Advanced Temperature measurement & Control Valves Volume -4

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saline Water Conversion Corporation

General Directory Of Training Programs
Training Center – JUBAIL
Volume : 4
ADVANCED TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
Module: 72206
Module No.: 72206
Version 1.1
Prepared by: Selvaraj Vignesh
Date: 2010
Table Of Contents
Lesson Subject
1 Temperature Measurement
2 Calibration Of A Thermocouple Transmitter
3 Calibration Of An Rtd Transmitter

Instrument Maintenance Temperature Measurement
LESSON
1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to:
1. Understand the principles of temperature measurement in

industrial processes.
1 THERMOCOUPLES
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and
one of the ends is heated, a continuous current flows in the "thermoelectric"
circuit. Thomas See beck made this discovery in 1821. This circuit is shown is
Fig. 1-1 (a). If this circuit is broken at the center, as shown in Fig. 1-1 (b), the
net open circuit voltage (the See beck voltage) is a function of the junction
temperature and the composition of the two metals.
Current Flow
Metal 1
Heat
Metal 2
(a) The See beck Effect
+ Metal 1
Heat
_V ab Metal 2
(b)The See beck Voltage (V ab)
Fig. 1-1 The Thermoelectric Circuit.
All dissimilar metals exhibit this effect, and this configuration of two dissimilar
metals joined together is called a thermocouple or TC. The most common
TC's and their normal temperature ranges are listed in Table 1-1. For small
changes in temperature, where: the See beck coefficient is the constant of
proportionality. the See beck voltage is linearly proportional to temperature:
Vab =  (T1- T2)
TABLE 1-1 Standard Thermocouple Types and Ranges.

Type Materials Normal Range
o o
J Iron-constantan - 190 C to 760 C
T Copper- constantan - 200 oC to 371 o
C
o o
K Chrome- alimel - 190 C to 1260 C
E Chrome- constantan - 100 oC to 1260 oC
S 90%platinum+10%rhodium-platinum 0 oC to 1482 oC
R 87%platinum+13%rhodium-platinum 0 oC to 1482 oC
Lesson 1 Page 1
EXAMPLE 6-1-1.
Problem: Find the See beck voltage for a thermocouple with = 40 V/
C if the junction temperatures are 40°C and 80°C.
Solution: The See beck voltage can be found as follows:
Vab =  (T1 - T2)

Vab = (40 V/ C) (80C - 40C) = 1.6mV
1.1 MEASURING THERMOCOUPLE VOLTAGE
Seebeck voltage cannot be measured directly because a voltmeter must first

be connected to the thermocouple, by doing this the voltmeter leads
themselves create a new thermoelectric circuit.
First connect a digital voltmeter (DVM) across a copper constant (type T)

thermocouple and look at the voltage output as shown in Fig. 1-2. It would be
preferred if the voltmeter read only V1, but by connecting the voltmeter in an
attempt to measure the output of junction J1, more metallic junctions: J2 and
J3 Have been created.
(Cu) J3 Copper (Cu)

+ +
Metal 1
V V1 J1
__ (Cu) J2 Constantan (C)
__
Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
Cu V3 = 0 Cu +
+
J3 V1 J1
__ Cu C
__
V2
J2
Fig. 1-2 Measuring thermocouple voltage with a DVM.
Since J3 is a copper to copper junction, it creates no thermal voltage (V3 = 0);

but J2 is a copper to constant junction, which will add a voltage (V2) in
opposition to V1.
The resultant voltmeter reading V will be proportional to the temperature

difference between J1 and J2. This indicates that the temperature at J1
cannot be found until the temperature of J2 has been found.
One way to determine the temperature of J2 is to physically put the junction

into an ice bath, forcing its temperature to be 0°C and establishing J2 as the
"reference junction," shown in Fig. 1-3.
Lesson 1 Page 2
Cu Cu
+
+
V V1 J1
__ Cu Cu C
V2 __
Digital Voltmeter (DVM) J2
(a) ICE Bath Circuit
Cu Cu
+
V1 J1
__ Cu C
V2
o
J2
T=0 C
(b) Equivalent Circuit
Fig. 1-3 External reference junction.
Since both voltmeter terminal junctions are now copper, they create no
thermal voltage, and the reading "V" on the voltmeter is proportional to the
temperature difference between J1 and J2.
Now the voltmeter reading is :
V = (V1 - V2)   (TJ1 - TJ2)

If we specify TJ1 in degrees Celsius :
TJ1 (°C) + 273.15 = TJ1 (Kelvins)
then V becomes :
V = V1 - V2
V = (TJ1 + 273.15) - (TJ2 + 273.15)
V =  (TJ1 - TJ2)
V = (TJ1 - 0)
V = TJ1
This involved discussion has been used to emphasize that the ice bath
junction output, V2, is not zero volts but it is a function of absolute
temperature.
By adding the voltage of the ice point reference junction the TC voltage
reading (V) to 0°C has been referenced. This method is very accurate
because the ice point temperature can be precisely controlled.
The copper constant thermocouple shown in Fig. 1-3 is a unique example

because the copper wire is the same metal as the voltmeter terminals.
If an iron constant thermocouple (type J) is used instead of the copper

constant the iron wire will increase the number of dissimilar metal junctions in
the circuit, as both voltmeter terminals become Cu-Fe thermocouple
junctions. Fig. 1-4.
Lesson 1 Page 3
Cu J3 Fe
+
V J4 V1 J1
__ Cu Fe V2 C
ICE Bath
Fig. 1-4 Iron constant thermocouple.
This circuit will still provide moderately accurate measurements as long as the
voltmeter (+) and ( - ) terminals (J3 and J4) are at the same temperature,
because the thermoelectric effects of J3 and J4 act in opposition :
V1 = V
if V3 = V4
i.e., if TJ3 = TJ4
If both front panel terminals are not at the same temperature, there will be an
error. For a more precise measurement, the copper voltmeter leads should be
extended so the copper to iron junctions are made on an "isothermal” (same
temperature) block as shown in Fig. 1-5.
Isothermal
Block
Cu J3 Fe
+
V J4 V1 J1
__ Cu Fe V2 C
ICE Bath
Fig. 1-5 Using Isothermal blocks.
The isothermal block is not only a good electrical insulator but a good heat
conductor, and this helps hold J3 and J4 at the same temperature. The
absolute block temperature is unimportant because the two Cu-Fe junctions
act in opposition. We still have
V=  (T1 -Tref)
The circuit in Fig. 1-5 will give us accurate readings, but it would be nice to
eliminate the ice bath, if possible. One way to do this is to replace the ice bath
with another isothermal block, as shown in Fig. 1-6.
Isothermal
Block
Cu Cu J3 Fe
+
V J4 V1 J1
__ Cu Cu Fe V2 C
Isothermal
Digital Voltmeter (DVM) J2 Block
T ref
Fig. 1-6 Eliminating ice bath using isothermal block.
Lesson 1 Page 4
The new block is at reference temperature Tref. and because J3 and J4 are
still at the same temperature and again it is shown that:-
V =  (TJ1 Tref)
This is still a complicated circuit, because two thermocouples have to be

connected. If the extra Fe wire in the negative ( ) lead is eliminated by
combining the Cu-Fe junction (J4) and the Fe-C junction (Jref) We can do this
by first joining the two isothermal blocks (Fig. 1-7). We have not changed the
output voltage V. It is still
V =  (TJ1 Tjref)
Isothermal
Block
Cu J3 Fe
+
V J4 V1 J1
__ Cu Fe V2 C
Digital Voltmeter J2
(DVM) T ref
Fig. 1-7 Joining the isothermal blocks.
Now we call upon the law of intermediate metals to eliminate the extra
junction. This empirical law states that a third metal (in this case, iron)
inserted between the two dissimilar metals of a thermocouple junction will
have no effect upon the output voltage as long as the two junctions formed by
the additional metal are at the same temperature see Fig. 1-8.
Metal 1 Metal 2 Metal 3 Metal 1 Metal 2
Fig. 1-8 Law of intermediate metals.
This is a useful conclusion, as it completely eliminates the need for the iron
(Fe) wire in the negative lead. This can be seen in Fig. 1-9, where again, V =
(TJ1 - Tref), where is the See beck coefficient for an Fe-C thermocouple.
Cu J3 Fe
+
V V1 J1
__ Cu C
J4
Isothermal
Fig. 1-9 Equivalent circuit.
Lesson 1 Page 5
Junctions J3 and J4 take the place of the ice bath. These two junctions now
become the "reference junction". Now we can proceed to the next logical
step: Directly measure the temperature of the isothermal block (the reference
junction) and use that information to compute the unknown temperature, TJ1.
A thermistor, whose resistance Rt is a function of temperature, provides us

with a way to measure the absolute temperature of the reference junction
(see Fig.1-10). Junctions J3 and J4 and the thermostat are all assumed to be
at the same temperature, due to the design of the isothermal block.
Block Temp. = T ref
Cu J3 Fe
+
V J4 V1 J1
__ Cu C
Digital Voltmeter Rt
(DVM)
Fig. 1-10 External reference junction no ice bath.
Using a digital voltmeter under computer control, we simply:
 Measure Rt to find Tref and convert Tref to its equivalent reference

junction voltage, Vref.
 Measure V and subtract Vref to find V1, and convert V1 to temperature
TJ1.
This procedure is known as "software compensation" because it relies upon

the software of a computer to compensate for the effect of the reference
junction. The isothermal terminal block temperature sensor can be any device
that has a characteristic proportional to absolute temperature: an RTD, a
thermistor, or an integrated circuit sensor. The logical question is, “If we
already have a device that will measure absolute temperature (such as an
RTD or thermistor), why do we even bother with a thermocouple that requires
reference junction compensation?"
The single most important answer to this question is that the thermistor, the
RTD, and the integrated circuit transducer are useful only over a limited
temperature range. Thermocouples, on the other hand, can be used over a
wide range of temperatures and are much more rugged than thermistors, as
evidenced by the fact that thermocouples are often welded to metal process
equipment or clamped under a screw. They can be manufactured easily,
either by soldering or welding.
In short, thermocouples are the most versatile temperature transducers

available. Furthermore, a computer based temperature monitoring system
can perform the entire task of reference compensation and software voltage
to temperature conversion, so using a thermocouple in process control
becomes as easy as connecting a pair of wires. The one disadvantage is that
the computer requires a small amount of additional time to calculate the
Lesson 1 Page 6
reference junction temperature, and this introduces dead time into a control
loop.
1.2 THERMOCOUPLE POCKETS
The thermocouple in the mineral insulated metal sheath form used in the
power industry, is protected from the environment, so in theory there is no
need for further protection. In practice, numerous points of temperature
measurement on the plant have to be provided with protective pockets:
1. To enable sensing elements to be checked or replaced with the plant in

operation.
2. To ensure personnel safety.
3. To protect the thermocouple sheath against particularly abrasive fluids.
The following factors should be taken into account when designing a pocket:
1. Any temperature differential between boundary walls and the fluid.

