveled one. Then, he says that both the roads seem equally
traveled. The phrase ‘as for that” refers to the road being less worn.
 Lines 11-15 :
Here, the speaker finds that both the paths are looking the same in the
morning. After this, he goes in the flashback. It was a tough decision for
him to choose the real road because, in the morning, he was the first
person who walked on the road. There were no other footsteps. For this
reason, he couldn’t decide the right path immediately as no step had left
marks on the leaves on the roads to show him the right road. In these
lines, the speaker has used imagery.
The poet exclaims that he saves the first passage for another time. He
knows that “way leads” to another, and then another. He knows that in
this way, one ends up very far from where one has started the journey.
The poet here saves the first road for another day. Additionally, the
speaker doesn’t think he will ever be able to come back and take the
other path to experience it.
 Lines 16-20
This stanza shows the speaker’s failure in choosing the right path. The
word ‘sigh’ suggests that he will be disappointed with the decision. He
accepts that he will be responsible if he fails in taking the right decision.
“Ages and ages” is an example of alliteration.
The poet took the road that no one else did and it made the difference in
his life that made him unique. One’s individualism matters. Nevertheless,
a “difference” may mean success or complete failure.
1. Setting :
The setting of the poem is “yellow woods.” It is a place where one road is
divided into two. The yellow color depicts the autumn season. The road
is in a deserted place because there are no other travelers. The speaker
standing at the junction sees that one road is gassier than the other
2. Narrative poem :
“The Road Not Taken” is a narrative poem. It has a character, setting,
plot, and conflict. The conflict in the poem is the indecisiveness of the
persona of the poem.
3. Style and structure :

“The Road Not Taken” consists of four stanzas. Each stanza comprises
five lines. The rhyme is strict with the rhyming scheme ABAAB, except
for the last line. It is written in iambic tetrameter.
4. Symbol :
The crossroads symbolize the journey of life. It also signifies the
destination. People come across decision- making moments that contain
equally balanced alternatives. One has to consider the advantages and
disadvantages before making a choice.
 Themes :
1. Choices and Consequences :
The poem centers on the idea of making choices and the inevitable
consequences that follow. The speaker stands at a fork in the road and
must decide which path to take, symbolizing life's choices.
2. Individualism :
The poem reflects the theme of individualism, as the speaker chooses a
path that is "less traveled." This choice symbolizes the desire to forge
one's own way and not simply follow the crowd.
3. Reflection and Nostalgia :

The poem is a reflective and nostalgic meditation on past choices. The
speaker imagines how they will look back on this decision in the future,
contemplating its significance and impact on their life.
 Literary devices :
1. Metaphor :
This whole poem is an extended metaphor. The two roads act as a
metaphor for two choices in life. The thinking of the speaker about the
selection of one road is also a metaphor used for thinking before taking a
decision.
The yellow color of the woods is also a metaphor. It is compared with the
moment when a person has to choose the downfall of his life or when he
is getting old.
Personification means to attribute human qualities to nonhuman things.
Personification occurs in the second stanza when the speaker says that
the road was grassy and “wanted wear.” By saying that the road has a
“better claim,” the speaker states that the road intends to attract travelers.
3. Imagery :
For most of the poem, the speaker is describing the setting. Visual
imagery is used because the speaker is sketching the scenery. He says
that the road is yellow which creates a mental image of trees shedding
leaves in autumn. The worn-out state of the road also contributes to the
meaning of the poem. There is auditory imagery as well by using the
word “sigh.”
4. Irony :
The irony in the poem is in the idea of multiple significance of the road.
They are not simple roads because they have a secondary meaning as
well. The speaker of the poem has to take the road of the majority or the
road with fewer travelers. The eventual choice of the speaker is also
ironic. Both the roads are equally worn out but the speaker still chooses
the second.
 Poem 3 :
 Mending walls :
“Mending Wall" is one of Robert Frost's most famous poems, first
published in 1914 in his collection "North of Boston." It explores the
themes of boundaries, barriers, and the human impulse to create and
maintain divisions between ourselves and others.
 The wall as a metaphor :
The wall in the poem serves as a metaphor for the barriers that people
erect between themselves and others. It symbolizes the human impulse to
separate ourselves from those who are different from us, as well as the
desire for privacy and protection.
 Structure and form :
The poem is written in blank verse, which is unrhymed iambic
pentameter.
 Imagery and symbolism :
Frost uses vivid imagery to bring the scene to life, such as the
descriptions of the wall, the natural environment, and the physical act of
repairing the wall. The wall itself is a powerful symbol of boundaries,
divisions, and the human inclination to maintain separations.
 Ambiguity and irony :
The poem’s ending leaves readers with a sense of ambiguity and irony.
While the neighbor insists that "Good fences make good neighbors," the
speaker remains unconvinced, prompting readers to question whether
boundaries are inherently beneficial or limiting.
 Themes :
1. Boundaries and separation :
The central theme of the poem revolves around the physical and
metaphorical boundaries between people. The wall symbolizes the
divisions people create to maintain their personal space and
independence.
2. Tradition Vs Change :
The poem contrasts the speaker's skeptical view of the necessity of walls
with the neighbor's adherence to tradition, encapsulated in his repeated
saying, "Good fences make good neighbors."
3. Nature vs human Efforts :
The poem highlights the tension between natural forces that break down
walls and the human effort to rebuild them, suggesting a conflict between
nature's desire for openness and humanity's need for order and separation.
 Summary :
 Stanza 1
Something there is that doesn't love a wall,
That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it,
And spills the upper boulders in the sun;
And makes gaps even two can pass abreast.
 In this stanza, the speaker reflects on the nature of walls, suggesting

