infrastructures
Article
Cracking Resistance of Steam-Cured Precast Concrete Using
High Alite Cement with Modified Fly Ash
Aghiad Alhafez 1, *, Shingo Miyazawa 2, *, Nobukazu Nito 3 , Ryuichiroh Kuga 4 and Etsuo Sakai 5
Citation: Alhafez, A.; Miyazawa, S.;
Nito, N.; Kuga, R.; Sakai, E. Cracking
Resistance of Steam-Cured Precast
Concrete Using High Alite Cement
with Modified Fly Ash. Infrastructures
2023, 8, 154. https://doi.org/
10.3390/infrastructures8100154
Academic Editor: Hong Wong
Received: 19 September 2023
Revised: 13 October 2023
Accepted: 16 October 2023
Published: 23 October 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures8100154
1 Graduate School of Engineering, Ashikaga University, Ashikaga 326-8558, Japan
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Ashikaga University, Ashikaga 326-8558, Japan
3 Technical Department, DC Co., Ltd., Kawasaki 210-0854, Japan; nito_nobukazu@dccorp.jp
4 Central Research Laboratory, Taiheiyo Cement Corporation, Sakura 285-8655, Japan;
ryuichiroh_kuga@taiheiyo-cement.co.jp
5 Tokyo Institute of Technology (Professor Emeritus), Tokyo 152-8552, Japan; etsusaka.honjo@gmail.com
* Correspondence: aghiad979@hotmail.com (A.A.); miyazawa.shingo@g.ashikaga.ac.jp (S.M.)
Abstract: Cement with fly ash has rarely been used in Japan, mainly because its strength development
is slower than ordinary Portland cement. In this research, the effect of the new type of fly ash (which
was modified by the electrostatic belt separation method) with high alite (C3 S) cement on cracking
resistance of precast concrete prepared by steam curing was studied. The mechanical and shrinkage
properties of the proposed fly ash concrete were compared with those of concrete made using OPC
cement without fly ash. In order to study the cracking tendency of precast concrete with the proposed
cement with fly ash, thermal stress analysis was conducted, taking into consideration the experimental
data of concrete properties with the different concrete mix proportions. A standard precast concrete
box culvert model was used in this 3D FEM analysis, and the distribution of temperature and
relative humidity in the cross-section and induced restraint stress during and after steam curing were
discussed. Steam-cured concrete with fly ash and high alite cement developed higher compressive
strength on the first day of age than concrete with OPC. The proposed fly ash concrete developed
high cracking resistance in the early days. On the other hand, the results showed that the drying
shrinkage at later ages was the main cause of cracking.
Keywords: fly ash; precast concrete; compressive strength; steam curing; high alite cement; 3D FEM
analysis; drying shrinkage; cracking resistance
1. Introduction
Fly ash is a residual material of energy production that is driven out of the boiler with
the flue gases and has numerous advantages for use in concrete [1]. Due to rising landfill
costs and increased interest in sustainable development, recycling fly ash has become a
severe problem in recent years—it is one of the primary sources of carbon dioxide emissions
and air pollution on Earth. However, it is nevertheless seen as a green resource, and it is
mainly regarded as eco-friendly when utilized in buildings because it is a recycled material.
Considering that power plants will burn coal and produce fly ash regardless, in that case, it
will be very beneficial to use it to save money and energy in the construction sector.
The use of FA as an admixture at concrete-mixing plants is still rare in Japan. This
is mainly because the strength development of FA cement concrete is slower than that of
OPC concrete. Another reason is that the unburned carbon content in fly ash affects the
properties of concrete and makes quality control very difficult. To solve this problem, a
new modified fly ash with low unburned carbon has been developed using an electrostatic
belt separation method, which is a special technique using the differences in conductivity
between the particles of the minerals to separate them from each other [2,3].
Precast concrete is widely used globally for many kinds of construction. Additionally,
in Japan, in order to cope with the declining birthrate and aging population, the use of
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/infrastructures
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 2 of 18

precast concrete products is increasing year by year because it is effective in labor-saving

construction.
One of the most important points to focus on in any industry is increasing productivity,
and in the precast concrete industry, we need to use the molds as many times as possible in
the shortest time. This means demolding in the shortest possible time; therefore, a suitable
compressive strength must be reached to demold safely. The most common way to improve
the compressive strength of precast concrete at an early age is by using the steam-curing
method [4,5], which influences the physical properties of the concrete. However, using fly
ash will slow down the compressive strength development of the concrete, as mentioned
before. To solve this problem, it is recommended to use high alite (C3 S) cement with
modified fly ash to accelerate the strength development of the concrete [6]. In general, the
main chemical components of OPC are alite (C3 S) and belite (C2 S). Alite’s chemical reaction
is much faster than belite’s; as a result, it is responsible for the early strength of concrete [7].
Supported by the results of a previous study [8], the authors reported that using high alite
cement with fly ash will increase the compressive strength at early ages in cast-in-place
concrete structures.
Controlling concrete cracking, which can appear in precast concrete products at various
ages due to the material’s quasi-brittle nature and limited ability to deform under tensile
stresses [9–11], is one of the critical problems. Concrete shrinkage is frequently blamed
for cracks that may appear sooner or later, and the size of those cracks has an adverse
impact on the durability of the concrete. It has been acknowledged that the correct material
selection, mix proportions, curing conditions, and construction techniques can control
concrete cracking brought on by both temperature change and shrinkage [12].
In this research, the effect of the new fly ash, modified by the electrostatic belt separa-
tion method with high alite (C3 S) cement, on precast concrete prepared by steam curing
was studied. The mechanical and shrinkage properties of the proposed fly ash concrete
were compared with those of concrete made using ordinary Portland cement without fly
ash. In order to study the cracking tendency of precast concrete with the proposed cement
with fly ash, thermal stress analysis was conducted, taking into consideration the experi-
mental data of concrete properties with the different concrete mix proportions. A standard
precast concrete box culvert model was used in this 3D FEM analysis, and temperature
distribution in the cross-section and induced restraint stress during and after steam curing
were discussed.

2. Materials and Mix Proportions

Table 1 shows the physical and chemical properties of the binder materials, high alite
cement (A), and ordinary Portland cement (OPC (N)), which were used for the experiments
in this study.

Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of cement.

Density Blaine Fineness f.CaO Mineral Composition (%)

Name
(g/cm3 ) (cm2 /g) (%) C3 S C2 S C3 A C4 AF
A 3.11 5380 2.1 69.3 2.9 9.4 7.7
N 3.16 3170 0.2 61.6 15.1 8.2 9.1
(A) high alite cement and (N) ordinary Portland cement (OPC).