2. The conductivity of the pocket material.
3. The possibility of temperature gradient across the pipe or duct, due to
laminar flow conditions.
4. The velocity of the fluid.
Commercially designed pockets usually have the tip positioned at the center
of the pipe, or have an immersion length, typically, of at least ten times the
outside diameter of the pocket.A thermocouple located in a pocket obviously
responds more slowly to changes in fluid temperature so the pocket should be
designed to minimize this response lag, particularly for dynamic applications.
1.3 FAST RESPONSE POCKET
As no pocket with a sufficiently fast response was being offered by the

instrument industry, the CEGB (Central Electricity Generating Board) had to
look after its own needs. Fig. 1-11 shows the standard fast response pocket
design. This satisfies the need for accurate measurement of steam
temperature and close control of plant operation which is essential for rapid
start-up of modern turbine-generator plant, and permits continuous monitoring
of plant efficiency.
Fig. 1-11 Design details of

fast response pocket.
Lesson 1 Page 7
1.4 TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES USED
There are two totally different duties for metal surface thermocouples:
1. Permanently installed thermocouples for continuous monitoring of
plant.
2. Temporary installations for spot readings, used during commissioning
tests, validating mathematical models, etc.
Mineral insulated metal sheathed thermocouples are used for permanent

installations. They combine good strength, small overall size and the
measuring junction can also be kept small, thereby permitting relatively fast
response with small errors. Simple bare wire thermocouples, suitably
insulated, are often used for temporary measurements. One of the most
common ways of making the junction is to weld each conductor separately to
the surface to be measured, using a stud welding process. This is not
mechanically strong, and can only be used for short term measurements;
also, the grounded hot junction raises complications in the measurement.
Metal temperature measurement in boiler tubes, and methods of attachment.

The measurement of the metal temperatures of the boiler tubes, both in the
furnace (gas side) and in the dead space, constitutes the majority of the
points of measurement. Although it would be ideal to use a single design of
attachment for all boiler tube measurements, the variation in boiler tubes in
different boiler locations precludes this approach.
The Chordal hole attachment comes nearest to meeting the objective and is
the preferred design. Where its use is not possible, alternative attachments
are available. Boiler thermocouples for metal temperature measurement are
fitted on the gas side and in the dead space. There are three main methods of
thermocouple attachment for gas side temperature measurement:
1. Chordal hole
2. Longitudinal groove
3. Circumferential groove
The Chordal hole design is shown in Figs. 1-12 and 1-13. A hole is drilled at
an angle into the wall of the tube, in which the hot junction is located. Two
different forms of protection of the interface with the carrier tubes are shown;
the choice depends on the locations.
Fig. 1-12 Metal tube measurement-Chordal hole design
Lesson 1 Page 8
Fig. 1-13 Metal tube measurement-Chordal hole design.

(for furnace tube applications) .
The longitudinal groove design is shown in Fig.1-14, where a pad is built up

by means of weld depositing. The edge of the groove is peened, so that the
end of the thermocouple remains in the bottom of the groove. The method of
protecting the thermocouple by means of a metal spray and carrier tube is
also shown.
Fig. 1-14 Metal tube measurement-logitudinal groove design.

(hot or cold metal sprayed) .
The circumferential groove design exists in two forms:
1. Attachment directly to the tube. This can only be used on tubes having
a wall thickness 24.5 mm.
2. Attachment to a pad of weld deposit, built up on the outside diameter of
the tube. This is used on tubes having a wall thickness <4.5 mm.
Lesson 1 Page 9
2 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD
Resistance thermometers or resistance temperature elements have been

used for many years. Their greatest use has primarily been in services
requiring high accuracy and where narrow temperature spans were needed.
They have served quite well for temperature ranges too narrow for
thermocouple devices. Despite the availability of thermocouple devices for
even narrower ranges in recent years, the use of RTDs seems to be on the
increase.
The electrical resistance of a conductor changes as its temperature varies.

The magnitude of this change with respect to a 1° change in temperature is
known as the "temperature coefficient of resistance" of the conducting
material. For most pure metals, this coefficient is constant over some range of
temperatures; for example, the temperature coefficient of resistance of
platinum is 0.00392 ohm/(ohm)/(°C) over a range of 0° to 100°C.
For most conductors, this coefficient is positive; i.e., resistance in-creases as

temperature increases. When the measuring and readout instruments are
remotely located, transmission wires from the RTDs should be strategically
routed over the shortest distance so that the element resistance change will
be as large as possible compared to the overall circuit resistance.
Commonly used resistance materials include platinum, nickel, copper, nickel-

iron and tungsten. Most frequently used are platinum, which has a linear
characteristic over much of its range, and nickel, which exhibits a rather large
temperature coefficient of resistance, although its characteristic is nonlinear.
The resistivity of platinum is 10 ohm-cm at 20°C, while the resistivity of nickel
is 6.844 ohm-cm at 20°C.
The change in resistance is a function of the temperature coefficient of

resistance, designated a, which represents the slope of the curve expressed
by the equation:
Rt = RO ( 1 +  T ) .(1-1 )
or
dRt / dT =  RO .(1-2 )
Where :
R = resistance, in ohms, at temperature T.

Ro = resistance, in ohms, at a reference temperature (often 0 o C)
 = temperature coefficient of resistance.
2.1 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER MEASURING METHODS.
Three methods are commonly used for making electric connections from the
resistance thermometer assembly to the measuring instrument, namely, the
use of two-, three-, or four-lead circuits.
Lesson 1 Page 10
The shown in Fig. 1-16 is the simplest, consisting of two relatively low-
resistance leads a and b connecting the resistance thermometer with the
measuring apparatus. For this example, the thermometer lead wires are
copper and a whetstone bridge is shown. Note that the leg RX comprises the
resistance of the element plus the resistance of the leads a and b.
Fig. 1-16 Two-lead measuring circuit.
Circuit equations:
R1 + R3 = R2 + a + b + X
R1 = R2
R3 = a + b + X
Therefore, leads a and b, unless of very low resistance, can add appreciably
to the resistance of the element. Even though the resistances of the leads
may be known and allowed for in the measurement, they are subject to
ambient temperature changes and do not, of course, follow a precise
resistance-temperature function.
Therefore, the two-lead measuring method should be used only where lead
wire resistance can be kept to a minimum and only where a moderate degree
of accuracy is required. The extent of lead wire error is related to the
resistance of the element and obviously will be proportionately greater with
windings of low resistance than with windings having a higher resistance.
The three-lead circuit shown in Fig. 1-17 is the most widely used method in
industrial resistance thermometry. In this circuit leads a and c are connected
in close proximity to the resistance thermometer element at a common node.
The third lead, b, is connected to the opposite resistance leg of the element.
The resistance of lead a is now added to bridge arm R3, while the resistance
of lead b remains on bridge arm RX, thereby dividing the lead resistance and
retaining a balance in the bridge circuit.
Lesson 1 Page 11
Fig. 1-17 Three-lead measuring circuit.
Circuit equations:
R1 + R3+ a + c = R2 + b + X + c
R1 = R2
If a = b (lead resistance equal) Then R3 = X
Lead resistance c is common to both the left and right loops of the bridge
circuit. Although this method compensates for the effect of lead resistance,
the ultimate accuracy of the circuit depends on leads a and b being of equal
resistance. Special matching techniques are used on leads a and b,
particularly when distances between the sensor and measuring equipment are
relatively great.
Lesson 1 Page 12
Instrument Maintenance Advanced Temperature Measurement
LESSON
CALIBRATION OF A
2 THERMOCOUPLE TRANSMITTER
LECTURE
Objectives
1. Calibrate a Thermocouple Transmitter to a specified

temperature range.
1 CALIBRATION OF A THERMOCOUPLE TRANSMITTER
A thermocouple is a temperature measuring device that produces a millivolt

output proportional to the difference between the temperatures at its
measurement junction and the temperature at its references junction. A
Thermocouple Transmitter is an instrument that senses the millivolt signal
produced by a thermocouple and converts that millivolt signal to a signal level
that can be used by the other instruments of s Temperature Measurement
Channel. (Fig. 2-1)
Fig. 2-1 Thermocouple Transmitter
Thermocouple materials are available for use within the approximate limits of -
300 to +3200°F (-185 to +1760°C). No single thermocouple meets all
application requirements, but each possesses characteristics desirable for
selected applications and portions of this range. Depending on the type of
thermocouple selected, the Thermocouple Transmitter can be used in a wide
variety of temperature measurement applications.
As is true for most transmitters, the Thermocouple Transmitter has two

adjustments that relate the output signal to the sensed temperature. These
adjustments are the zero and the span or range. The zero adjustment is used
to set the transmitter to its lower range output value when the measured
temperature is at its minimum or low range value. (Fig. 2-2)
Lesson 2 Page 1
The span or range adjustment is used to set the transmitter to its upper range
output value when the measured temperature is at its maximum or upper
range value. Calibration of a transmitter is the process of matching the lower
and upper output values of the transmitter to the minimum and maximum
temperatures to be measured. The temperatures that are to be measured by
the a pump, it is called a heart of a process plants and a large varieties of
pump are being used to meet the all requirement of a plant.
Fig. 2-2 Thermocouple Transmitter has More adjustments
1.1 INSTRUMENTS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED
1. Calibration Work Station.