that there is something in nature that opposes them. He describes how
the freezing and thawing of the ground causes the wall to shift and the
stones to fall, creating gaps that even two people can walk through
side by side
 Stanza 2
The work of hunters is another thing:
I have come after them and made repair

Where they have left not one stone on a stone,
But they would have the rabbit out of hiding,
To please the yelping dogs. The gaps I mean,
No one has seen them made or heard them made,
But at spring mending-time we find them there.
 Here, the speaker explains that the wall is often damaged by hunters
who are trying to catch rabbits. He has had to repair the wall after
these hunters, and he points out that the gaps in the wall seem to
appear magically, without anyone witnessing their creation. He notes
that they are always discovered in the spring when it is time to mend
the wall.
 Stanza 3
I let my neighbor know beyond the hill;
And on a day we meet to walk the line
And set the wall between us once again.
We keep the wall between us as we go.
 In this stanza, the speaker tells us that he informs his neighbor about
the damage to the wall, and they both agree to meet and repair it
together. As they work, they each stay on their own side of the wall,
maintaining the separation between them.
 Stanza 4
To each the boulders that have fallen to each.

And some are loaves and some so nearly balls
We have to use a spell to make them balance:
‘Stay where you are until our backs are turned!’
We wear our fingers rough with handling them.
 The two men work together to repair the wall, each taking
responsibility for the stones that have fallen on their side. Some of the
stones are irregularly shaped, and the men must use a kind of magic or
spell to make them balance properly. The physical labor of repairing
the wall is difficult, and the speaker notes that their fingers become
rough from handling the stones.
 Stanza 5
Oh, just another kind of outdoor game,
One on a side. It comes to little more:
There where it is we do not need the wall:
He is all pine and I am apple orchard.
My apple trees will never get across
And eat the cones under his pines, I tell him.
 In this stanza, the speaker reflects on the absurdity of the wall. He

sees it as a kind of game that they play, with each man on his own
side. He suggests that the wall is unnecessary because there is no need
for it. He describes himself as an apple orchard, and his neighbor as
pine trees. He reassures his neighbor that his apple trees will not cross
the boundary and eat the pine cones.
 Stanza 6
He only says, ‘Good fences make good neighbors.’
Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonder
If I could put a notion in his head:

‘Why do they make good neighbors? Isn’t it
Where there are cows? But here there are no cows.
Before I built a wall I’d ask to know
What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offense.
Something there is that doesn’t love a wall,
That wants it down.’ I could say ‘Elves’ to him,
But it’s not elves exactly, and I’d rather
He said it for himself. I see him there,
Bringing a stone grasped firmly by the top
In each hand, like an old-stone savage armed.
He moves in darkness as it seems to me,
Not of woods only and the shade of trees.
He will not go behind his father’s saying,
And he likes having thought of it so well
He says again, ‘Good fences make good neighbors.’
 In the final stanza, the speaker continues to question the necessity of

the wall. He wonders aloud why they need the wall when there are no
cows to contain. He questions what the wall is separating and who it
might offend. He mentions that there is something in nature that
opposes the wall and wants it to come down. He considers telling his
neighbor that it is the work of elves, but decides against it. He
describes his neighbor as being like a primitive man, blindly
following the traditions of his ancestors. Despite the speaker's
misgivings, the neighbor insists that "good fences make good
neighbors," and repeats the phrase, showing his belief in the
importance of boundaries and separation.
 Nathaniel Hawthorne :
 Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4, 1804, in Salem,
Massachusetts,
 Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, from
1821 to 1825,After college, Hawthorne returned to Salem and began a
period of intense reading and writing. His early works included short
stories and sketches, some of which were published anonymously in
magazines.
 His first published book was "Fanshawe" (1828), a novel he later tried
to suppress due to its lack of success.
 In 1842, Hawthorne married Sophia Peabody, a painter and fellow
transcendentalist.
 Hawthorne's most famous work, "The Scarlet Letter," was published
in 1850. The novel, set in Puritan New England,Following "The
Scarlet Letter," Hawthorne published several other notable works,
including "The House of the Seven Gables" (1851), "The Blithedale
Romance" (1852), and "The Marble Faun" (1860).
 died on May 19, 1864.
 Writing style :
1. Use of symbolism :
Hawthorne is known for his extensive use of symbolism. Objects,
characters, and events in his stories often represent deeper moral or
philosophical meanings.Example: In "The Scarlet Letter," the scarlet
letter "A" symbolizes adultery, sin, and at different points, able and
angel.
2. Dark Romanticism :
Hawthorne’s writing is often associated with Dark Romanticism, a
subgenre that emphasizes human fallibility, sin, and the darker aspects of
human nature. His stories frequently delve into themes of guilt, sin, and
the complexities of moral choice.Example: His short story "Young

Goodman Brown" explores themes of inherent evil and moral corruption.
3. Psychological depth :
Hawthorne’s characters are often complex and multi-dimensional, with
deep psychological conflicts. He explores their inner lives and moral
dilemmas in great detail.
4. Historical and puritan influence :
Many of Hawthorne’s works are set in Puritan New England, reflecting
his interest in the region’s history and its moral and religious attitudes.
He often critiques the rigidity and hypocrisy of Puritanism.
 Themes :
1. Sin and Guilt :
Central to much of Hawthorne’s work is the theme of sin and its
repercussions. He examines how guilt affects individuals and their
relationships with others.
2. The nature of evil :
Hawthorne explores the nature of evil and its presence in the human
heart. His characters often face moral challenges that reveal their darker
sides.
3. Hypocrisy and morality :
Hawthorne critiques the hypocrisy he sees in societal and religious
institutions. He reveals how people often mask their true selves to
conform to social expectations.
 The Scarlet letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne :

1. Background information :
The Scarlet Letter was written by Nathaniel Hawthorne and was
published back in 1850 during the Romantic Period. This novel can be
classified as both romance and historical fiction.
2. Settings :
The main setting of the novel takes place in Boston back in the
seventeenth century in a Puritan community. However, within this
uptight, law-abiding settlement, the novel also mentions many significant
places in detail.
3. Significance of the title :
The title refers to the scarlet letter "A" that Hester Prynne is condemned
to wear on her chest as punishment for her sin of adultery. This letter is a
physical symbol of her transgression and the shame imposed upon her by
the Puritan society.The letter "A" initially stands for "Adulteress,"
marking Hester as a sinner in the eyes of the community.
4. The Prison :
The book begins with the description of a dark and ominous prison door
complete with heavy woodwork and iron spikes which symbolizes the
darkness and evil that exists in every human heart. Although the entrance
to this edifice is forbidding and unsightly, the author paints the beautiful
image of a wild rosebush growing next to the door and explains how it is
Nature’s way of pitying and comforting the condemned as they enter.
5. The Scaffold :
When Hester Prynne was sentenced to stand on the scaffold in the Market
Place, she had to endure the mockery and criticism of the public. This
platform of ridicule and shame inflicted worse punishment than
execution because it was said that that the disgrace that entailed would be
as unbearable as death. Also, during the “minister’s vigil”, Reverend
Dimmesdale stood on the scaffold along with Hester and Pearl at night.
Although no one was present, he was still able to feel the ignominy and
guilt of his dark secret surge at him.
6. Hester Prynne’s cabin :