Ordinary Portland cement is commercially produced and conforms to the Japanese

standard JIS R 5210: 2009—standard specification for Portland cement [13].
The Blaine fineness is higher and the amount of free calcium oxide (f.CaO) and alite
(C3 S) in the high alite cement (A) are larger than those in conventional ordinary Portland
cement (N); however, the production process in the cement factories for both is almost
the same regarding the raw materials, kiln temperature, and power consumption for raw
materials’ treatment [8]. For that reason, it can be said, from the environmental viewpoint,
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 3 of 18

that the emission of CO2 by using fly ash with high alite cement is less than when producing
OPC.
Table 2 shows the physical and chemical properties of the fly ash used for experiments
in this study. FA-1 is the raw material for FA-2. FA-2 is modified fly ash from which
unburnt carbon is removed from FA-1 by the electrostatic belt separation method. FA
in Table 2, which is also modified fly ash prepared by the same method, was used for
the experiments indicated in the following sections. As shown in the table, the ignition
loss and methylene blue adsorption of FA-2 and FA are much lower than that of FA-1,
suggesting that unburnt carbon is effectively removed. It can also be said from Table 2
that the strength activity index of FA-2 is higher than that of FA-1 and that the reactivity of
fly ash is improved by the treatment using the electrostatic belt separation method. The
samples of fly ash are by-products from a coal-fired power plant and can be categorized to
Class F fly ash specified by ASTM C618-05 [14]. The properties of these samples conform to
the requirements of fly ash Class II specified by JIS A 6201 [6], except that the ignition loss
of FA-1 is higher than the upper limit of 5.0%. The Blaine fineness values of the samples,
which are controlled by using an air separator, are equivalent to those of commonly used
fly ash for concrete in Japan.

Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of fly ash.

Blaine Strength Activity Index (%)

Density SiO2 Ig. Loss Flow Percent Methylene Blue
Name Fineness
(g/cm3 ) (%) (%) of Control (%) Adsorption (mg/g)
(cm2 /g) 7 Days 28 Days 91 Days
FA-1 2.24 3900 59.7 5.2 101 1.96 74 82 92
FA-2 2.25 4030 63.9 0.8 106 0.53 78 85 97
FA 2.19 3490 65.3 0.9 106 0.33 74 84 99

Table 3 shows the four mix proportions of concrete used in the experiments. The fly ash
referred to as “FA” in Table 2 was used for these concrete mixtures, but FA-1 and FA-2 were
not used for the concrete experiments. An air-entraining agent (AE) and superplasticizer
(SP) were used to introduce entrained air and improve the workability. The target slump
and air content for the experiments were 12 ± 2.5 cm and 4.5 ± 1.0%, respectively. The
replacement ratio of the fly ash in the cement was taken to be 18%.

Table 3. Mix proportions of concrete.

W/B s/a Amounts of Contents (kg/m3 ) Chemical Admixture (B X%)

Proportion
(%) (%) Water N A FA S G SP AE303 AE785
N 45% 45 160 356 ... ... 795 993 0.8 0.001 ...
45
A + FA 45% 45 160 ... 292 64 783 977 0.75 ... 0.03
N 33% 43 160 485 ... ... 715 967 0.88 0.0015 ...
33
A + FA 33% 43 160 ... 398 87 699 946 0.8 ... 0.035
(W) Water, (B) binder, (S) sand, (G) coarse aggregates, and (a) volume of aggregate.

The coarse aggregate used in this study was crushed sandstone obtained from Kuzu
region in Japan, while river sand obtained from Kinugawa River in Japan was used as the
fine aggregate. Table 4 shows the physical properties of the aggregates that were used in
this study.
 (mm) (g/cm ) (%) Modulus

Coarse aggregates Sandstone from

20 2.62 0.76 …
(a) Kuzu region
Fine aggregates River sand from
… 2.60 2.11 2.75
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 (sand) Kinugawa River 4 of 18

3. Experimental Procedures
Table
3.1. 4. Physical properties
Compressive of the
Strength and aggregates.
Modulus of Elasticity
For the compressive strength tests, cylindrical concrete specimens of 100 mm in di-
Maximum Size Density Absorption Fineness
Aggregates ameter Provenance
and 200 mm in height were(mm) cast according to JIS3A1108: 2006—method of test for
(g/cm ) (%) Modulus
compressive strength of concrete [15], and ASTM C39/C39M-18: 2018—standard test
Coarse aggregates (a) Sandstone from Kuzu region 20 2.62 0.76 ...
method for compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens [16].
Fine aggregates (sand) River sandAfter
from Kinugawa
casting, theRiver
specimens for.steam
.. curing were 2.60 2.11 2.75
stored in a temperature-controlled
room at 20 °C and 80% R.H. After 2 h of casting time, the specimens for 1, 14, and 91 days
of the compressive
3. Experimental strength test were subjected to steam curing. The temperature gradu-
Procedures
ally increased during
3.1. Compressive Strength 2 hand
andModulus
15 min, ofupElasticity
to 65 °C as a stable maximum temperature for 3
h, and For the compressive strength tests,experiments
the target temperature used in the was similar
cylindrical concrete to steam of
specimens curing
100 inmm gen-
in
eral precast concrete factories. The temperature gradually reduced
diameter and 200 mm in height were cast according to JIS A1108: 2006—method of test during 10 h to stable
at
for20compressive
°C for 6 h and 45 min,
strength ofthe total time
concrete [15],for the
and steam-curing
ASTM procedure
C39/C39M-18: was 24 h. Figure
2018—standard test
1method
shows for the compressive
general temperature regime for a typical steam-curing
strength of cylindrical concrete specimens [16]. profile.
After steam curing,
After casting, the specimens
the specimens for steam were demolded
curing after in
were stored 24a htemperature-controlled
and the compressive
strength
room at 20 wasCmeasured.
◦ and 80% R.H. Then, the 2steam-cured
After h of casting specimens were subjected
time, the specimens to drying
for 1, 14, and 91 dayscon-
ditions in a temperature-controlled
of the compressive strength test wereroom at 20to
subjected °Csteam
and 60% R.H.
curing. Theto temperature
observe the compres-
gradually
sive strength
increased at 142and
during 15 min, up to 65 ◦ C as a stable maximum temperature for 3 h,
91 days.
h and
and theThetarget
othertemperature
cylinder specimens were
used in the stored in water
experiments at 20 °C
was similar toto observe
steam 7, 28,
curing and 91
in general
precast concrete factories. The temperature gradually reduced during 10 h to stable at 20 ◦ C
days of compressive strength under standard conditions.
for 6 The
h andmodulus
45 min, of
theelasticity
total timeoffor
thetheconcrete was also
steam-curing measured
procedure was on24the
h. cylinder speci-
Figure 1 shows
mens used for
the general the compressive
temperature regimestrength tests.steam-curing profile.
for a typical

Steam-curing temperature
Figure 1. Steam-curing temperature history.

After steam curing, the specimens were demolded after 24 h and the compressive
strength was measured. Then, the steam-cured specimens were subjected to drying condi-
tions in a temperature-controlled room at 20 ◦ C and 60% R.H. to observe the compressive
strength at 14 and 91 days.
The other cylinder specimens were stored in water at 20 ◦ C to observe 7, 28, and
91 days of compressive strength under standard conditions.
The modulus of elasticity of the concrete was also measured on the cylinder specimens
used for the compressive strength tests.