2. Thermocouple Transmitter.
3. Thermocouple Digital Calibrator.
4. Digital Millimeter.
5. Assorted Electrical.
6. Test Leads Ice Bath and Boiling Water Bath.
7. From the Millivolt versus Temperature data supplied in Table 2-1 for a
Type J thermocouple, determine the millivolt readings for a 0°C and
100°C temperature measurement and record them below.
Lesson 2 Page 2
Lesson 2 Page 3
LESSON
CALIBRATION OF AN RTD
3 TRANSMITTER
LECTURE
Objectives
1. calibrate an RTD Transmitter to a specified temperature range.
1 CALIBRATION OF A (RTD) TRANSMITTER.
An RTD, resistance temperature detector, is an electrical device that

undergoes a change in resistance when its temperature changes. Increasing
temperatures increases the resistance of the RTD, and decreasing
temperatures decreases its resistance. (Fig. 3-1)
Fig. 3-1 RTD Transmitter
An RTD Transmitter is used to sense this change in the resistance of the RTD
and produce an electrical output proportional to the temperature of the RTD.
Care should always be taken to select the proper RTD Transmitter for the
temperature range to be measured.
The selection of a metal for use as a resistance temperature detector

depends on several factors. The most important of these being the ease of
obtaining a pure metal, and the capability of drawing this metal into a fine
wire. Other requirements of this metal are its ability to rapidly follow changing
temperatures, linearity, and a relatively high rate of resistance change for a
given change in temperature.
Pure platinum in a fully annealed and strain-free state has a resistance-

temperature relationship that is especially stable and reproducible. For this
reason, pure platinum has been chosen as the international standard of
temperature measurement in the temperature range from the liquid oxygen
boiling point to the antimony melting point.
Lesson 3 Page 1
Fig. RTD Transmitter has two adjustments

As is true of most transmitters, the RTD Transmitter has two adjustments that
relate the output signal to the sensed temperature. These adjustments are the
zero and the span or range. The zero adjustment is used to set the transmitter
to its lower range output value with the measured temperature at its minimum
or lower range value. The span or range adjustment is used to set the
transmitter to its upper range output value with the measured temperature at
its maximum or upper range value.
Calibration of a transmitter is the process of matching the lower and upper

output values of the transmitter to the minimum and maximum desired
temperatures. The temperatures that are to be applied to the transmitter are
derived from the specific application of the transmitter.
Lesson 3 Page 2
Table 3-1 Resistance v Temperature Data
Lesson 3 Page 3
CONTROL VALVES
Module: 72207
Module No.: 72207
Version 1.1
Prepared by: Selvaraj Vignesh
Date: NOV. 2010
Table Of Contents
Lesson Subject
1 Final Control Elements
2 Fundamentals Of Control Valve Characterization
3 Control Valve Sizing
4 Control Valve Noise
5 Main Valve Body And Major Structures
6 Control Valve Maintenance

Final Control Elements Final Control Elements
LESSON
1 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS
LECTURE
Objectives
1. Understand the fundamentals of process control. .

2. Know the control valve terminology.
1 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS CONTROL
1.1 BASIC CONTROL CONCEPTS
1.1.1 TYPICAL MANUAL CONTROL
Fig. 8-1-1. Manual Control Loop
In Fig.1-1, the operator is operating a steam water heater.
In order to get warmer water, he should open the valve on the steam line to
some extent and give more steam to the heat exchanger. In order to get
cooler water, he should close the valve to some extent and give less steam.
In order to keep the temperature, he watches the indication of the

thermometer and regulates the valve turning its handle clockwise or
Lesson 1 Page 1
counterclockwise every time he recognizes some deviation from the desired

temperature. He is controlling the temperature of the water. This is an
example of manual control.
1.1.2 AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Automatic control of the above process can be realized by replacing some

components of the previous loop. The new loop is shown in Fig. 1-2.
Controller
Control + Set Point

Location _
Control
Steam Valve Measuring
Device
Heated
Water
Heat
Cold Exchanger
Water
Feed
Pump
Drain
Fig. 1-2. Automatic Control Loop
The temperature is measured by a measuring device. Depending on the

deviation between the measured value and the set value, the controller sends
a proper signal to make the control valve move. The control of processes
automatically has many advantages, some of these are:-.
1. The workforce can be directed to more productive jobs.

2. It results in a more stable operation ensuring better production and
safer operation.
3. Production costs can be lowered.
Lesson 1 Page 2
1.1.3 FEEDBACK CONTROL
Fig. 1-3 shows a generalization of the signal flow in the above control loop.
Manipulated Controlled
Variable Variable
Process
Final Control Sensor

Element
Comparison
Control +
Algorithm _
Controller Set-point
Fig. 1-3. Closed Loop Block Diagram
In the above example:
* The controlled variable is the temperature of heated water.

* The manipulated variable is the flow rate of steam.
The controlled variable (temperature) is constantly watched and compared with

the setpoint (desired value). So far as there is a deviation between them, the
controller sends a signal to the final control element (control valve) in order to
change the manipulated variable (flow rate) in the direction which helps
reducing the deviation.
Seen from the process, the manipulated variable is the cause and the
controlled variable is the result.
Lesson 1 Page 3
IDENTIFICATION OF CONTROL VALVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1-4. Typical Cage Trim Body
Lesson 1 Page 4
Fig. 1-5. Typical Split Valve Body Assembly
Fig. 1-6. Sliding Gate Vale Body
Fig. 1-7. Typical Butterfly Valve
Lesson 1 Page 5
Fig. 1-8. Typical Diaphragm Valve
Fig. 1-9. Bellows Seal Bonnet
Fig. 1-10. Radiation Fin Bonnet
Lesson 1 Page 6
Fig. 1-11. Typical Direct Acting Diaphragm Actuator
Fig. 1-12. Typical Reverse Acting Diaphragm Actuator
Lesson 1 Page 7
Final Control Elements Fundamentals of Control Valve Characterization
LESSON
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL VALVE
2 CHARACTERIZATION
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to: Understand the
Fundamentals of Control Valve Characterization.
1 INTRODUCTION
In any type of control application where control valves are used, the topic of
valve characterization inevitably arises. Individuals who design control
systems, or who select, operate, and maintain control equipment need to
understand the fundamentals of valve characterization. The proper
application of some basic principles will assure the best possible system
performance
2 THE CONTROL LOOP
There is a tremendous variety in the types of control loops that exist. It would
be a mistake to assume that they are all alike, yet there are some similarities
that can be taken advantage of. The gas pressure control loop, Fig. 2-1,
shows a typical system that will serve to illustrate the general principles.
Every control loop has something that can be defined as the process to be
controlled. A description of the process would have to include information
about the geometry of the containing vessel, the fluid properties, the
dynamics of the fluid action, and the interface between the containing vessel
and the outside world. In the case of Fig. 2-1, the process is represented by
the pressure of the gas contained in the pipe between the control valve and
the load valve. Some of the important descriptive parameters for this process
are the size and length of the connecting pipe, the type of gas contained the
temperature and specific heat ratio of gas, flow rate, and the valve
characteristics of both the control valve and the load valve. Another element
in the loop measures the controlled variable, compares it to a set point, and
then provides some type of predetermined control action to correct for any
deviations. Frequently one device, called a controller, will perform all three of
these functions. Occasionally these functions are performed by several
separate pieces of hardware such as a sensor, transmitter, and a receiver-
controller. It serves the purpose of this discussion to simply lump them
together under the signal heading of controller.
Lesson 2 Page 1
Positioner
Controller
Control Load
Valve Process
Fig. 2-1. Typical Gas Pressure Control Loop
The output of the controller goes to an actuator that provides the necessary
mechanical power to operate the control valve. Sometimes there may be an
auxiliary device, such as a booster or a positioner that is used in conjunction
with the actuator. The booster is a special purpose, impedance matching
device which is used infrequently and has little bearing upon the subject of
valve characterization. Positioners are much more commonly used, and their
dynamic characteristics are intimately connected with those of the actuator.
For that reason, they are considered in this discussion as a single unit called
a positioner actuator. The final control element in the loop is the control
valve. The actuator adjusts the restricting element in the control valve to
provide whatever flow has been dictated by the controller. There are a
multitude of valve styles on the market today, each with its own special
features, but the characteristic of most interest in this study is the relationship
between the motion, or travel, of the restricting element and the resulting flow.
This relationship is called the valve characteristic. Any element in the loop
can be characterized by proper selection or design. Characterization simply
refers to the establishment of a particular relationship between the output and
the input of any element. Valve characterization in particular refers to the
establishment of a relationship between the valve flow and the valve travel.
The four basic elements that have just been defined in the control loop are
shown schematically in the block diagram of Fig. 2-2.
3 LOOP GAIN
Every element in the control loop receivers some kind of input and provides
some type of output as represented by the connecting arrows in Fig. 2-2. The
ratio of a change in output magnitude to the change in input magnitude is
known as gain. The higher the gain the greater the output changes for a
given input. Gain is simply a way to express the sensitivity of a device to
changes in its input. A device with high gain will be very sensitive to input
changes.
The purpose of the control loop in Fig. 2-2 is to maintain the controlled
variable at its described value at all times despite changes in the load. If a
deviation of the controlled variable should occur, the controller will sense it
Lesson 2 Page 2
and provide corrective feedback action around the loop, i.e. from the
controlled variable through the controller, positioner actuator, valve, and
process back again to the controlled variable. Obviously, the more sensitive
this control loop is, the sooner the correction will occur and the better the
performance will be. This is just another way of saying that high loop gain is
needed for good loop performance. If the loop gains changes, the loop
performance changes also. The sensitivity of the loop is determined by the
sensitivity of each element in the loop. If the sensitivity of any element is
changed the loop sensitivity changes by the same factor. The loop gain is
determined by multiplying together the gains of all the elements in the loop.
4 PROCESS GAIN
There are many different types of industrial processes, and each has its
unique characteristics. The gain of the process is of particular concern in this
study. Many processes are such that the gain varies with the load condition.
This can be best illustrated with an example. Imagine a gas pressure process
with a mean flow rate of 1000 scfh. A 500 scfh increase in flow rate would
represent a significant change and would undoubtedly cause a large change
in the process pressure. Now consider the same process with a mean flow
rate of 100,000 scfh. In this case, the same 500 scfh change in flow rate will
cause only a minor change in the process pressure.
Controlled
Load Variable
Process
Valve Positioner Controller