This deserted cabin on the outskirts of the town represents Hester
Prynne’s strength and perseverance as she struggles to support Pearl and
herself. Having to deal with poverty and the censures of the Puritan
community, Hester is the depiction of those who suffer greatly, yet still
persist to move on regardless.
7. The Governor’s Mansion :

Exactly the opposite of Hester Prynne’s poor deprived state, Chapter 7
illustrates every aspect of Governor Bellingham’s estate. Flourishing
with suits of armor and family portraits, each description of the
Governor’s mansion reveals his aristocratic lifestyle and points out the
drastic economic difference that existed in the town.
8. The Forest :
In Chapter 17, Hester Prynne and Dimmesdale meet in the forest. This is
where Hester reveals to Dimmesdale that Chillingworth is her husband.
Dimmesdale suddenly starts to blindly grasp onto the dark revelation that
Hester is the cause of all his pain. However, as Hester begs for
forgiveness and pulls him into an embrace, he becomes more pacified
and concludes that Chillingworth is the root of all the evil and a greater
sinner than either of them could ever be. As the two make plans of
escaping to Europe, a little of the darkness is unburdened from their
hearts and a feeling of long lost joy can be sensed.
9. The Creek :
As Hester pulls off the scarlet letter and lets her hair down, she returns to
the glory of a beaming youthful woman. However, when she calls to
Pearl from across the river, Pearl refuses to cross and keeps pointing at
the empty space on her mother’s chest. Reluctantly, Hester is forced to
pin the condemning badge back on. The river with its “unintelligible tale”
of woe and sadness represents Hester’s never-ending suffering as it
continuously flows and winds along its fated path.
10.Author’s Purpose :
As Nathaniel Hawthorne weaves tone, mood, and style into this story,
most people would question his purpose for writing this tragic tale of
shame, deceit, and redemption. Apart from telling the sad story of Hester
Prynne, Pearl, and Dimmesdale, there is a much deeper meaning and
reason for the publication of this novel.
Hawthorne’s purpose for writing The Scarlet Letter was so he could

reveal the life and hypocrisy of the Puritan communities back in those
days. He implies that back then in the stiff and stubborn society, many
humans were wrongfully sentenced and blamed for all types of sin.
However, his characters Dimmesdale and Hester show that staying
hidden and suffering in silence is worse than being publicly humiliated
and shunned. When Hester took the blame all upon her, Dimmesdale’s
conscience was in agony and he was torn apart between his sinful and
moral feelings. As Hester walked around with the scarlet letter upon her
chest, Dimmesdale’s own chest burned as his guilt created a scarlet letter
of its own.
Therefore, while revealing and hinting strong criticisms against the

Puritan religion, Hawthorne objects strongly against Puritanism as it
sometimes ridiculously persecutes and punishes people, forcing victims
to endure needless and extreme suffering.
11.Theme :
i. Human’s sinful nature :
In the novel, Hawthorne offers many examples of the human tendency to
sin. He elaborates how every character, even the Puritans, is capable of
sinning because it is an innate behavior that none can prevent.
ii. Punishment and Forgiveness :

Perhaps the greatest theme in The Scarlet Letter is punishment and
forgiveness. These two aspects of human tendency are portrayed in two
different ways in the novel. The first uses punishment to lead to

forgiveness. The second is the vast difference that separates them into
two completely dissimilar things. Although it might sound improbable
that punishment and forgiveness can incorporate two such unparallel
meanings, but the situations that the Puritan community put Hester,
Dimmesdale, and Chillingworth through is enough to prove that.
 The Scarlet Letter Major Characters :