3.2. Autogenous and Drying Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage, identified as microscopic shrinkage, happens in concrete after
the initial setting because of cement hydration [17]. Concrete has drying shrinkage as a
result of the different levels of moisture inside and outside the concrete [18]. Embedded
strain gauges connected to a data logger were positioned in the center of beam concrete

Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154
ter the initial setting because of cement hydration [17]. Concrete has drying shrinkage as
a result of the different levels of moisture inside and outside the concrete [18]. Embedded
strain gauges connected to a data logger were positioned in the center of beam concrete
specimens sized 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm, and they were used to measure concrete
strain and temperature during the experiments. Figure 2 shows the cross and side sections 5 of 18
in the mold. Immediately after casting, the specimens were stored in a temperature-con-
trolled room at 20 °C and 80% R.H. Then, after 2 h, they were subjected to the steam-curing
protocol, as shown in Figure 1. All specimens were demolded after 24 h. The accelerated
specimens sized 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm, and they were used to measure concrete
cured specimens were then subjected to drying conditions in a temperature-controlled
strain and temperature during the experiments. Figure 2 shows the cross and side sections
room at 20 °C and 60% R.H. The strain and temperature were measured in all specimens
in the mold. Immediately after casting, the specimens were stored in a temperature-
up to 230 days.
controlled room at 20 ◦ C and 80% R.H. Then, after 2 h, they were subjected to the steam-
The initial setting time, which is defined by the JCI committee [19] as the starting
curing protocol, as shown in Figure 1. All specimens were demolded after 24 h. The
point of autogenous
accelerated shrinkage,
cured specimens wasthen
were 3.5 hsubjected
after casting. The concrete’s
to drying conditionsthermal expansion
in a temperature-
coefficient was assumed to be 10 × 10 −6/°C in accordance with JCI (2016) [20], and autoge-
controlled room at 20 ◦ C and 60% R.H. The strain and temperature were measured in all
nous shrinkage
specimens up towas
230 determined
days. by subtracting the thermal strain from the total strain.

Figure 2.
Figure Steel mold
2. Steel mold for
for the
the concrete
concrete specimen
specimen with
with aa strain
strain gauge
gauge in
in the
the center.
center.

The initial setting time, which is defined by the JCI committee [19] as the starting point
3.3. Adiabatic Temperature Rise
of autogenous shrinkage, was 3.5 h after casting. The concrete’s thermal expansion coeffi-
cientTowascharacterize
assumed tothe be adiabatic
10 × 10−6temperature rise properties
/◦ C in accordance of concrete
with JCI (2016) for mix
[20], and propor-
autogenous
tions (A + FA), an adiabatic temperature rise test was conducted
shrinkage was determined by subtracting the thermal strain from the total strain.using an adiabatic tem-
perature rise testing machine that used air and water circulation to control the tempera-
3.3. Adiabatic
ture inside the Temperature
chamber. RiseConcrete was cast in a mold with a diameter of 400 mm and a
heightToofcharacterize
400 mm andthe wasadiabatic
put in the temperature-controlled
temperature rise propertieschamber, then an
of concrete forautomatic
mix pro-
controller was used to control the air temperature in the chamber to
portions (A + FA), an adiabatic temperature rise test was conducted using an adiabaticbe the same as the
temperature riseinside the concrete specimen during the same time. As the temperature
testing machine that used air and water circulation to control the temper- of
the
aturetested concrete
inside rises, the
the chamber. air temperature
Concrete was castinside the chamber
in a mold continues
with a diameter of to rise,
400 mm andandthea
temperature
height of 400of mmtheand
water
wascirculating
put in the inside the chamber also chamber,
temperature-controlled rises following
then an the air tem-
automatic
perature
controllerinside the chamber.
was used to controlThe
thetemperature of thein
air temperature central portion of
the chamber to concrete
be the same was meas-
as the
ured for two weeks
temperature inside using copper-constantan
the concrete thermocouples.
specimen during the same time. As the temperature of
the tested concrete rises, the air temperature inside the chamber continues to rise, and
3.4. Thermal StressofAnalysis
the temperature the waterUsing Three-Dimensional
circulating inside theFinite Element
chamber alsoMethod (3D FEM)the air
rises following
temperature
During theinside the chamber.
cement hydrationThe temperature
process at an earlyof the centralage,
concrete portion
thermalof concrete
crackingwas oc-
measured for two weeks using copper-constantan thermocouples.
curs due to restrained temperature deformations caused by excessive temperature differ-
ences within a massive concrete member of the structure or outer restraint from other
3.4. Thermal Stress Analysis Using Three-Dimensional Finite Element Method (3D FEM)
attached structural members [21]. This thermal difference generates tensile stresses in con-
crete.During the cement
As a rule, when hydration process at
external restraint is an early concrete
predominant, age, thermal
cracks cracking
penetrating occurs
through a
due to restrained temperature deformations caused by excessive temperature differences
within a massive concrete member of the structure or outer restraint from other attached
structural members [21]. This thermal difference generates tensile stresses in concrete.
As a rule, when external restraint is predominant, cracks penetrating through a concrete
section (through cracks) are formed [18]. Guidelines for control of the cracking of mass
concrete JCI (2016) highlight some other factors that lead to thermal cracking in concrete
structures, including volume change due to the heat of cement hydration, autogenous
shrinkage, and combined effects of the type of structure, boundary conditions, materials,
mixture proportions, construction method, weather conditions, etc. The above factors are
prominent in mass concrete structures. However, in thin concrete members, the effects of
 Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 6 of 18

the heat of cement hydration are low due to the insignificant temperature gradients that
enable easy and uniform heat dissipation into the surrounding areas.
The JCI guidelines provide an indication of concrete behavior, used as an index
of cracking probability—the thermal cracking index—which is the percentage of tensile
strength from the maximum principal stresses. The chance of cracking is higher when the
thermal cracking index is low. When the cracking index value is 1.0, the probability of
cracking is 50%, and when it decreases to be less than 0.6, the cracking probability will
increase to be 100%. Equation (1) was used to calculate the thermal cracking index [20]:

f t (te )
Icr = (1)
σmax (te )

Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154
where Icr: thermal cracking index, ft(te): splitting tensile strength (N/mm2 ), σmax(te):
maximum principal stress (N/mm2 ), and te: temperature-adjusted age (day).
In this study, the thermal cracking index, Icr, includes the influence of thermal, autoge-
nous, and drying shrinkage in different ratios; regarding that, herein, it will be referred to
as the cracking index.
In this study, thermal analysis and thermal stress analysis were conducted by 3D FEM
for a precast concrete product for the mix proportions (N 45%) and (A + FA 45%) using
the modified fly ash cement proposed in this study, which is subjected to steam curing
(which is shown in Figure 1) and then to air-curing conditions for 6 months (at 20 ◦ C and
60% R.H.).
For FEM analysis, a precast concrete model similar to a standard precast box culvert
was selected from JIS A 5372-2016—precast reinforced concrete products [22]. Figure 3
shows the actual design of a culvert box and quarter portion for numerical analysis. A
computer program of thermal stress analysis for mass concrete structures (JCMAC-3)
proposed by JCI, which is a 3D finite element method (FEM) simulation tool, was used. In
order to simulate the time-dependent distributions of temperature and relative humidity
in a concrete member, the transient heat transfer and moisture transfer analyses based
on diffusion equations were carried out by 3D FEM analysis. In thermal stress analyses,
autogenous shrinkage strain was added to thermal strain, and linear elastic analyses were
carried out, in which stress relaxation due to creep of concrete was taken into account by
using the reduction coefficient of elastic modulus, ϕ(te), as shown below. This method7 of 18 is
proposed by JCI guidelines.

Figure 3. The
Figure actual
3. The dimensions
actual of the
dimensions of box culvert
the box and quarter
culvert portion.
and quarter Drawing
portion. not to not
Drawing scaleto(di-
scale
mensions in millimeters).
(dimensions in millimeters).