Actuator
Set Point
Fig.2-2. Block Diagram of a Generalized Control Loop
As system flow increases, the system pressure becomes less sensitive to the
same change in flow, i.e. the process gain decreases with load flow. Without
resorting to a rigorous mathematical proof, this example gives an intuitive feel
for why the gain of a process can vary with the load on the system.
Depending upon the type of process, the gain may decrease, increase, or
even remain constant with respect to the load.
If the process gain changes with load, then the loop gain will also change by
the same factor, causing a change in the system performance. Depending
upon how the system is turned initially, it may become unstable if the gain
increases too much, or it may become unduly sluggish if the gain becomes
too low.
Lesson 2 Page 3
5 COMPENSATION
When the loop gain changes due to the process gain changing with load, it is
desirable to compensate for this change so that the loop performance remains
constant with load. Fig. 2-2 shows that the only place where this
compensation can be accomplished is in the controller, positioner actuator, or
the valve. The controller requires a great deal of flexibility in its design. Any
attempt to build a characterizing feature into the controller may not only
conflict with its primary function, but may also be economically prohibitive.
The problem of characterizing an actuator without a positioner is again

primarily one of economics. The use of a positioner simplifies the design
problem somewhat; however, the results are not always entirely satisfactory.
Positioner characterization is usually accomplished by using cams in the
positioner feedback. Positioner characterization is effective enough under
essentially static conditions however; the dynamic limitations of the positioner
render the characterization ineffective at higher frequencies. This is not a
serious problem if the positioner is applied properly according to established
guidelines. Experience has shown that characterizing the valve is a practical
approach that provides effective gain compensation under all operating
conditions. Valve characterization is normally accomplished by shaping the
valve trim parts so that the proper flow relationship to travel is achieved.
6 VALVE CHARACTERIZATION
The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship which exists

between flow through the valve and valve travel as the travel is varied from
zero to 100 5per cent. There are four valve flow characteristics of interest.
They are quick opening, linear, equal percentage, and modified parabolic.
These are shown graphically in Fig.2-3. The quick opening flow characteristic
provides maximum change in flow rate at low valve travels, with a fairly linear
relationship. Additional increases in valve travel give sharply reduced changes
in flow rate, and when the valve travel nears the wide open position, the
change in flow rate approached zero. In a control valve, the quick opening
characteristic is used primarily for on-off service where the flow must be
established quickly when the valve begins to open. An excellent example is in
relief valve applications. In many applications it is possible to use a quick
opening characteristic where a linear characteristic would normally be
specified, since the quick opening characteristic is essentially linear up to
about 70 per cent of the maximum flow rate.
Lesson 2 Page 4
Fig. 2-3. Flow Characteristic Curves
The linear flow characteristic curve shows that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve travel. This proportional relationship produces a
characteristic with a constant slope, so that with constant pressure drop, the
valve gain is the same at all flow rates. The linear valve plug is commonly
specified for liquid level control and for certain flow control applications
requiring constant gain. As previously noted, in situations where a linear
characteristic is recommended, a quick opening valve characteristic can be
used. While the controller will have to operate on a wider proportional band
setting, the same degree of control accuracy may be expected, assuming no
significant dead band in the actuator. With the equal percentage flow
characteristic, equal increments of valve travel produce flow changes which
are equal percentages of the existing flow. The change in flow rate is always
proportional to the flow rate that exists just before.
Lesson 2 Page 5
Fig. 2-4. Valve Gain Variation With∆P. Point (a) Is Flow Condition For Low ∆P ;
Point (b), For Higher ∆P
7 CONTROL VALVE TYPES
The different types of control valves are classified by a relationship between

the valves stem position and the flow rate through the valve. This control
valve characteristic is assigned with the assumptions that the stem positions
indicates the extent of the value opening and that pressure difference is
determined by the valve alone. Correction factors allow one to account for
pressure differences introduced- by the whole system. There are three basic
types of control valves whose relationship between stem position between
stem position as percentage of full range and flow rate as a percentage of
maximum.
1. Quick Opening
Small motion of valve stem results in maximum possible flow rate through the
valve. 90% of maximum flow rate at 30% travel of the stem.
2. Linear
Has a flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position.
as the relation:
Q S
=
Q max S max
Lesson 2 Page 6
Where Q = flow rate (m3/s)

Qmax = maximum flow rate (m3/s)
S = stem position (m)
Smax = maximum stem position (m)
or
Q = KX
Where
Q = Flow Rate
X = Value Travel
K = A proportional constant which depends
upon the units for Q & X.
3. Equal Percentage
This is a very important type of valve employed in flow control. This type
depends on a term called RANGEABILITY (R).
Q max
R =
Q min
8 SUMMARY
1. For most processes, particularly level control and pressure control

applications, valve characteristics are relatively unimportant. Selection
should be based on suitable construction and inter changeability for
standardization.
2. Over a load change of up to 3 to 1, the performance of both the linear
(properly sized) or the equal percentage valve is almost identical.
3. An oversized linear valve can be definitely inferior to an equally large
equal percentage valve.
4. An oversized linear valve can be definitely inferior to an equally large
equal percentage valve.
5. If the pressure drop across the valve under maximum flow conditions is
less than 25% of the system drop and a linear installed characteristic is
desired, an equal percentage inherent characteristic or an
approximation thereof should be used.
6. The majority of all characterized valves sold are currently equal
percentage. The choice is primarily based on practical grounds. The
use of linear characteristic is increasing and will continue to do so as
more accurate process data for sizing and system analysis become
more readily available.
Lesson 2 Page 7
Final Control Elements Control Valve Sizing
LESSON
3 CONTROL VALVE SIZING
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to: Understand how the
Control Valves are sized in liquid, gas and steam lines.
1 INTRODUCTION
The selection of proper port and body size for a control valve is based on
calculation of the correct valve flow coefficient Cv and consideration of a
number of secondary factors discussed in the article. An accurate prediction
of actual valve capacity for most services is now possible as a result of the
efforts of the instrument Society of America (ISA), culminating in ANSI/ISA
S75.01. This standard sets forth basic equations with which control valve flow
determinations can be made for a wide range of operating conditions. Since
the equations in the standard are not n a convenient form for everyday use, a
proprietary set, easier to use, is outlined here.
The results do not differ materially from those obtained when using the
aforementioned standard. The actual sizing process is still largely dependent
on good analysis of the data available as a basis for computation. Usually
one or more of the flowing conditions is an approximation. The engineering
evaluation of these data is the most important single factor in determining the
final valve size. For this reason, an explanation of the relative importance of
the data used in sizing is prescribed before outlining a detailed procedure.
1.1 PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE VALVE
Pressure drop is perhaps the most arbitrary factor in valve sizing. For a
simple back-pressure or reducing application, the drop across the valve may
be known quite accurately. This is also true for a liquid-level control
installation where the liquid passes from one vessel to another at constant
pressure. If the valve is installed in a long piping system or a system
including heat exchange equipment, the pressure drop across the valve
should be estimated at the maximum flow condition with reasonable
allowance for the pressure losses in series with the valve. Pressure drop
across a control valve is often expressed as a percentage of the total friction
drop in the system.
A good working rule is that at least one-third of the total system drop should
be absorbed by the control valve at maximum flow. This rule may, of
necessity, will be relaxed for extremely long or high-pressure-drop systems,
particularly when the actual desired flow is known reasonably accurately and
does not vary substantially. Reasonably good control can then be attained
with as little as 15% of the total system drop across the valve. An interesting
Lesson 3 Page 1
exception to this rule is encountered in long liquid pipeline transportation

systems where the fully open control valve may absorb even less than 1% of
the system pressure drop. The important point in this case is that the
expected flow variation is very small and the valve functions primarily to
balance the hydraulic gradient in the system. Even so, special attention must
be paid to the valve characteristics and to the control system as a whole.
1.2 FLOWING QUANTITY
The three figures to be considered are the normal, maximum, and minimum
flow. The maximum figure for valve sizing should be chosen realistically and
must be carefully related to the available pressure drop. It should be the
required maximum flow, not the full capacity of the valve. The valve capacity
is then generally set 25 to 60% above the required or normal maximum flow.
An alternative approach may be to double the expected normal flow.
Unrealistic combinations of flow and pressure drop should be avoided.
1.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The actual specific gravity of the flowing medium at operating conditions is

relatively unimportant. If the actual gravity is not known, a reasonable
assumption can usually be made since the use of 0.9 sp gr, for example,
instead of 0.8 would cause an error of less than 5% in the capacity
determination.
1.4 FLOW COEFICIENT Cv
After a proper evaluation of flowing conditions, the required valve flow

coefficient Cv can be determined. By definition this flow coefficient is :-
The number of gallons per minute of water which will pass through any flow
restriction with a pressure drop of 1 psi.
Example
A control valve with a maximum flow coefficient Cv of 12 has an effective port