1. Arthur Dimmesdale :
A well-respected and learned pastor in Boston. Arthur is Hester Prynne’s
pastor and the father of her illegitimate child. A sickly man, he constantly
appears as if he is in pain. He is pale and thin, and speaks in a tremulous
voice.
2. Governor Bellingham :
The Governor of Massachusetts during this period, and a well-respected
leader of the community.
3. Mistress Hibbins :
Governor Bellingham’s widowed sister, who is executed as a witch
during the Salem Witch trials during the time span of the book. A
notorious and colorful character.
4. Hester Prynne :
The main character in the book. A young married woman from Europe
who has come to Boston without her husband. She is beautiful – black
hair, black eyes, and shining skin. She has an illegitimate child, Pearl,
with Arthur Dimmesdale.
5. Pearl :
Hester Prynne’s illegitimate daughter with the Reverend Arthur
Dimmesdale. A naughty, temperamental child, who nevertheless is quite
beautiful.
6. Roger Chillingworth :
Hester Prynne’s husband from Europe. A learned man of many skills

who poses as a physician to get close to Arthur Dimmesdale . He is ugly,
and his shoulder is slightly deformed.
 the scarlet letter as a feminist novel :
Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The Scarlet Letter," published in 1850, is often
analyzed through a feminist lens due to its exploration of themes such as
gender, power, and the social status of women.
 Hester is a complex and resilient character who defies the oppressive

norms of her Puritan society. Despite being publicly shamed and
ostracized for committing adultery, she maintains her dignity and
independence. Her strength, resourcefulness, and compassion make
her a powerful figure in the novel.
 The novel critiques the patriarchal legal and social structures that
punish Hester for her sexual transgression while leaving the man,
Arthur Dimmesdale, relatively unscathed.
 Hester becomes a symbol of compassion and support for other women

in the community. She provides counsel and assistance to those in
need, creating a sense of female solidarity and mutual support.
 The novel subverts traditional gender roles by presenting Hester as a

strong, independent character who defies the expectations of her
gender. Meanwhile, Dimmesdale, the male character, is portrayed as
weaker and more conflicted.
 The novel addresses female sexuality in a manner that was daring for
its time. Hester’s affair with Dimmesdale is portrayed not merely as a
sin but as a complex act that involves love and human emotion.
 Mark Twain :
 Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born in Florida, Missouri on

November 30, 1835.
 better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author
and humorist
 When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Samuel moved out west. He
earned a living writing for newspapers.
 He soon began writing short stories. His stories were funny and full of
adventure. His first real popular story was called "The Celebrated
Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."
 He wrote The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and its

sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), the latter often called
“The Great American Novel.”
 William Faulkner called Twain “the father of American literature.”
 Twain died on April 21, 1910.
 Writing style :
The writing style of Mark Twain is unique in that it sets him apart from
other writers of his era on account of the use of vernacular speech and the
brilliance of dialogues used in his stories and novels. Some other features
of his style of writing are diction, syntax, figurative language, rhythm,
rhetorical pattern and theme, as given below.
1. Mark Twain’s Word Choice :
Mark Twain is highly acclaimed for his diction and word choice. In terms
of diction, sometimes he becomes formal, sometimes informal, while at
some places, he becomes journalistic, showing a proclivity to turn to his
professional expertise. He himself was highly conscious of using words,
and specifically the right word.
2. Mark Twain’s Sentence Structure :
Interestingly, Mark Twain is highly complex in his sentences. His syntax

includes windy and complicated sentences with full and half clauses. It
mostly happens in long sentences, but when they are short, they are very
crispy, simple and straightforward. This passage from his novel, The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer, shows this fact. The below passage shows
his long and short sentences. It also shows how he uses conversational
sentences.
3. Mark Twain’s Figurative Language :
Mark Twain is highly conscious of using figures of speech. Specifically,

in terms of using images, he turns to sensory images to describe
his characters. Besides this, he also resorts to metaphors, similes and
even personifications at different places in his writings.
4. Mark Twain’s Rhythm and Component Sounds :
Regarding rhythm, Mark Twain depends on different rhythmic