In Dr.
theIshikawa proposed
FEM analysis, a drying
the real shrinkage
properties of themodel using
concrete, the capillary
which tensionastheory
were obtained ex-
for the pore size distribution of the hardened cement paste to calculate the
perimental results, such as adiabatic temperature rise, compressive strength, modulus drying shrinkage
of
strain of autogenous
elasticity, the unrestrained
and concrete element from
drying shrinkage, anditscasting
relativetemperature,
humidity [23]. In that
were model,
used. The a
coefficient
splitting to consider
tensile strength the
wasinfluence
calculated ofutilizing
the materials used and
compressive the concrete
strength mixconstants,
data and proportion
as specified in the JCI guidelines for Equation (2) [20]:

𝑓𝑡 (𝑡𝑒 ) = 𝐶1 × 𝑓 ′ 𝐶 (𝑡𝑒 )𝐶2 (2)

where ft(te): the splitting tensile strength of concrete at (te) (N/mm2), fc(te): the compressive
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 7 of 18

on drying shrinkage was introduced. In this study, the value of the coefficient for (N 45%)
was determined so that the calculated restraint stress coincided with the observation of the
stress release method, where the restraint stress of a concrete specimen dried for one month
was measured by measuring the elastic deformation caused by cutting off a part of the
specimen [24]. The drying shrinkage strain of the concrete specimens was also measured,
and the coefficient for mix proportion (A + FA 45%) was decided as the coefficient for mix
proportion (N 45%) multiplied by the ratio of the drying strain of (A + FA 45%) to that of
(N 45%).
In the FEM analysis, the real properties of the concrete, which were obtained as
experimental results, such as adiabatic temperature rise, compressive strength, modulus
of elasticity, autogenous and drying shrinkage, and casting temperature, were used. The
splitting tensile strength was calculated utilizing compressive strength data and constants,
as specified in the JCI guidelines for Equation (2) [20]:

f t (te ) = C1 × f 0 C (te )C2 (2)

where ft(te): the splitting tensile strength of concrete at (te) (N/mm2 ), fc(te): the compressive
strength of concrete at (te) (N/mm2 ), and te: temperature-adjusted age (days), C1 = 0.13
and C2 = 0.85.
Some other properties were also obtained from the JCI guidelines [20], such as specific
heat (1.15 J/g ◦ C) and the coefficient of thermal conductivity (2.7 w/m ◦ C). Poisson’s ratio
was 0.23, and the creep of concrete’s influence was evaluated using the effective modulus
of elasticity, which was obtained by multiplying the modulus of elasticity by a reduction
coefficient using Equation (3):

Ee (te ) = ϕ(te ) × EC (te ) (3)

where Ee(te): the effective modulus of elasticity of concrete at (te), ϕ(te): the reduction
coefficient for the modulus of elasticity due to creep, and Ec (te): the modulus of elasticity
of concrete at (te).
At the early age during the hardening process until reaching the maximum tempera-
ture, the reduction constant, ϕ(te), was taken to be 0.42, and then it increased during one
day of reaching the maximum temperature to be 0.65, as a stable value for the later ages, as
recommended by the JCI guidelines [20].
For Equations (1)–(3), the temperature-adjusted age (te) can be calculated using
Equation (4), provided by JCI [20]:
 
n 4000
te = ∑i=1 ∆ti × exp 13.65 − (4)
273 + T (∆ti )/T0

where ∆ti : the period of constant temperature continuing in concrete (day), T(∆ti ): the
concrete temperature for ∆ti (◦ C), and T0 is 1 ◦ C.
As previously mentioned, the FEM stress analyses were conducted according to the
procedures proposed by the JCI guidelines, including mesh generation and the material
properties model. The cracking index (Equation (1)), which was calculated in accordance
with the JCI guidelines, had good correlation with the cracking probability obtained from
the observations for more than 728 actual mass concrete members. This can be said to
demonstrate the validity of the analysis results.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Properties of Concrete
4.1.1. Fresh Properties
Table 5 shows the results of the fresh concrete tests conducted on all mix proportions
to determine their suitability for casting and compaction, including the concrete slump,
temperature, and air content.
 4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Properties of Concrete
4.1.1. Fresh Properties
Table 5 shows the results of the fresh concrete tests conducted on all mix proportions
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 8 of 18
to determine their suitability for casting and compaction, including the concrete slump,
temperature, and air content.
The concrete casting temperatures were used as one of the input parameters in the
Table
3D FEM5. Fresh properties
thermal stressof concrete.
analysis.

W/Bof concrete. Fresh Properties

Table 5. Fresh properties
Proportion
(%) Slump (cm) Air Content (%) Temperature at Casting (◦ C)
Fresh Properties
N 45% W/B 12.2 5.4 18.0
Proportion
A + FA 45%
45
11.4 (cm) 5.2 Temperature
18.5 at
(%) Slump Air Content (%)
Casting (°C)
N 33% 13.1 4.7 18.5
N 45% 33 12.2 5.4
A + FA 33% 45 11.6 4.3 18.0 18.0
(A) A + FA
high alite45% 11.4
cement, (N) ordinary Portland cement (OPC), and (FA) fly5.2
ash. 18.5
N 33% 13.1 4.7 18.5
33
A The
+ FAconcrete
33% casting temperatures 11.6 were used as one of 4.3the input parameters
18.0
in the 3D
(A)
FEM high alite cement,
thermal stress (N) ordinary Portland cement (OPC), and (FA) fly ash.
analysis.

4.1.2. Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity

Figure 44 shows
showsthe thetemperatures
temperatures of of
thethe specimens
specimens during
during the curing
the curing time.time. Two
Two spec-
specimens
imens (N-1(N-1
and and
N-2)N-2) for concrete
for concrete withwith
(N) (N)
andand
twotwo specimens
specimens (A +(A + FA-1
FA-1 andand
A +A + FA-2)
FA-2) for
for concrete
concrete withwith
(A +(AFA)
+ FA)
were were tested
tested for for
eacheach water-to-cement
water-to-cement ratio.
ratio. TheThe profile
profile is similar
is similar to
to the
the target
target temperature
temperature profile
profile in in
thethe main
main plan
plan in in Figure
Figure 1. 1.

(W/B = 45%) (W/B = 33%)

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Temperature
Temperature history of steam
history of steam curing.
curing.

It can be seen from Figure 5 that steam-cured concrete with fly ash and high alite
cement developed
developed higher
higher compressive
compressive strength
strength at
at one
one day than concrete with ordinary
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 9 of 18
Portland cement. On the other hand, underwater cured concrete with (N) always showed
higher compressive strength than (A + FA).

(Steam and air curing) (Underwater curing)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Compressive
Compressive strength.
strength.

For precast concrete factories, the early strength development of the proposed FA
cement is highly desirable for the early demolding capability. This target was achieved by
steam curing, as shown in Figure 5. However, compressive strength development was
very slow after 14 days of age.
Infrastructures 2023, 8, (Steam
154 and air curing) (Underwater curing) 9 of 18

Figure 5. Compressive strength.