area in the full-open position such that it passes 12 gal/min of water with a 1-
psi pressure drop. Basically, it is a universally accepted capacity index by
which an engineer is able to rapidly and accurately estimate the required size
of restriction in any fluid system. This definition, of course, can be converted
to suitable metric units. While the coefficient is defined in terms of water flow,
it can be used conveniently and with sufficient accuracy for determination of
the flow of a compressible fluid as well.
In view of the enormous range of flowing conditions and the variety of valve
styles, it is not surprising to find that there is still much to be done toward
improving the accuracy of the sizing formulas. A more rigorous approach for
compressible fluid service is set forth in ANSI/ISA S75.01, but the equations
in this article give comparable results. The first control valve sizing standards
based on the flow coefficient Cv such as the Fluid Controls Institute Voluntary
Lesson 3 Page 2
standards 58-1 (1958) and 61-1 (1962) did not take into account the variation
in predicted capacity caused by pressure recovery effects. A substantial
variation in flow prediction occurs because of differences in the contouring of
the valve flow passages. The current ANSI/ISA standard and the equations
discussed in this article take this important factor into account.
1.5 CRITICAL FLOW FACTOR Ct
Every valve or flow restriction exhibits some degree of pressure recovery

downstream of the principal restriction. This means that, a some point within
the valve body, the static pressure will be lower than the valve outlet pressure.
The zone of minimum pressure is known as the vena contract, and whenever
the static pressure at this point is lowered to the vapor pressure of a liquid
medium, or to the critical pressure of a gas cause sonic velocity, no further
flow will be obtained as the valve outlet pressure decreases. The effect of
pressure recovery in sub-critical compressible fluid flow is that critical flow
(choked flow) is achieved at a differential between valve upstream and
downstream pressure that is less than would be predicted by the earlier
simplified formulas bases on the actual pressure ratio from valve inlet to
outlet. For sub-cooled liquid service, the vapor pressure of the liquid may be
reached at the vena contract, causing localized flashing. The bubbles formed
in this region collapse jut downstream as the pressure rapidly increases. With
pure liquids, such as water, this collapse cause high localized stresses with
attendant noise and vibration known as cavitation.
2 BASIC CONTROL VALVE SIZING FORMULAS
For liquids
G f
C = q
V
 P
For Gas and Vapor Service
Q GT
CV =  P(
963 P1 + P 2)
2.1 FOR LIQUID SERVICE
ENGLISH FORMULAS
A. Subcritical Flow
_P<Cf2(_Ps)
Volumetric Flow
G f
C V = q
P
Flow by Weight
W
CV =
500 G f P
Lesson 3 Page 3
2.2 FOR GAS AND VAPOR SERVICE
ENGLISH FORMULAS:
A. Sub critical Flow
_P < 0.5Cf2P1
Volumetric Flow
Q GT
CV =
963 P( P1 + P 2)
Flow by Weight
W
CV =
3.22 P( P1 + P 2)G f
For Saturated Steam
W
CV =
2.1 P( P1 + P2)
For Superheated Steam
(1 + 0.0007 Tsh )
CV =
2.1 P( P1 + P 2)
B. Critical Flow
_P > 0.5 Cf2P1
Q GT
C V =
834 C f P 1
W
CV =
2.8 C f P 1 G f
W
C V =
1.83 C f P 1
W
CV =
1.83 C f P 1
Where:
Cv = Valve flow coefficient

Cf = Critical flow factor
G = Gas specific gravity (air = 1.0)
Gf = Specific gravity at flowing temperature = G X 520/T
P1 = Upstream pressure, psia
P2 = Downstream pressure, psia
_P = Pressure drop P1 - P2 psi
Q = Gas flow rate at 14.7 psia and 60 F., Scfh
T = Flowing temperature, R, (460 + F)
Tsh = Steam superheat, F
W = Flow rate, pounds per hour
Lesson 3 Page 4
Final Control Elements Control Valve Noise
LESSON
4 CONTROL VALVE NOISE
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to: Understand the types of
Control Valve Noise.
1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid and transmission systems are a major source of industrial noise.

Elements within the system that contribute to the noise are control valves,
abrupt expansions of high-velocity flow streams, compressors, and pumps.
This article deals with control valve noise, a principal source of noise in many
fluid systems. Control valve noise is a result of the turbulence introduced into
the flow stream in producing the permanent head loss required to fulfill the
basic function of the valve.
2 NOISE TERMINOLOGY
Noise is commonly defined as unwanted or annoying sound. Because of its

vague definition, neither an absolute method of measurement nor specific
dimensions of noise have been determined. For lack of a better method,
noise is frequently described or specified by the physical characteristics of
sound. The definitive properties of sound are the magnitude of sound
pressure and the frequency of pressure fluctuation, as illustrated by Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1. Properties of sound.
2.1 SOUND PRESSURE (Ps)
Sound pressure (Ps) measurements are normally root-mean-square (rms)

values of sound pressure expressed in microbars. Because the range of
sound pressure of interest in noise measurements is ~108 to 1, it is customary
to deal with sound pressure level (SPL) instead of sound pressure
Lesson 4 Page 1
2.2 SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (SPL)
SPL is a logarithmic function of the relative amplitude of sound pressure and

is expressed mathematically as:
The arbitrary selected reference sound pressure of 0.0002 μbars is

approximately the sound pressure required at 1000 Hz to produce the faintest
sound that the average young person with normal hearing can detect. The
characteristic of the SPL scale is such that each change of 6 dB in level
represents a change in the amplitude of sound pressure by a factor of 2. The
apparent loudness of a sound varies not only with the amplitude of sound
pressure but also as a function of frequency. The human ear responds to
sounds in the frequency range between 20,000 and 18,000 Hz. The normal
ear is most sensitive to pressure fluctuations in the neighborhood of 3000 to
4000 Hz; the degree of annoyance created by a specific sound is a function of
both sound pressure and frequency.
2.3 SOUND INTENSITY (I)
Sound intensity (I) is defined as the acoustic sound power transmitted per unit
area, perpendicular to a specified direction. the common unit of measurement
for sound intensity is watts per square centimeter W/cm². Sound intensity for
a plane wave is given by the relation.
Ps ²
I= (1)
C
where the product of the density (p) and sonic velocity (c) of the transmitting
medium represents the characteristic impedance.
2.4 SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL (SIL)
For measurement and comparison of sound intensities, it is more convenient

to deal with sound intensity levels than with absolute values of sound
intensity. Sound intensity level is commonly defined by the following relation:
I
Sound intensity level = 10 log10
-16
dB (2)
10
The reference sound intensity is selected as 10-16 W/cm2. This is
approximately the minimum intensity audible to the average human ear at
1000 Hz/s for standard air
3 SOURCES OF VALVE NOISE
The major sources of control valve noise are:
1. Mechanical vibration of valve components

2. Fluid generated noise
a. Hydrodynamic noise
Lesson 4 Page 2
Depend on flow classifications:

i. Non cavitating
ii. Cavitating
iii. Flashing
b. Aerodynamic noise
The major source of valve noise is an aerodynamic noise, and it is a result of

the turbulence created in a flow stream as a result of deceleration, or
impingement. The principle area of noise generation in a control valve is the
recovery region immediately down stream of Vena Contracta, where the flow
field is characterized by intense turbulence and mixing.
3.1 NOISE CONTROL
Noise control employs either one or both of the following basic approaches.
1. Source Treatment.
Prevention or attenuation of the acoustic power at the source (quiet valves)
2. Path Treatment.
Reduction of noise transmitted from a source to a receiver.
Lesson 4 Page 3
Final Control Elements Main Valve Body & Major Structures
LESSON
MAIN VALVE BODY AND MAJOR
5 STRUCTURES
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to: Understand the Main Valve
Body and Major Structures of control valve.
1 STANDARD EQUIPMENT OF CONTROL
1.1 GENERAL
A control valve is a final control element whose purpose is to vary the cross-
sectional area through which a fluid has to pass in a conduit as a result of a
signal from a manual loading station or an automatic controller. This variation
of the cross-sectional area can be from the fully open to fully closed.
1.2 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL VALVE
The control valve consists of two main parts, the valve body assembly and the
actuator, as shown in Fig.5-1.
1.3 VALVE BODY ASSEMBLY
The body, bonnet, bottom flange and trim elements constitute the valve body
assembly. The trim includes the valve plug which opens, closes or partially
obstructs one or more ports.
1.4 CONTROL VALVE BODIES
The function of a control valve body is to regulate the rate of flow of a fluid as
the position of the valve plug is changed by a force from the actuator. To fulfill
this function, the valve body must contain the fluid without leaking, must have
adequate capacity, must resist erosion and corrosion, and must be equipped
with a movable valve plug that can be positioned properly by the actuator to
control the flow. There are many various types of valve bodies available with
the single or double port reversible globe bodies considered standard. Valves
for special applications and for specific services have been developed through
the years, giving the widest possible selection to meet any need. The
following outlines shows some of the most common types of control valve
bodies in use today.
Lesson 5 Page 1
Fig. 5-1. Typical Diaphragm Control Valve
1.4.1 SINGLE PORT VALVE BODIES
1. Most common body type, simple in construction.

2. Frequently furnished in sizes less than 2". Modern high-thrust
actuators, however, allow the use of larger single port valves.
3. Generally specified where tight shut-off is required. Either metal-to-
metal seating or composition seating can be supplied.
Lesson 5 Page 2
4. Unbalanced forces on the valve plug must be considered in selecting

the actuator.
5. Available in a variety of types, such as globe, angle, bar stock, forged,
and split construction.
6. Single port valves provide wide rangeability.
Fig. 5-2. shows the most popular type of single port body. It is versatile and
reversible since it can be constructed to have the valve plug move into or out
of the port with increasing loading pressure on the actuator. It is widely used
in process control applications, particularly in sizes less than 2".
Fig. 5-2. Reversible Single Port Globe Body.
Angle valves are nearly always single ported. Some types have very large
capacities when installed so that flow tends to open valve. Angle valves are
most commonly used as boiler feedwater and heater drain valves and in
piping systems where space is at a premium and the valve can also serve as
an elbow. They are self draining valves and are often used to handle slurries
see Fig. 5-3.
Lesson 5 Page 3
Fig. 5-3. Angle Body
1.4.2 DOUBLE PORT VALVE BODIES
1. Developed to balance the forces which act on single port valves.