techniques, which include repetition and polysyndeton. Besides this, he
also molds his sentences to make them fluent, direct and simple, along
with making group words to stand out at places where he wants. He also
uses consonant and vowel sounds carefully to create rhythmic flow in
his prose.
5. Mark Twain’s Themes :
Although Mark Twain is quite open in his themes, he is somewhat

implicit in places regarding tabooed themes. For example, The
Adventures of Huckleberry Fin shows the theme of racism and slavery
openly but of shame and guilt implicitly. It also shows his themes of
hypocrisy, moral education, civilization, adventurism, and empathy at
work when Huck goes through different adventures and comes across
different people at different places.’
 The adventures of huckleberry finn :

 The novel is set in the pre-Civil War South, specifically in the 1830s
or 1840s, though it was published in the 1880s.
 This historical context is crucial as it reflects the attitudes and societal
norms, particularly regarding slavery and race relations, of that era.
 The majority of the novel takes place along the Mississippi River. The
river serves as a symbol of freedom and adventure for Huck and Jim.
It provides them a route to escape from the societal constraints and
injustices on land.
 Throughout their journey, Huck and Jim encounter various towns
along the river, each representing different aspects of Southern
society, from small rural communities to larger towns
 Characters analysis :
1. Huckleberry”Huck”Finn :
 Huck is the protagonist and narrator of the novel. He is a young boy
who is about thirteen years old.
 Throughout the novel, Huck undergoes significant moral
development. He learns to question the values and norms of society,
especially concerning slavery and racism.
 Huck's loyalty and compassion are evident in his relationship with
Jim, the runaway slave. He risks his own safety to help Jim gain his
freedom.
2. Jim :
 Jim is a black man who escapes from slavery to seek freedom for
himself and his family.
 Jim is portrayed as compassionate and selfless. He takes care of Huck
during their journey down the Mississippi River.
 Jim's character humanizes the issue of slavery, showing the reader
that enslaved people are deserving of the same respect and freedom as
everyone else.
3. Tom Sawyer :
 Tom is Huck’s best friend and the protagonist of Twain’s earlier novel
"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer."
 Tom is known for his wild imagination and love of adventure.

 Unlike Huck, Tom is more inclined to follow societal rules and
conventions, even when they are impractical or harmful.
4. Pap Fin :
 Pap is Huck’s abusive, alcoholic father.
 Pap neglects Huck and only seeks him out to get money. He
represents the negative aspect of society, such as ignorance.
 Pap's behavior drives Huck to seek freedom and independence.
Huck’s escape from Pap symbolizes his rejection of the corrupt values
Pap represents.
5. The Widow Douglas and Miss Watson :
 The Widow Douglas and her sister, Miss Watson, try to "civilize"
Huck by teaching him manners, religion, and formal education.
 Despite Huck's resistance, the Widow Douglas shows genuine care for
Huck and influences his moral development.
6. The Duke and The King :
 The Duke and the King are two conmen who join Huck and Jim on
their journey.
 They represent the deceit and greed prevalent in society. They exploit
others for their gain, leading Huck to further question the morality of
society.
 Their schemes create conflict and tension, pushing Huck to take
decisive actions to protect Jim and himself.
 Plot summary :
The novel follows the adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a young boy who
escapes from his abusive father and travels down the Mississippi River.
Along the way, he is joined by Jim, a runaway slave. Huck grapples with
his own beliefs and the values of the society around him, ultimately
deciding to help Jim seek freedom. Their journey is filled with various
encounters and challenges that test Huck's morality and friendship with
Jim.
 Themes :
1. Race and slavery :
 The novel is a powerful critique of slavery and racism. Through
Huck’s evolving relationship with Jim, Twain challenges the racist
attitudes of the time.
2. Freedom and slavery :
Huck’s journey represents a quest for freedom from societal constraints.
The river symbolizes this freedom, offering an escape from the
"civilized" world that Huck finds hypocritical and restrictive.
3. Moral and ethics growth :
Huck’s moral development is central to the novel. He struggles with the
conflict between the ingrained societal values that view slavery as
acceptable and his own developing sense of right and wrong.
 The Elements Of Irony And Satire In The Adventure Of