For
For precast
precast concrete
concrete factories,
factories, the
the early
early strength
strength development
development of of the
the proposed
proposed FA FA
cement
cement is is highly
highly desirable
desirable for
for the
the early
early demolding
demolding capability.
capability. This target
target was
was achieved
achieved byby
steam curing, as
steam curing, asshown
shownininFigure
Figure 5. 5. However,
However, compressive
compressive strength
strength development
development was
was very
very
slow slow
after after 14 days
14 days of age.
of age.
In
In general,
general, the
the compressive
compressive strength
strength results after the first day were
were much
much higher
higher with
with
underwater
underwater curing
curing than with steam curing.
Figure 6 shows
Figure showsthe theresults
resultsofofthe
themodulus
modulus ofof
elasticity compared
elasticity compared with thethe
with JCI JCI
model [25]
model
and and
[25] AIJ model
AIJ model[26],[26],
and and
the results werewere
the results veryvery
closeclose
to the
to AIJ
the model. In most
AIJ model. cases,
In most the
cases,
modulus
the modulus of elasticity of mix
of elasticity proportions
of mix proportionswith (N)(N)
with andand(A (A
+ FA) were
+ FA) weresimilar in in
similar relation to
relation
thethe
to compressive
compressive strength
strengthresults.
results.

(Steam and air curing) (Underwater curing)

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Modulus
Modulus of
of elasticity.
elasticity.

4.1.3.
4.1.3. Autogenous
Autogenousand
andDrying
Drying Shrinkage
Shrinkage
Figure
Figure 7 shows
shows thethe strain
strain due
duetotothe
theautogenous
autogenousvolume
volumechange
changeduring
duringsteam
steamcuring.
curing.
It can
It can be
beseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure7 7that
thatmix
mixproportions
proportions with
with (N)
(N) showed
showed higher
higher expansion
expansion at
at an
an early
early ageage
thanthan
mixmix proportions
proportions with with
(A +(AFA).
+ FA).
ThatThat expansion
expansion maymay include
include thermal
thermal ex-
expansion
pansion notnot only
only due
due toto the
the hydration
hydration processbut
process butalso
alsodue
duetotoan
anincrease
increaseininthe
thesurround-
surround-
ing temperature
ing temperaturefor forthe
thesteam-curing
steam-curingprocedure
proceduresince
since the
the thermal
thermal expansion
expansion coefficient
coefficient of
of concrete at a very early age is probably much higher than 10 × 10 −6 /◦ C, which is an
concrete at a very early age is probably much higher than 10 × 10 /°C, which is an assumed
−6

assumed
value value
in this in this
study. It isstudy. It is recommended
recommended to furtherto further
study thestudy
precise the precise estimation
estimation of
of the ther-
the thermal expansion coefficient at
mal expansion coefficient at very early ages. very early ages.
After expansion at the very early age, concrete with a W/B of 33% showed autogenous
shrinkage of around 100 × 10−6 at the age of 24 h, which is larger than concrete with a
W/B of 45%.
The drying shrinkage of concrete after steam curing is also shown in Figure 8. For
concrete with a W/B = 45%, the mix proportion with (N) showed larger drying shrinkage
than that with (A + FA). However, with mix proportions of W/B = 33%, (A + FA) showed
larger drying shrinkage than (N), but the difference was small. These experimental results
were similar to previous reports showing that drying shrinkage of concrete does not change
or only slightly decreases with the addition of fly ash. Additionally, it can be seen that for
the mix proportion (A + FA), the difference in drying shrinkage was very small between
W/B = 33% and W/B = 45%.
Infrastructures 2023,
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8, 154
154 10
10 of 18
of 18

Figure 7. Autogenous shrinkage.

After expansion at the very early age, concrete with a W/B of 33% showed autoge-
nous shrinkage of around 100 × 10−6 at the age of 24 h, which is larger than concrete with
a W/B of 45%.
The drying shrinkage of concrete after steam curing is also shown in Figure 8. For
concrete with a W/B = 45%, the mix proportion with (N) showed larger drying shrinkage
than that with (A + FA). However, with mix proportions of W/B = 33%, (A + FA) showed
larger drying shrinkage than (N), but the difference was small. These experimental results
were similar to previous reports showing that drying shrinkage of concrete does not
change or only slightly decreases with the addition of fly ash. Additionally, it can be seen
that for the mix proportion (A + FA), the difference in drying shrinkage was very small
between
Figure 7. W/B
Figure 7. = 33% and
Autogenous
Autogenous W/B = 45%.
shrinkage.
shrinkage.

After expansion at the very early age, concrete with a W/B of 33% showed autoge-
nous shrinkage of around 100 × 10−6 at the age of 24 h, which is larger than concrete with
a W/B of 45%.
The drying shrinkage of concrete after steam curing is also shown in Figure 8. For
concrete with a W/B = 45%, the mix proportion with (N) showed larger drying shrinkage
than that with (A + FA). However, with mix proportions of W/B = 33%, (A + FA) showed
larger drying shrinkage than (N), but the difference was small. These experimental results
were similar to previous reports showing that drying shrinkage of concrete does not
change or only slightly decreases with the addition of fly ash. Additionally, it can be seen
that for the mix proportion (A + FA), the difference in drying shrinkage was very small
between W/B = 33% and W/B = 45%.

Figure 8. Drying shrinkage.

Figure 8. Drying shrinkage.
4.1.4. Adiabatic Temperature Rise
Figure 9 shows the results of the adiabatic temperature rise test for all mix proportions.
For mix proportions (N 45%) and (N 33%), the ultimate adiabatic temperature rise was
predicted from Equation (5), where Q∞ and other constants that are related to the rate
of temperature rise were also determined as functions of the cement content, casting
temperature, and type of cement, in accordance with the JCI guidelines for control of the
cracking of mass concrete (2016) [20]:
h n
S oi
Q(t) = Q∞ 1 − exp −r AT t − t0,Q AT (5)

where, t: age (day), Q (t): adiabatic temperature rise at t (◦ C), Q∞ : ultimate adiabatic
temperature
Figure 8. Drying (◦ C), rAT , SAT : parameters representing the rate of adiabatic temperature
riseshrinkage.
rise, and t0 ,Q : age at the beginning of the temperature rise (day).

Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154
than when W/B = 45%. The maximum temperatures were almost the same for A + FA and
N with the same water-to-cement ratio. The rate of adiabatic temperature rise on the first
day was higher for both A + FA mix proportions, which was related to the influence of
high alite cement on hydration at early ages. Later, the rate will start to decrease for A +
FA, and then it will be higher for OPC. This relation will have a great influence 11 onofthe
18
thermal stress behavior related to the type of binder, as described in Section 4.2.

Figure9.9.Adiabatic
Figure Adiabatictemperature
temperaturerise
risedue
dueto
tothe
theheat
heatof
ofhydration.
hydration.