2. Smaller stem forces are required to position the valve than for
the same size single port valve.
3. Higher flow capacity than single port valve of the same size.
4. Should not be specified if a leakage of 2% of maximum capacity
cannot be tolerated. However, on special constructions, the
valve plug can be fitted with composition seating to ensure tight
shut-off.
5. Frequently furnished in sizes 2" and larger.
6. Specified top and bottom guided valve plugs for severe service.
Port guided valve plugs are less expensive for on-off or mild
service.
Lesson 5 Page 4
Fig. 5-4. shows a typical reversible double port control valve body. Valve plug
can be installed to "push down to open" or "push down to close". Double port
bodies are used on high pressure drop applications since the valve plugs is
essentially balanced and a relatively small amount of force is required from
the actuator. Metal-to-metal seating cannot give tight shut-off.
Fig. 5-4. Réversible double port globe body.
1.4.3 THREE-WAY VALVE BODIES
1. Modification of single and double port bodies to obtain a third

flow opening.
2. Unbalanced forces on the valve plug must be considered in
selecting the actuator. In effect, there are two single port valves
in the same shell that are operated by a single actuator. Stem
forces required to operate three-way valves are comparable to
those required for single port control valves.
3. The total flow through the ports is constant, regardless of plug
position. The total flow is proportioned but not controlled.
4. To prevent "slamming" of the valve plug, three-way valves are
installed with the flow tending to open the valve plug discs.
Lesson 5 Page 5
The three-way body Fig. 5-5. is an adaptation of a single port globe body. It is
used for mixing or blending service with two inlets and one outlet. The three-
way body Fig. 5-6. is an adaptation of a double port globe body. It is used for
diverting or flow splitting service with one inlet and two outlets.
Fig. 5-5. Three-way body (modified single port body)
Lesson 5 Page 6
Fig. 5-6. Three-way body (modified double port body)
1.4.4 SAUNDERS PATENT VALVES
1. Used for handling corrosive chemicals and slurries.

2. Generally not suitable for high pressure applications.
3. Give tight shutoff.
4. Generally used for on-off service.
5. Temperature limited by availability of diaphragm material.
In this construction, a diaphragm is forced down toward an internal dividing

web to restrict the flow. The valve body can be lined with rubber or plastics
for corrosive service. High stem forces are needed for closure.
Lesson 5 Page 7
Fig. 5-7. Saunders Patent Valve.
1.4.5 BUTTERFLY VALVES
1. Require minimum space for installation

2. Have low pressure drop through the valve.
3. Have high capacity.
4. Economical, especially in the larger sizes.
5. Can provide tight shutoff.
6. Operating torques can be large. Large actuators may be
required if the valve is larger or the pressure drop is high.
Butterfly valves are available in sizes through 100". They exhibit an equal
percentage flow characteristic. Used for throttling and on-off applications.
Can be fitted with composition seating either by lining the valve or by inserting
a rubber ring in the body.
Fig. 5-8. Butterfly Valve
Lesson 5 Page 8
1.4.6 VEE-BALL VALVES (TRADE MARK OF FISHER GOVERNOR

COMPANY)
1. Specialized body for hard-to-handle fluids. Such as pulp, slurries, fluids

with solids or fibrous materials, etc.
2. For throttling service.
3. Give tight shutoff.
4. Prevent dewatering of pulp.
This construction is similar to a conventional ball valve but with a V-notched

cut in the ball. The V-notch results in a modified parabolic flow characteristic.
Vee-ball valves have wide rangeability and exhibit good control. they have
found wide applications in the paper industry, chemical plants and sewage
treatment plants.
Fig. 5-9. Vee-ball valve

2 VALVE ACTUATORS
There are three types of control valves in use in SWCC plants which are
classified with regard to the actuators. They are:
1. Pneumatic control valves

2. Hydraulic control valves
3. Motor operated valves.
2.1 ACTUATORS
In order to make the final control element function, something is needed to

give it the necessary instruction and energy, in accordance with the control
signal. This something is called an actuator, because it actuates the final
control element.
2.1.1. PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
Lesson 5 Page 9
The most commonly used actuators for control valves are operated by
instrument air. Two types are available: diaphragm actuator and piston
actuator.
Fig. 5-10. Pneumatic Actuators.
2.1.2 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
Instead of compressed air, some kind of oil (mostly machine oil) is utilized for
the piston actuator. This actuator is used for high power elements. It needs
special equipment to maintain the pressure and cleanliness of the oil.
2.1.3 MOTORS
Motors are used as actuators of valves, which, in this case, are called motor
operated valves (MOV). However motors are most commonly used as
actuators of rotating machines such as pumps, fans, mixers and so on. In our
plant motors are also used as actuators for pumps, vane controllers, bar
screens, traveling band screens and loading arms.
2.1.4 OTHERS
The chlorine generator is driven by a rectifier.
3 CONTROL VALVE ATTACHED UNITS
3.1 GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT POSITIONER
A positioner is often used in the following cases:-
1. The control valve diameter exceeds 100~150 mm.
Lesson 5 Page 10
2. The differential pressure of a control valve is high.

3. The friction force of the gland packing of the valve body is noticeable.
4. A manipulated variable signal is a split range signal.
5. The manipulated variable signal range is different from the actuator
range.
6. The dynamic characteristic of a system is protected from being
deteriorated.
7. A control valve is used in a process where the temperature control and
liquid level control are slow.
According to a suggestion, a booster should be used instead of a positioner in

general processes where the flow control and liquid pressure control are fast.
The positioners are sorted into the pneumatic type and electro-pneumatic type
according to their manipulated variable signals, and they are also sorted into
the force balancing type and the displacement balancing type according to
their principles. The force balancing type positioner balances the force given
by a manipulated variable signal with the force produced by the feedback of
the actuator shaft position. Owing to a small displacement of its mechanism,
this positioner is not easily affected by the internal friction and backlash, and
its structure can be designed to be small and simple. Its structural example
will be shown below.
3.2 POSITIONERS
This section describes some of the most common types of pneumatic control
valve accessories. Since the positioner is often considered to be the most
important of them, it is covered first. A pneumatic valve positioner is a device
which precisely positions, by the use of air, the moving part (or parts) of a
pneumatically operated valve in accordance with a pneumatic signal. A
typical positioner is shown in Fig. 5-11.
Fig. 5-11. Side Mounted Valve Positioner on Control Valve.
Lesson 5 Page 11
3.2.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Fig. 5-12. shows schematically a valve that is operated directly by a controller.

A typical controller output varies from a minimum of O psig to a maximum of
20 psig. The most common valve spring operates from 3-15 psig. Fifteen
psig is required to compress the valve spring. The air pressure above 15 psig
is used to close the valve against the upstream pressure.
Fig. 5-12. Single-seated Control Valve without positioner, Air-to-close.
Fig. 5-13. shows a valve with a positioner, in addition to the controller. The
signal from the controller in this case goes to the positioner instead of directly
to the control valve. The positioner compares the signal with the valve stem
position. If the stem is incorrectly positioned, the positioner either adds or
exhausts air from the valve actuator until the correct valve stem position is
obtained.
Fig. 5-13. Single Seated Control Valve with Positioner, Air-to-Close.
The positioners illustrated in Fig. 5-15 employs the principle of force balance
operation by spring loading the bellows unit (from the actual motion of the
valve stem) to the same force as that exerted by the control-instrument air
pressure. Either a rise or a fall of the control instrument air pressure will move
the bellows and operate the air pilot. Supply air is either admitted to the
Lesson 5 Page 12
diaphragm actuator chamber or exhausted past the upper pilot stem, to the
atmosphere. As the valve moves, the balance-spring load is changed. This
action brings the bellows and pilot back to their original positions thus
restoring the balance between the spring loading and the control-instrument
pressure.
Fig. 5-14. Side Mounted Valve Positioner.
Bellows characteristics do not affect the calibration, because the bellows

remain in virtually the same position at all points of balance. The
arrangement of the levers compensates for angularity errors. A linear
relationship exists between the control-instrument pressure and the valve
stem position. The bellows and air pilot are a self-contained unit, without
elements that would introduce friction and cause errors. Any friction in the
lever bearings is on the valve side; therefore, it does not influence the
performance of the positioner.
3.2.2 PRESSURE BOOSTERS
Pressure boosters are generally also volume boosters; however, their main
function is to increase the pressure the pressure from the controller to above
20 psig in certain valve application. Fig. shows a single-seated, air-to-open
valve with a 6-30 psi spring. The heavy spring may be used to close the valve
against a high upstream pressure; however, the normal controller output (20
psi maximum) cannot open the valve. A 2:1 booster makes the system
operational. The booster may be preferred over a positioner because of its
lower cost. Also, the booster does not close a loop around the valve, a fact
which may enhance stability in fast-response systems.
Lesson 5 Page 13
Fig. 5-15. Pressure Booster In Control Valve Loop.
4 ON-OFF AIR RELAYS
An on-off air relay may be used in some applications where the maximum
output (20 psi) of the controller is insufficient to operate a diaphragm control
valve. Fig. shows an on-off pneumatic controller operating an air relay. The
relay in turn applies 35 psig or O psig to the diaphragm control valve to open
or close the valve. The 35 psi pressure allows the single-seated diaphragm
control valve to close against higher line pressure than would be possible with
the 20 psig output from the controller.
Fig 5-16. On-Off Pneumatic Relay in Control Valve Loop.
The pneumatic relay may be used with a throttling controller where the relay is
used in emergency service, as shown in Fig. In this application the relay is
normally positioned so that the exhaust port is closed and the path through
the relay from controller to the diaphragm control valve is kept open. With
proper piping, an emergency signal (0 to 20 psi) can be applied to the relay to
Lesson 5 Page 14
close off the controller signal and to open the exhaust port. With the relay
exhaust port connected to the control valve, the air-to-open valve is rapidly
closed by the valve spring.
Fig. 5-17. Throttling Service, Two-Position Pneumatic Relay for Emergency

