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 Gas Reservoirs
• The main difference between natural gas as a produced phase and oil
as a produced phase is the highly compressible nature of gas.

• In many of the methods we discussed for oil reservoirs, we assumed

that the oil phase compressibility obeyed the definition of
compressibility for a slightly compressible liquid.

• Therefore, the Real Gas Law will be used to develop equations for the
stabilized inflow performance relationships, the transient diffusivity
equation, material balance equation, and decline curve analysis.
Reservoir Fluids Classification
• Reservoir fluids can be identified based on:
• Initial reservoir pressure & temperature
• Fluid status & conditions
• Reservoir fluid composition
• Production performance

Oil Reservoirs Gas Reservoirs

Retrograde Gas
Heavy Oil
Condensate

Black Oil Wet Gas

Volatile Oil Dry Gas

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 Original Gas In-Place (OGIP)
• The Volumetric Method for OGIP is essentially the same for gas
reservoirs.
• The method uses static geologic data to determine the volume of the
pore space of the reservoir.
• Once the volume of the pore space is estimated, then the gas formation
volume factor, Bg can be used to estimate the OGIP.

7758 Ah (1  Swi)

GIIP 
Bgi
Bgi
SGIP  N * Rsoi RF  1 
Bga
• As with oil reservoirs, the volumetric method for estimating the in-place
volumes is also considered to be less accurate than the material
balance method.
Gas Reservoirs
• The tasks for reservoir engineers working on gas wells or gas
fields are much the same as the tasks involved for oilfields: the
estimation of the original gas-in-place, OGIP, and the estimation of
the rates and volumes of fluids produced from the production wells
and from the field.
• For in-place fluid calculations, the Volumetric Method and the
Material Balance Method are just as applicable for gas reservoirs
as they are for oil reservoirs.
• We will see, however, that there are differences in the forms of the
equations due to the compressible nature of gas.
• In addition, we will see that the stabilized Inflow Performance
Relationships, IPR, (boundary dominated well production rates
from Darcy’s Law) and the time dependent diffusivity equation are
also impacted by the compressible nature of the gas.
 Drive Mechanisms in Gas Reservoirs
• For gas reservoirs, there are 3 drive mechanisms that are associated with conventional gas reservoirs
and a 4th drive mechanism associated with unconventional gas reservoirs:
 Gas expansion (most significant drive mechanism in conventional gas reservoirs);
 Gas desorption (may only be present in certain unconventional gas reservoirs);
 Rock and fluid expansion (expansion of the reservoir rock and interstitial water – typically only
significant in over-pressured gas reservoirs);
 Natural aquifer drive (or water encroachment).
 Conventional vs. Unconventional Gas
• Conventional
 Conventional gas is trapped in naturally porous reservoir formations that are capped with
impermeable rock strata. When intercepted by a well, gas is able to move to the surface without the
need to pump.
• Unconventional
 Unconventional gas is formed in more complex geological formations which limit the ability of gas to
migrate and therefore different methods are required to extract the gas.
 There are several types of unconventional gas, including shale gas and tight gas, which occur in
reservoirs with very low permeability compared to conventional reservoirs. In these geological
formations, horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing are often necessary for economic gas
extraction.
 The other form of unconventional gas is coal seam gas, where methane gas is trapped within the coal
seam under pressure by overlying formations.
 To extract the gas, a steel-encased well is drilled vertically into the coal seam at which point the well
may also be hydraulically fracture stimulated or drilled horizontally along the coal seam to increase
access to the gas reserves.
 Conventional vs. Unconventional Resources
• Conventional Resources:
• Exist in porous & permeable rock/reservoirs that can
be produced by traditional recovery techniques.
• Localized geological structural feature and/or
stratigraphic condition.
• Unconventional Resources (or continuous-type
deposits):
• Exist in petroleum accumulations that are spreading
throughout a large area and lack well-defined OWC.

 CANNOT be recovered using traditional recovery

techniques due to:
 Fluid viscosity (Oil sands)

 Reservoir permeability (Tight gas/oil/CBM), etc.