The temperature
4.2. Thermal due to the heat of hydration was clearly higher when W/B = 33%
Stress Analysis
than when W/B = 45%. The maximum temperatures were almost the same for A + FA and
4.2.1. Thermal Stress during Steam Curing
N with the same water-to-cement ratio. The rate of adiabatic temperature rise on the first
day wasUsing the experimental
higher for both A + results
FA mixfor compressive
proportions, strength,
which elastic modulus,
was related adiabatic
to the influence of
temperature
high rise,on
alite cement and autogenous
hydration shrinkage,
at early shown
ages. Later, in Figures
the rate 5, 6,
will start to 7decrease
and 9 for
formix
A +pro-
FA,
portions
and then it(Nwill
45%)be and (A for
higher + FA 45%),
OPC. therelation
This FEM thermal stress
will have analysis
a great was conducted.
influence on the thermal
Figure 10 provides the temperature profile for points across
stress behavior related to the type of binder, as described in Section 4.2. the region at the middle
of the precast concrete model for both mix proportions. The thermal analysis results
4.2. Thermal Stress Analysis
4.2.1. Thermal Stress during Steam Curing
Using the experimental results for compressive strength, elastic modulus, adiabatic
temperature rise, and autogenous shrinkage, shown in Figures 5–7 and 9 for mix propor-
tions (N 45%) and (A + FA 45%), the FEM thermal stress analysis was conducted.
Figure 10 provides the temperature profile for points across the region at the middle of
the precast concrete model for both mix proportions. The thermal analysis results showed
that the maximum temperatures were in the core of the concrete member. By choosing only
two points, the first at the core of the concrete element section No. 1, and the second on
the surface of No. 2, it can be seen that the temperature reached its maximum value at the
surface after 8 h, but for the core of the concrete element section, it reached the maximum
value after 11 h from the beginning of the steam-curing process, as shown in Figure 10.
Additionally, the maximum difference in temperature between the core and the surface
was after 17 h from the beginning of the steam-curing process. From the analysis, the high
alite cement with modified fly ash showed higher maximum temperatures than OPC due
to its chemical properties.
 the second
the second onon the
the surface
surface ofof No.
No. 2,2, itit can
can be
be seen
seen that
that the
the temperature
temperature reached
reached its
its maxi-
maxi-
mum value
mum value at
at the
the surface
surface after
after 88 h,h, butbut for
for the
the core
core ofof the
the concrete
concrete element
element section,
section, itit
reached the
reached the maximum
maximum valuevalue after
after 11
11 hh from
from the
the beginning
beginning of of the
the steam-curing
steam-curing process,
process, as as
shown in
shown in Figure
Figure 10.
10. Additionally,
Additionally, the the maximum
maximum difference
difference in in temperature
temperature between
between the the
core and
core and the
the surface
surface was
was after
after 1717 hh from
from the the beginning
beginning of of the
the steam-curing
steam-curing process.
process. From
From
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 12 of 18
the analysis,
the analysis, the
the high
high alite
alite cement
cement with with modified
modified flyfly ash
ash showed
showed higher
higher maximum
maximum tem- tem-
peratures than
peratures than OPC
OPC due
due to
to its
its chemical
chemical properties.
properties.

(N 45%)
(N 45%) (A ++ FA
(A FA 45%)
45%)
Figure 10.
Figure
Figure 10. temperature
10. temperature profile
Temperatureprofile at
profileat the
atthe surface
thesurface and
surfaceand the
andthe core.
thecore.
core.

Figure
Figure 11 11 shows
shows thethe cracking
cracking index
index diagram
diagram considering
considering thethe effects
effects of
of the
the heat
heat of
of
hydration
hydration andand autogenous
autogenous shrinkage.
shrinkage. TheThe time
time at
at which
which the
the cracking
cracking index
index becomes
becomes the the
minimum
minimum value is called
value is called the
the critical
critical time
time inin that
that stage. It can
stage. It can be
be noticed
noticed that
that the
the critical
critical
times forboth
times for
for bothcases
both cases
cases coincided
coincided
coincidedwithwith the
thethe
with time
timetime ofmaximum
of the
of the maximum
the maximum temperature
temperature difference
difference
temperature shown
difference
shown
in Figure
shown in Figure
in Figure 10.
10. 10.

(N 45%)
(N 45%) (A ++ FA
(A FA 45%)
45%)
Figure 11.
Figure
Figure 11. Cracking
11. Cracking index diagram.
Cracking index
index diagram.
diagram.

For the
For the critical
critical region,
region, Figure
Figure 12
Figure 12 shows
shows the the cracking
cracking index
cracking index chart
chart by
by time.
time. The
The cracking
cracking
index
index waswas atat its
its minimum
minimum value value after
after 17
17
17hhhfrom
from
fromthethe beginning
thebeginning
beginningof of the
ofthe steam-curing
thesteam-curing process,
steam-curingprocess,process,
which is
which is the
the critical
thecritical time
criticaltime ininthat
timein that
that stage.
stage.
stage. Considering
Considering
Considering thethe
the effect of autogenous
effect
effect of autogenous
of autogenous shrinkage,
shrinkage,
shrinkage, the
the
cracking
the cracking
cracking index
index values
index
values werewere
values
were Icr == 1.15
Icr 1.15=and
Icr and Icr
1.15Icr == 0.89
and 0.89
Icr =for
for (A +for
0.89
(A + FA
FA(A 45%)
+ FA
45%) and
45%)
and (N 45%),
(N 45%),(N
and respec-
45%),
respec-
respectively.
tively. Then,
tively. Then, afterThen,
after after excluding
excluding
excluding the the
the effect
effect ofeffect
of of autogenous
autogenous
autogenous shrinkage,
shrinkage, shrinkage,
the values
the values the values
were
were Icr ==were
Icr 1.21
1.21
Icr
and = 1.21
Icr = and
0.94 Icr
for =
(A 0.94
+ FA for
45%)(A + FA
and (N45%)
45%),and (N 45%),
respectively. respectively.
It can be
and Icr = 0.94 for (A + FA 45%) and (N 45%), respectively. It can be said that the effect of It
said can
that be
thesaid
effectthat
of
the effect of autogenous
autogenous shrinkage
autogenous shrinkage was shrinkage
was very
very small was
small on very
on the small
the cracking on the cracking
cracking resistance
resistance for resistance
for both
both mix for both
mix proportions,
proportions, mix
proportions,
and the
and and the contribution
the contribution
contribution of autogenous
of autogenous of autogenous
strain was
strain was strain was negligible
negligible
negligible comparedcompared
compared with the
with the with
thermal
thermalthe
thermal strain at this stage. For both cases, the cracking resistance of the concrete with high
alite cement with fly ash was higher than that of OPC concrete.
 cement with fly ash was higher than that of OPC concrete.
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 13 of 18

Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 13 of 18

strain at this stage. For both cases, the cracking resistance of the concrete with high alite
cement with fly ash was higher than that of OPC concrete.

(With autogenous shrinkage) (Without autogenous shrinkage)

Figure 12. Thermal cracking index for the critical region.

Figure 13 shows the maximum principal stresses for the critical region. The maxi-
mum values were reached after 17 h from the beginning of the steam-curing process.
Additionally,
(With autogenous shrinkage)the rate of stress decreasing
(Without forautogenous
A + FA was shrinkage)
more than that of OPC: the
stresses with A + FA will be almost zero after 1.5 days, but with OPC, it will keep decreas-
Figure
ing 12.
12. Thermal
for more
Figure than 2cracking
Thermal index
days. This
cracking is for
index duethe
for tocritical
the region.
the increasing
critical region. ratio of the adiabatic temperature
rise, which is shown in Figure 9. Related to this point, it can be seen in Figure 10 that the
Figure
Figure
difference 13 shows
13 showsthe
in temperature thebetween
maximum
maximum principal
theprincipal
core stresses
andstresses
the forfor
surface thethe critical
critical
after 1.5 region.
region.
days wasThe The maxi-
maximum
larger with
mum
values
OPC values
thanwere were
A + reached reached
FA, which after after 17
17 h that
means h
frommorefrom the
the beginning beginning
of the
stresses will of the steam-curing
steam-curing
be generated process.
process.
at that time.
Additionally, the rate of stress decreasing for A + FA was more than that of OPC: the
stresses with A + FA will be almost zero after 1.5 days, but with OPC, it will keep decreas-
ing for more than 2 days. This is due to the increasing ratio of the adiabatic temperature
rise, which is shown in Figure 9. Related to this point, it can be seen in Figure 10 that the
difference in temperature between the core and the surface after 1.5 days was larger with
OPC than A + FA, which means that more stresses will be generated at that time.