Huckleberry Finn :
Mark Twain satirizes controversial topics such as slavery , civilization

and women roles by contrasting them to natural state of people living in
harmony without external social constraints as exemplified by the life
Huck and Jim lead on the raft going with the flow of nature symbolized
by the river, He accomplished this through the eventful journey of two
companions, Huckleberry and Jim.Although slavery was one of the most
prominent topics throughout the novel, the ideas of civilization and roles
of a women were crucial as well,Huckleberry Finn was pressed to
become “civilized” by widow Douglas and miss Watson, Twain’s views
on society are revealed as he poked fun at civilized expectations.Another
crucial topic emerges from the stereotypical roles that women play during
the time, the classic role for a women was primarily conserved for the
tasks of care-taking, maid and stay at home mom, Twain’s does not
contrast this idea , however throughout Huck and Jim’s journey uses
characters in the novel to further satirize women, although female
characters in the novel were a scarcity , the women that did appear made
an impact on Huck’s life.Political or social satire is presented through the
characters of Huck and Jim to decipher the contrast between the idea of
slavery, after Huck realized that Fooling Jim and taking advantage of his
gullibility was wrong , against the morals he was raised on.

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Compiled by Abdullah Khan Page 1

3. Revolutionary, Age of Reason, Enlightenment (1750-1800)

6. Realism, Naturalism & Regionalism (1865-1914)

 Langston Hughes was an influential writer of the Harlem

England, are versions of historical fiction used as a vehicle to express

6. Mark Twain (1835 – 1910)

10. William Faulkner (1897 –1962)

4. Technology and Modernity :

whether that meant loneliness or a much-needed quiet space to think

 Naturalism rejected movements such as romanticism , which

Existentialism emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and

3. Absence of Inherent Meaning :

Existentialism rejects the notion of inherent or objective meaning in life.

 Existentialism vs. Nihilism :

Existentialism and nihilism share some similarities, as both philosophies

Existentialist themes are prevalent in literature, particularly in the works

 Existentialism vs. Absurdism :

Existentialism and absurdism share some common themes, such as the

Absurdism is a philosophical belief that highlights the inherent conflict

1. Origin and Influences :

Absurdism emerged in the mid-20th century as a philosophical response

 The term "absurd" is derived from the Latin word "absurdus,"

2. The Absurd Condition :

 Absurdism posits that humans inherently seek meaning and purpose in

1. Absurdism acknowledges the existential angst or anxiety that arises

 Influence on Literature and Theater:

 Absurdist themes are prominent in literature and theater. Absurdist

 Absurdist literature often features unconventional narratives,

 Legacy and Impact:

 Absurdism continues to influence contemporary philosophy,

 Ralph Waldo Emerson :

In the final stanza, Emerson addresses the spirit of freedom and

 Structure and Rhyme scheme :

his collection of poems titled "The Conduct of Life," Emerson explores

In the second stanza, Emerson describes how Cromwell worked, plotted,

In the fourth stanza, Emerson acknowledges that while man cannot

In the final stanza, Emerson reflects on his own approach to fate. He

And at the sable bier;

 Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in

 Emily was educated at Amherst Academy, where she excelled in her

Here are some key features of her writing style:

2. Unconventional punctuation and capitalization :

Dickinson's use of dashes, unconventional punctuation, and capitalization

3. Rich imagery and symbolism :

Dickinson's poetry is filled with vivid imagery and symbolism drawn

Dickinson's poems explore a wide range of themes, including love, death,

5. Ambiguity and complexity :

 Emily Dickinson is a poet of nature :

Emily Dickinson, the popularly known poet of seclusion and solitariness,

Dickinson‟s absorption in the world of feeling found some relief in

Dickinson‟s keen observation and close associations with nature

 “I heard a Fly buzz”

Written in 1862, “I Heard a Fly Buzz—When I Died—” was first

I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –

The Eyes around – had wrung them dry –

I willed my Keepsakes – Signed away

With Blue – uncertain – stumbling Buzz –

 “I Heard a Fly Buzz” as a Representative of Death :

It is used to draw a comparison of one object with another to make the