Shut-Down.
5 SOLENOID VALVES
An electric solenoid valve, as shown in Fig. can be used to advantage in

combination with diaphragm control valves in some applications.
Fig. 5-18. Three-way Electric Solenoid valve.
The three-way solenoid valve may be used with a pneumatic throttling

controller where the solenoid is used in emergency service, as illustrated by
Fig. In this application the solenoid three-way valve is normally positioned so
that the exhaust port is closed and the path between the controller and
diaphragm control valve is kept open. With proper piping an emergency
signal, in the form of electric current through the solenoid, can cause the
controller output to be blocked and the exhaust port to be opened. With the
solenoid valve exhaust port connected to the diaphragm control valve, the air-
to-open valve is rapidly closed by the valve spring.
Lesson 5 Page 15
Fig. 5-19. Three-Way Solenoid Valve in a Diaphragm

Control Valve Loop for Throttling service.
6 POSITION INDICATING SWITCHES
For remote, two-position indication of valve stem position, either plunger or

roller actuated switches (see examples in Fig.) can be mounted directly on the
actuator yoke. This indication is limited to two position and is usually
accomplished by having the switch operate red and green indicating lights.
Fig. 5-20. Valve Position Indicator Switches.
7 AIR LOCKS
This device is used for applications that require a control valve to hold its
position in the event that the plant air supply pressure falls below a given
level. One type is shown in Fig. The plant air supply is fed into a chamber
sealed by a spring-opposed diaphragm. In the event that the plant air
decreases to a predetermined lower limit,the spring closes the connection to
the actuator and locks the existing controller-signal pressure in the line
connecting the valve operator.
Lesson 5 Page 16
Fig. 5-21. Air Lock
8 ELECTROPNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS
Electropneumatic transducers convert the electrical output signals which may

be used to operate diaphragm control valves. They may be either current-to-
pressure (I/P) transducers, or voltage-to-pressure (E/P) transducers. A typical
(I/P) transducer is schematically shown in Fig. The input current is applied to
the magnet unit coil. The combined action of the input current and the
magnetic field of the permanent magnets creates a force which is applied to
the beam through the strap connecting it to the magnet unit. The beam,
which is pivoted at one end, is deflected by this force.
In operation, an increase in input current pivots the magnet coil clockwise

pulling up the strap and moving the beam closer to the nozzle. this increases
the nozzle pressure transmitted to the pilot valve and, therefore, increases the
output pressure from the pilot valve to both the output line and the rebalancing
bellows. At the bellows, the increased out put pressure is changed into a
balancing force which is applied to the beam to counteract the unbalanced
force applied by the magnet unit, thus rebalancing the beam. Zero
adjustment is obtained by applying a zeroing force to the beam through the
zero spring.
Lesson 5 Page 17
Fig. 5-22. Schematic Diagram of an Electro pneumatic
Lesson 5 Page 18
Final Control Elements Control Valve Maintenance &Application
LESSON
CONTROL VALVE MAINTENANCE &
6 APPLICATION
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to: Understand the
Control Valve Maintenance.
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL VALVE MAINTENANCE
Control valve maintenance is generally divided into two categories. The first
is preventive maintenance, which involves the installation precautions taken
and the in line follow-up of the valve's performance and environmental
deterioration while in service. The second is the overhaul of a control valve
when it is no longer able to perform satisfactorily.
1.1 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance is a term used to identify a program of scheduled

overhaul, prior to failure. The schedule is usually based on previous
knowledge of performance in a given service and is such, that a maximum
safe in time is established to minimum the chance of unexpected breakdown.
Repair effected under such a program for control valves is a shop overhaul.
Preventive Maintenance is being used here to describe the work, which
should be done during installation and operation to prevent the untimely
breakdown of a control valve, ahead of schedule.
1.2 CONTROL VALVE ACTUATOR
1.2.1 VALVE WITH DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
Periodic Inspection
1. Check that there is no air leakage from the pipeline or the diaphragm
actuator.
2. Check that there is no air leakage from the packing.
3. Check that there are no flaws or scratches on the plug stem.
4. Check that the valve operates smoothly under air pressure. Perform
the above mentioned inspections periodically.
Lesson 6 Page 1
Lesson 6 Page 2
2 CURRENT-TO-PNEUMATIC CONVERTER
2.1 HANDLING PRECAUTIONS
1. Shock is detrimental to the instrument, especially to the performance of

torque motor assembly. Be careful not to give shock to the instrument.
2. Read carefully Precautions A0002-E when using intrinsically safe
instruments, and Precautions B0002-E when using flameproof
instruments.
3. Instrument to be used for reverse action. The instrument is usually
used in direct action (when input current increases, output air pressure
also increases.) However, it is sometimes used in reverse action
(when input current increases, output air pressure decreases) for the
process reasons. In such case, the instrument terminal board and
torque motor assembly are labeled REVERSE and REVERSE
ACTION, respectively See Fig. 6-1.
Fig. 6-1. Model 5503 (PK) Current-to-Pneumatic Converter with Cover

Removed.
Lesson 6 Page 3
2.2 GENERAL
Current-to-Pneumatic Converters convert current signal of 4 to 20 Ma DC into

pneumatic signal of 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2 or 0.4 to 2.0 kg/cm2 respectively. They
are installed on site and used to operate pneumatic control valves. Fig. 6-2 is
an external view of the instrument.
Fig. 6-2. Component Names - B.
Fig. 6-3. Typical Connection Diagram for General Use Type and Flameproof
Type Instruments.
Lesson 6 Page 4
2.3 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Fig. 6-4. Operating Principle Diagram.
When current input signal is sent to torque motor of the instrument from
controller, current flows in force coil and generates a torque to move moving
bar. At equilibrium, the moving bar and the bellows balance with each other.
When the current in the force coil increases, the moving bar moves down
wards and closes an air nozzle. Then the nozzle back-pressure increases
and pushes control relay diaphragm downwards which closes relay valve and
increases output air pressure. This output air pressure is supplied to external
instruments and at the same time it enters the feedback bellows to balance
again with the moving bar. As such, output air pressure is always proportional
to current input signal received from controller.
Lesson 6 Page 5
Fig. 6-5. Balanced Type
1. Director Acting Type (DA)

The valve opens with a decrease in air pressure and closes with an
increase in air pressure.
2. Reverse Acting Type (RA)
The valve closes with a decrease in air pressure and opens with an
increase in air pressure.
INSTALLATION
1. Before installing the valve on the pipeline, remove dust, oil, grease,
welding chips and any other foreign matter from the interior of the
pipeline and clean inside the pipeline thoroughly. Such foreign matter
may cause leakage - due to poor contact between the plug and the
seat ring - and affect normal operation of the valve.
2. When servicing or repairing the valve, it may be necessary to remove
the valve from the body. Therefore, at installation time, allow sufficient
space above the actuator.
3. Install the valve so that the actuator is vertical. It makes maintenance
work easier. Avoid installing it horizontally or upside down: you may
have to remove the whole valve from the pipeline for maintenance.
Normal size (inch) Minimum space (mm)
3/4, 1 100
1-1/2, 2 150
2-1/2, 3 200
Lesson 6 Page 6
Fig. 6-6. Unbalanced Type
Lesson 6 Page 7
Fig. 6-7. Balanced Type
Lesson 6 Page 8
2.4 DISASSEMBLY, REASSEMBLY, ADJUSTMENT
2.4.1 DISASSEMBLY
To disassemble the valve for inspection and repair, proceed as follows.
1. Loosen the lock nut. In case diaphragm rod clamp is attached, loosen
the hexagonal bolt locking the clamp. Remove the plug from the
diaphragm rod by turning the plug (03). If the valve is a direct acting
type (valve opens with a decrease in air pressure), stop the supply of
air pressure to the actuator and if it is a reverse acting type (valve
closes with a decrease in air pressure), supply about half of the
operating air pressure to the actuator so that the plug (03) is separated
from the seat ring (04) and then turn the plug (03). Avoid turning the
plug with the plug and seat ring in contact: this may damage the seat
surface and cause leakage.
Fig. 6-8.
2. Lift off the actuator by removing the yoke nut and separating the
actuator from the body.
3. To disassemble the body, take off the nut (20) locking the body (01)
and the bonnet (02).
4. Take the bonnet (02) from the body. For an unbalanced type valve, the
seat retainer (05) may be removed along with the plug (03), then drop
off the plug.
For a balanced type valve, the P/B sleeve (06) may be removed with
the plug then drop off the plug back into the valve. This may injure the
Lesson 6 Page 9
worker or damage parts, so care is necessary in removing the bonnet

from the body.
5. Remove the seat ring (04) and seat gasket (11) from the body (01).
Remove the bonnet gasket (10), too.
6. Take off the nut (22) and remove the gland flange (18) and upper guide
(09) from the bonnet (02). Next, if the plug (03), seat retainer (05) or
P/B sleeve (06) are attached to the bonnet, remove them from the
bonnet.
7. When you separate the plug from the seat retainer (for the unbalanced
type valve) or separate the plug from the P/B sleeve, take care not to
damage the seal ring (07) and P/B sleeve.
8. Remove the packing (16), lantern ring (14) and lower guide (08) from
the packing box of the bonnet.
9. Wipe each part with a dry cloth. If grease or fluid is on the surface of
the part, wash it off completely with solvent, then blow clean air over
the parts.
2.4.2 REASSEMBLY (FOR UNBALANCED TYPE VALVE)
1. Insert a new seat gasket (11).

2. Mount the seat ring (04) and plug (03)
3. Mount the seat retainer (05).
4. Mount the bonnet gasket (10)
5. Mount the bonnet (02)
6. Tighten the nut (20) by hand. Do not use a tool here. It is tightened
securely after connecting the valve to the actuator.
7. Mount the lower guide (08), spacer (15), four pieces of packing (16),
upper guide (09) and gland flange (18) in this order and then tighten
with locking nut (22). (When using Teflon V Ring see Fig. 6-3).
2.4.3 REASSEMBLY (FOR BALANCED TYPE VALVE)
1. Insert a new seat gasket (11).