Figure 13.13.
Figure Maximum principal
Maximum stresses
principal inin
stresses the critical
the region.
critical region.

Additionally,
Comparing the the rate of for
diagrams stress
thisdecreasing
stage, thefor A + FA
stresses was more
reached theirthan that of OPC:
maximum values the
stresses with A + FA will be almost zero after 1.5 days, but with
at the same time when the difference between the core temperature and the surface tem- OPC, it will keep decreasing
for more
perature than
was 2 days. That
greatest. This is is,due
when to the
the increasing ratio of the adiabatic
relative instantaneous expansion temperature
between the rise,
which
core and is
theshown
surfaceinofFigure 9. Related
the concrete element to this
was point,
greatest.it can be seeninternal
Therefore, in Figure 10 that
restraint duethe
difference
Figure 13. in temperature
Maximum principal between
stresses the
in core
the and
critical the surface
region. after 1.5
to differential temperatures leads to the tensile stresses on the surface of the concrete ele- days was larger with
OPCinthan
ment the A + FA,region.
critical which means that more
The directions ofstresses will be generated
the maximum at thatintime.
tensile stresses the critical
Comparing the diagrams
diagrams for
for this
this stage,
stage, the
the stresses
region at the critical time are provided by the FEM analysis. Therefore, maximum
stresses reached
reached their
their maximum
cracking values
values
patterns at
at
thethe same
same timetime when
when the the difference
difference between
between the the core
core temperature
temperature
can be predicted since the cracks will be developed perpendicular to the directions of the and and
the the surface
surface tem-
temper-
perature
tensile waswas
aturestresses, greatest.
greatest. ThatThat
as shown is, when
inis,Figure
when the relative
the relative
14. instantaneous
instantaneous expansion
expansion betweenbetween the
the core
core andsurface
and the the surface of concrete
of the the concrete element
element waswas greatest.
greatest. Therefore,
Therefore, internal
internal restraint
restraint duedue
to
differential
to differentialtemperatures
temperatures leads to the
leads tensile
to the stresses
tensile on the
stresses surface
on the of the
surface of concrete element
the concrete ele-
in thein
ment critical region.region.
the critical The directions of the of
The directions maximum
the maximumtensiletensile
stresses in the critical
stresses region
in the critical
at the critical
region time are
at the critical provided
time by the FEM
are provided by theanalysis. Therefore,
FEM analysis. cracking
Therefore, patterns
cracking can be
patterns
predicted
can since the
be predicted cracks
since the will
cracks be will
developed
be developedperpendicular to the directions
perpendicular of the tensile
to the directions of the
stresses, as shown in Figure
tensile stresses, as shown in Figure 14.14.
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 14 of 18
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154 1414of
of 18
18

Figure 14. Cracking pattern in the first stage.

Figure 14.
Figure Cracking pattern
14. Cracking pattern in
in the
the first
first stage.
stage.

4.2.2. Drying
4.2.2. Drying Shrinkage Stress after
Shrinkage Stress after Steam
Steam Curing
Curing
4.2.2. Drying Shrinkage Stress after Steam Curing
The second
The second stage
stage was
was conducted
conducted to to study
study the
the effects
effects of
of drying
drying shrinkage
shrinkage onon restraint
restraint
The second stage was conducted to
after steam study
steam curing.the
curing. effects of drying shrinkage on restraint
stress generation and cracking after
stress generation and cracking after steam curing.
humidity changes on the outside surface and in the core
Figure 15 shows the concrete humidity changes
Figure 15 shows
of the concrete member. the concrete humidity
member. During this time, the changes
relativeon the outside
humidity surface
of the andwill
surface in the core
rapidly
of the concrete member. During this time, the relative humidity of the surface
decrease. The difference in relative humidity between the surface and the core was at its will rapidly
decrease.
maximumThe
maximum valuedifference
value atat75
75daysin from
days relative
fromthe humidity
the beginning
beginning between
of of
thethe the surface
process.
process. In and the
thecore
general,
In general, the wasofatthe
surface
surface its
of
maximum
the concrete
concrete value
loseslosesat 75 days
moisture
moisture much from
much the beginning
faster
faster thanthan of the
the internal
the internal process.
partsparts In
of the general,
of concrete the
the concrete surface
member,
member, andof
the
andconcrete
internal
internal loses
restraint moisture
restraint
due todue tomuch
differential faster
differential than thelead
humidity
humidity will internal parts
willtolead
the of the
to the
tensile concrete
tensile
stresses member,
stresses
on the on the
surface
and
of internal
the
surface of therestraint
concrete. concrete.due to differential humidity will lead to the tensile stresses on the
surface of the concrete.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Concrete humidity (W/B
Concrete humidity (W/B ==45%).
45%).
Figure 15. Concrete humidity (W/B = 45%).
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1515
ofof18
18

Figure 16 16
Figure
Figure shows
16showsthethe
shows minimum
the minimum
minimumcracking index
cracking
cracking considering
index
index thethe
considering
considering drying
the shrinkage,
drying
drying in in
shrinkage,
shrinkage, in
which
whichthe critical
the region
critical (1)
region shown
(1) in
shown Figure
in 15
Figure and
15 another
and two
another critical
two regions
critical (2
regions
which the critical region (1) shown in Figure 15 and another two critical regions (2 and and
(2 3) 3)3)
and
areare
shown.
areshown.
shown.

Region 1 1
Region Regions 2 and
Regions 3 3
2 and
Figure 16. 16.
Figure
Figure The minimum
16.The
The cracking
minimum
minimum index
cracking
cracking considering
index
index drying
considering
considering shrinkage.
drying
dryingshrinkage.
shrinkage.

FigureFigure
Figure 17 1717shows
shows shows
thethethe cracking
cracking
cracking indexindex
index changes
changes
changes bytime.
by by
time.time. The
TheThe cracking
cracking
cracking indexindex
index reached
reached
reached the
thethe
minimum
minimum
minimum valuesvalues
values after
after
after 180
180180
days.days. Regions
Regions
days. Regions 11and
1 and and 22had
2 had had the
thethesamesame
samefinalfinal values
values
final valuesof Icr
of Icr
of Icr ==0.63
= 0.63 0.63
and
andand =Icr0.0.52
Icr Icr ==0.0.52
0.0.52 for(A
forfor
(A +(A ++FA
FA FA45%)
45%) 45%) and
andand (N (N(N45%),
45%), 45%), respectively,
respectively,
respectively, whilewhile the
thethe
while values
values
values for
forfor
regionregion
region3 33
were
were Icr Icr
were Icr =
= 0.91 0.91
andand
= 0.91 and
Icr IcrIcr
= 0.75 = 0.75
forfor
= 0.75 for
(A (A (A
+ FA +
45%)
+ FA FA
45%)45%)
andand and
(N (N (N
45%),
45%),45%), respectively.
respectively.
respectively. As As As
a result, a
a result, result,
it canit
it can
can
be be
said be
said said
thatthat that
thethe the
cracking cracking
cracking resistance
resistance
resistance withwith with
high high
alite
high alite
cement
alite cement
cement with with
with modified
modified
modified fly flyfly
ashashash was
waswas
higher
higher than
higher than
it was
than it was
it waswithwith
with OPC,OPC,
OPC, but
butbut the
thethe cracking
cracking
cracking probability
probability
probability may may
maybe bebe
very very
high
very high for
forfor
high both both mix
mixmix
both
proportions
proportions
proportions as well
as well
as well
since since the
thethe
since cracking
cracking
cracking indexindex
index was
waswas
muchmuch
muchlowerlower
lowerthanthan 1.0.
1.0.1.0.
than

(N (N
45%)
45%) (A (A
+ FA 45%)
+ FA 45%)
Figure 17. 17.
Figure
Figure Thermal cracking
17.Thermal
Thermal index
cracking
cracking for for
index
index the critical
forthe regions.
thecritical
criticalregions.
regions.