 Immature source rocks

 Conventional vs. Unconventional Gas
• When the coal seam is de-watered, the
pressure is released, allowing the methane to
escape the coal formation by flowing through
the cleats and fractures in the coal seam back
to the gas well.
 Conventional vs. Unconventional Resources
Conventional Reservoirs
• Localized structural trap
• External hydrocarbons sourcing
• Hydrodynamic influence
• Traditional phase behavior
• Minimal extraction effort
• Significant production history
• Mid-late development life cycle
• Fewer wells for commerciality
• Production forecasts based on volumetrics for
limited production history cases
• Prospects typically defined by volumetrics
Unconventional Reservoirs
• "Continuous-type" deposit
• Self-sourced hydrocarbons
• Minimal hydrodynamic influence
• Phase behavior in nano-pores
• Significant extraction effort
• Moderate (or limited) production history
• Early-mid development life cycle
• Many wells for commerciality
• Production forecasts based on analogs for
limited production history cases
• Prospects typically defined by drilling
 Life Cycle for Unconventional Resources
• Recovery from
unconventional
reservoirs is a combined
function of reservoir,
completions, and
development plan (e.g.,
well spacing).
• Advanced methods are
commonly utilized to
evaluate well
performance and make
decisions on future
development options.
 Conventional vs. Unconventional Resources
• What is conventional energy?
• Conventional energy sources refer to the traditional, non-
renewable resources that have been widely used for centuries to
meet our energy needs.
• These resources are extracted using well-established production
methods and are typically derived from ancient fossilized organic
matter. Unlike unconventional resources, conventional energy
sources are finite, meaning they are not naturally replenished
within a human timescale. Let's explore the characteristics of
both traditional and unconventional energy sources to grasp their
significance in our energy landscape.
• Conventional energy sources
• Crude oil: The primary source of gasoline and petroleum products,
obtained through drilling and pumping from underground reservoirs.
• Natural gas: Extracted from underground reservoirs through
naturally occurring pressure or pumping mechanisms.
• Coal: Mined from the Earth's crust and used predominantly in
power generation and industrial processes.
 Conventional vs. Unconventional Resources
• Unconventional reservoirs
• Shale gas: Trapped within shale rock formations and requires advanced technologies like hydraulic
fracturing (fracking) to unlock the gas reserves.
• Tight gas: Found in low-permeability rock formations, necessitating horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing for efficient extraction.
• Coal bed methane: Methane gas adsorbed onto coal particles, demanding specialized techniques to
release the gas.
• Conventional vs. unconventional gas and oil production
• Conventional gas and oil production follows well-established techniques involving standard drilling
methods.
• As long as pressure remains adequate, these resources can flow naturally to the surface. On the other
hand, unconventional resources require advanced technologies to extract trapped energy reserves.
• Hydraulic fracturing, commonly known as fracking, plays a pivotal role in unlocking shale gas, tight gas,
and coal bed methane.
• Fracking involves injecting a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and chemicals into rock formations
to release the trapped gas or oil.
 Distribution of the Main Unconventional Resources
•. Coalbed Methane Shale Gas Tight-Sand Gas Total
Region
(Tcf) (Tcf) (Tcf) (Tcf)
North America 3,017 3,840 1,371 8,228
Latin America 39 2,116 1,293 3,448
Western Europe 157 509 353 1,019
Central and Eastern Europe 118 39 78 235
Former Soviet Union 3,957 627 901 5,485
Middle East and North Africa 0 2,547 823 3,370
Sub-Saharan Africa 39 274 784 1,097
Centrally planned Asia and China 1,215 3,526 353 5,094

Pacific (Organization for Economic

470 2,312 705 3,487
Cooperation and Development)
Other Asia Pacific 0 313 549 862
South Asia 39 0 196 235
World 9,051 16,103 7,406 32,560
 Tight-Gas Reservoir
• The definition of a tight gas reservoir is “the one in which the expected value of permeability to gas flow
would be less than 0.1 md.” However, that definition had some political aspects which were related to the
recovery produced form tight reservoirs.
• A better definition could be revealed which states that a tight gas reservoir is “A reservoir that cannot be
produced at economic flow rates nor recoverable economic volumes of natural gas unless the well is
stimulated by a large hydraulic fracture treatment or produced by use of a horizontal wellbore or
multilateral wellbores.”
• If we study consider that definition a rule, based on it we could say that there are no “typical” tight gas
reservoirs, a tight gas reservoir could have various characteristics through depth, pressure, temperature,
number of layers or even homogeneity.
• Formation of tight-gas reservoir
• What makes a tight reservoir?
• There are a number of reasons that can make a reservoir tight.
• But we can say that the effective permeability of a reservoir is the main reason for making a tight
reservoir, after that being stated, we can then include some of the important parameters controlling the
effective permeability, which are effective porosity, viscosity, fluid saturation and capillary pressure.
• The rock parameters are equally important; yet those are controlled by depositional and post depositional
environments the reservoir is subjected to.
 What is Shale Gas?
• Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock, composed of mud and it is a massive mineral.
• It is so tough that drilling into it is a rather costly process. Shale gas is hiding beneath this kind of rock,
deep below the surface.
• Shale gas definition
• Shale gas has the same composition as natural gas.
• Natural gas can be found in big amounts, while shale gas is trapped inside the micro-cracks of a rock.
• Both natural and shale gases are the most eco-friendly fossil fuels that help our
planet’s decarbonization. They can also be liquefied and stored efficiently. Read more about liquefied
natural gas. Natural gas is transported through pipelines or shipped in a liquefied state.
• Shale gas extraction
• There are four types of natural gas extraction methods:
• Horizontal drilling
• Hydraulic fracturing
 Shale Gas
• Natural gas is not different from what you currently
use to heat your home, cook with, or use to
generate electricity, which is naturally trapped in its
original source rock; the organic-rich shale that
formed from the sedimentary deposition of mud,
silt, clay, and organic matter on the floors of
shallow seas.
• Geological characteristics of shale-gas
• Organic Material
• They are rich in organic material (0.5% to 25%).
• Thermal Maturity
• Thermal Maturity is an indicator of how much
pressure and temperature the rock has been
subjected to.
• The shale is usually more mature, has higher gas
ratio and matured in the thermogenic gas window,
where high heat and pressure have converted
petroleum to natural gas.
• Pore Space
• The pore spaces here not the main core
characteristics but the effective permeability in shale
gas which is much less than 0.1 (md).