2. Mount the seat ring (04).
3. Put the seal ring (07) into the plug (03), and put the P/B sleeve (06)
into the plug. Thereafter, put the plug and P/B sleeve into the body.
Notes:
a. If an O-ring and Teflon combination is used as seal ring, mount the O-

ring on the groove first. Immerse the Teflon in hot water for several
minutes and put the Teflon on the O-ring while expanding it or mount it
with a jig.
b. If a carbon or graphite seal ring is used:
To replace with a new one, follow the procedure below; Hold the seal
ring lightly with a Latche, rub its outside diameter slowly with fine grade
and paper (over 320#) so that it may enter the P/B sleeve, leaving no
clearance between its outside and the inside of the sleeve.
Lesson 6 Page 10
(Take care not to reduce its outside diameter too much). When this
adjustment has been made, fix it on the vide and after cutting, mount it
on the plug, setting the section to the plug.
Fig. -6-9.
4. Mount the P/B gasket (12) and bonnet gasket (10).

5. Mount the bonnet (02).
6. Tighten the nut (20) by hand. Do not tighten with a tool as it is
tightened securely after connecting the valve with the actuator.
7. Mount the lower guide (08), spacer (15), four pieces of packing (16),
Lantern ring (14), four pieces of packing (16), upper guide (09) and
gland flange in this order, and tighten with nut (22). (When using a
Teflon V Ring see Fig.
Precautions for Reassembly (with Yarn packing)
a. In charging the gland packing, tighten them after adding each ring.
b. Insert the gland packing so that their joints may be deviated by 120
respectively.
c. Tighten the gland packing evenly.
d. The upper guide (09) has V grooves. Tighten so that the upper surface
of the bonnet comes at the same position as the V grooves.
Fig. 6-10.
Lesson 6 Page 11
2.4.4 ADJUSTMENT (FOR VALVE WITH DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR)
1. Connection for direct acting type.
Stop the supply of air pressure to the actuator, thrust the plug (03) into the
diaphragm rod and tighten with yoke nut. Next, supply air pressure to the
actuator to bring the plug into contact with the seat ring. Turn the nut (20)
about 1/6 turn with air pressure applied to the actuator. Fully tighten all outs
after purging the air pressure in the actuator. Next, supply air pressure
gradually, holding the indicator at such a position as to indicate "OPEN" and
thrust in the plug (03) so that the indicator stops at the position "SHUT".
When this adjustment has been made, tighten the locking nut. If a diaphragm
rod clamp is attached, tighten the clamp locking bolt, too.
2. Connection for reverse acting type.
Supply air pressure to the actuator, thrust the plug (03) into the diaphragm rod
and tighten with yoke nut. Next, purge the air pressure in the actuator to bring
the plug into contact with the seat ring. Then, tighten the nut (20) about 1/6
turn. Fully tighten all nuts evenly after supplying air pressure to the actuator.
Hold the indicator at such a position as to indicate "OPEN" with air pressure
applied, and then, purge air pressure gradually and thrust in the plug so that
the indicator stops at the position "SHUT". When this adjustment has been
made, tighten the locking nut. If the diaphragm rod clamp is attached, tighten
the clamp locking bolt, too.
Note: In adjusting the "SHUT" position by thrusting in the plug, keep the plug
off the seat when turning the plug. This also applies when fixing with locking
nut after adjustment.
3.0 DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
3.1 GENERAL
The pneumatic diaphragm actuator converts pneumatic pressure into control

valve operating force by means of a diaphragm and spring, and holds the
control valve opening that corresponds to pneumatic signal pressure. Direct-
acting and reverse-acting types of diaphragm actuators are available. The
diaphragm rod moves downward when pneumatic pressure increases with the
direct-acting type (pneumatic pressure is applied to the top side of the
diaphragm), and the diaphragm rod moves upward with the reverse-acting
type (pneumatic pressure is applied to the lower side of the diaphragm).
Lesson 6 Page 12
3.2 SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal diameter of diaphragm: Φ270 mm, Φ320mm, Φ400mm, Φ500mm
Stroke:
Stroke (mm)
6 12 16 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 110 130
Nominal
Diameter
(mm)
270 o o o o
320 o o o o
400 o o o o o o o
500 o o o o o o o o o o
600 o o o o o o o
Types of action : Direct-acting type, reverse-acting type
Operating pressure : 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2 0.4 to 2.0 kg/cm2

(Operating pressure may be changed
by changing the associated positioner)
Pressure tightness : 3.5 kg/cm2 of actuator.
Type of manual mechanism:
Type of action
and handle Direct-acting type Reverse acting
type
Nominal Top (side)
diameter (mm) Top handle handle type Side hand type Side handle
type type
270 o o
320 o o
400 o o
500 o o
650 o o
Lesson 6 Page 13
Effective area:
Nominal diameter Φ 270 Φ320 Φ400 Φ500 Φ650

(mm)
Effective area (cm2) 270 435 610 1000 2100
Standard operating ambient temperature: -20 to +60C
Fig. 6-11. Fig. 6-12.
Lesson 6 Page 14
3.3 OPERATING PRINCIPLES
3.3.1 DIRECT ACTING ACTUATOR
When signal pressure is applied through air supply port A, this pressure acts
on diaphragm .08, lowering diaphragm plate .04 and diaphragm rod .05 to the
position where the force produced by signal pressure balances the reaction
force of the spring .12. When signal pressure is reduced, diaphragm plate .04
is moved upwards by the force of spring .12 and stops at the position where
the spring force balances the force produced by signal pressure.
3.3.2 REVERSE-ACTING ACTUATOR
When signal pressure is applied through air supply port B, this Pressure acts
on diaphragm .08, lifting diaphragm plate .04 and diaphragm rod .05 to the
position where the force produced by signal pressure balances the reaction
force of the spring .12. When the signal pressure is reduced, diaphragm plate
.04 is lowered by the force of spring .12 and stops at the position where the
spring force balances the force produced by signal pressure.
3.3.3. ADJUSTMENT
Apply 50% signal pressure to the actuator after connecting it to the control
valve, and adjust the adjust screw so that the stroke of the actuator becomes
50% of full stroke. Change the signal pressure to 25%, 75% and 100% and
confirm that the stroke correctly corresponds to the respective pressure level.
Lesson 6 Page 15

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Saline Water Conversion Corporation

2 Calibration Of A Thermocouple Transmitter

3 Calibration Of An Rtd Transmitter

1. Understand the principles of temperature measurement in

Fig. 1-1 The Thermoelectric Circuit.

Vab =  (T1- T2)

TABLE 1-1 Standard Thermocouple Types and Ranges.

Solution: The See beck voltage can be found as follows:

Vab =  (T1 - T2)

1.1 MEASURING THERMOCOUPLE VOLTAGE

Seebeck voltage cannot be measured directly because a voltmeter must first

First connect a digital voltmeter (DVM) across a copper constant (type T)

(Cu) J3 Copper (Cu)

Fig. 1-2 Measuring thermocouple voltage with a DVM.

Since J3 is a copper to copper junction, it creates no thermal voltage (V3 = 0);

The resultant voltmeter reading V will be proportional to the temperature

One way to determine the temperature of J2 is to physically put the junction

Fig. 1-3 External reference junction.

Now the voltmeter reading is :

V = (V1 - V2)   (TJ1 - TJ2)

The copper constant thermocouple shown in Fig. 1-3 is a unique example

If an iron constant thermocouple (type J) is used instead of the copper

Fig. 1-4 Iron constant thermocouple.

Fig. 1-5 Using Isothermal blocks.

Fig. 1-6 Eliminating ice bath using isothermal block.

This is still a complicated circuit, because two thermocouples have to be

Fig. 1-7 Joining the isothermal blocks.

Metal 1 Metal 2 Metal 3 Metal 1 Metal 2

Fig. 1-8 Law of intermediate metals.

Fig. 1-9 Equivalent circuit.

A thermistor, whose resistance Rt is a function of temperature, provides us

Block Temp. = T ref

Fig. 1-10 External reference junction no ice bath.

Using a digital voltmeter under computer control, we simply:

 Measure Rt to find Tref and convert Tref to its equivalent reference

This procedure is known as "software compensation" because it relies upon

In short, thermocouples are the most versatile temperature transducers

1.2 THERMOCOUPLE POCKETS

1. To enable sensing elements to be checked or replaced with the plant in

1. Any temperature differential between boundary walls and the fluid.

1.3 FAST RESPONSE POCKET

As no pocket with a sufficiently fast response was being offered by the

Fig. 1-11 Design details of

1.4 TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES USED

Mineral insulated metal sheathed thermocouples are used for permanent

Metal temperature measurement in boiler tubes, and methods of attachment.

Fig. 1-12 Metal tube measurement-Chordal hole design

Fig. 1-13 Metal tube measurement-Chordal hole design.

The longitudinal groove design is shown in Fig.1-14, where a pad is built up

Fig. 1-14 Metal tube measurement-logitudinal groove design.

The circumferential groove design exists in two forms:

2 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD

Resistance thermometers or resistance temperature elements have been

The electrical resistance of a conductor changes as its temperature varies.

For most conductors, this coefficient is positive; i.e., resistance in-creases as

Commonly used resistance materials include platinum, nickel, copper, nickel-

The change in resistance is a function of the temperature coefficient of

R = resistance, in ohms, at temperature T.

2.1 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER MEASURING METHODS.

Fig. 1-16 Two-lead measuring circuit.

Fig. 1-17 Three-lead measuring circuit.

If a = b (lead resistance equal) Then R3 = X

1. Calibrate a Thermocouple Transmitter to a specified

Advanced Temperature measurement & Control Valves Volume -4

Advanced Temperature measurement & Control Valves Volume -4