In the
In FEM
Inthe
the FEManalysis,
FEM thethe
analysis,
analysis, directions
thedirections of the
directions maximum
of of
the maximum
the maximum tensile stresses
tensile in the
stresses
tensile stresses critical
in the
in re-re-
critical
the critical
gions
gionswere
regions also
were
were obtained.
also
also Therefore,
obtained.
obtained.Therefore,
Therefore,cracking
crackingpatterns
cracking patterns cancan
patterns be predicted
canbebepredicted
predictedsince thethe
since
since cracks
the cracks
cracks
willwill
be be
will developed
bedeveloped perpendicular
developed perpendicular
perpendicularto the
to directions
to the
the directions
directionsof the
of tensile
of the
the stresses.
tensile
tensile It was
stresses.
stresses. ItItwasalso
was shown
also
alsoshown
shown
from
fromthe
from theFEM
the FEManalysis
FEM analysisthat other
analysis that patterns
that other
other patterns (such
patterns(such as
(suchas2 and
as22 and3) will
and 3) appear
3) will
will appear on
appear on the outside
on the
the outside
outside
edges
edgesof the
edges of concrete
ofthe
the member
concrete
concrete member
member in addition
in addition
in additionto cracking
to cracking
to pattern
cracking 1, as
pattern
pattern 1,shown
1, as shown
as shown in Figure 18.18.
in Figure
in Figure 18.
Infrastructures
Infrastructures2023,
2023,8,8,154
154 1616ofof18
18

Figure
Figure18.
18.cracking
Crackingpatterns
patternsininthe
thesecond
secondstage.
stage.

Table
Table66presents
presentsaasummary
summaryof ofthe
theresults
resultsfor
forthe
theminimum
minimumcracking
crackingindex,
index,including
including
the
theresults
resultspresented
presentedin inSection
Section4.2.
4.2. During
Duringsteam
steamcuring,
curing,the
thevalue
valueof ofthe
thecracking
crackingindexindex
for the
for the concrete
concrete with the proposed
proposed modified
modifiedfly flyash
ashcement
cementwaswasmore
morethanthan1.0, soso
1.0, it can be
it can
said
be thatthat
said there would
there not be
would nota be
high
a probability of cracking.
high probability On theOn
of cracking. otherthehand,
otherthe cracking
hand, the
index forindex
cracking OPCfor concrete was lesswas
OPC concrete than 1.0,
less so 1.0,
than the so
probability of cracking
the probability was relatively
of cracking was rel-
higher due to thermal strain. After the steam-curing process,
atively higher due to thermal strain. After the steam-curing process, the valuesthe values of the cracking
of the
index were
cracking much
index were lower
muchthan 1.0than
lower for A1.0+ for
FA Aand OPC,
+ FA andespecially in regions
OPC, especially 1 and 2,
in regions so it
1 and
2,can
so be saidbe
it can that there
said thatwould be a very
there would be ahigh
veryprobability of cracking
high probability development
of cracking developmentdue to
drying
due shrinkage
to drying strain. strain.
shrinkage The cracking resistance
The cracking was always
resistance higher higher
was always with highwith alite
high cement
alite
with modified fly ash (A + FA) than with ordinary Portland
cement with modified fly ash (A + FA) than with ordinary Portland cement (N).cement (N).

Table6.
Table Theminimum
6.The minimumcracking
crackingindex.
index.

During
DuringSteam
SteamCuring
Curing After
AfterSteam
Steam Curing uptoto6 6Months
Curing up Months
MixMix
Proportion
Proportion
Region
Region11 Region1 1
Region Region2 2
Region Region
Region 33
N 45%
N 45% 0.89
0.89 0.52
0.52 0.52
0.52 0.75
0.75
A +AFA 45%
+ FA 45% 1.15
1.15 0.63
0.63 0.63
0.63 0.91
0.91

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
1.
1. Steam-cured
Steam-curedconcrete
concrete with
withmodified
modifiedfly ash
fly and
ash high
and alite
highcement developed
alite cement a highera
developed
compressive strength strength
higher compressive on the firston day of age
the first daythan concrete
of age than with ordinary
concrete with Portland
ordinary
cement.
Portland cement.
2.2. There
Therewere
werenonobigbigdifferences
differencesin inthe
themodulus
modulusof ofelasticity
elasticitybetween
betweenthethesteam-cured
steam-cured
concrete and the underwater-cured concrete, regardless of fly
concrete and the underwater-cured concrete, regardless of fly ash addition. ash addition.
3.3. ItItwas
wasproven
provenfromfromFEM
FEMstress
stressanalysis
analysisforforaasteam-cured
steam-curedbox boxculvert
culvertthat
thatthe
theeffect
effect
ofofautogenous
autogenousshrinkage
shrinkageon onthe
thecracking
crackingprobability
probabilitywas wasveryverysmall.
small.ItItcan
canbebesaid
said
that
thatthermal
thermalshrinkage
shrinkagewas wasthethedominant
dominantfactor
factorfor
forgenerating
generatinginternal
internalstresses
stressesininthe
the
concrete
concreteatat the early
early age.
age.OnOnthe theother
otherhand,
hand, drying
drying shrinkage
shrinkage dominated
dominated at later
at later ages
ages
due due to decrease
to the the decrease of internal
of the the internal humidity
humidity of concrete.
of the the concrete.
4.4. Using
Usingthetheproposed
proposedhigh highalite
alitecement
cementwithwithmodified
modifiedfly flyash
ashimproved
improvedthe thecracking
cracking
resistanceofof
resistance thethe precast
precast concrete
concrete boxbox culvert
culvert moremore than during
than OPC OPC during the steam-
the steam-curing
curing process.
process.
5.5. After
Aftersteam
steamcuring,
curing,drying
dryingshrinkage
shrinkagewas wasthe
themain
maincause
causeof ofcracking
crackingininthe
theprecast
precast
concretebox
concrete boxculvert
culvertatatlater
laterages,
ages,regardless
regardlessof ofthe
thetype
typeof ofbinder.
binder.
Infrastructures 2023, 8, 154 17 of 18

Author Contributions: S.M., A.A., N.N., R.K. and E.S. conceived and designed the experiments;
A.A., S.M., N.N. and R.K. performed the experiments; A.A., S.M. and E.S. analyzed the data; A.A.
and S.M. contributed to manuscript preparation and participated in critically revising the article
for important intellectual content. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are not available.
Acknowledgments: The study was carried out as an activity of the “Technical Committee on AFC for
Precast Concrete”. The authors express their sincere gratitude to the parties concerned. Additionally,
the first author expresses his great gratitude to the Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA),
the JELA foundation, and The Kubota Fund, for supporting him during his journey.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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