0714497530

PHYS
ICS
FORM ONEWORK
(
isa
boke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com)
CHAPTERONE
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYSI
CS
Sci
encei
nourl
i
ves
Sci
enti
stsarepeopletrai
nedi
nscienceandwhopr acticetheknowledgeofscience.Wer equi
re
peopl
einindustr
iestoworkasengineer
s,t
echnici
ans, resear
cher
s,inhospit
alsasdoctors,nur
ses
andtechnol
ogist
s.Sciencegi
vesuspowerful
ideas,instrumentsandmet hodswhichaf
f ectusin
ourdail
yli
ves.

Sci
ent
if
icmet
hods
Al
abor at
oryisabuildi
ngspeci f
icall
ydesignedforscient
if
icwor
kandmaycont ai
nmany
piecesofapparatusandmat eri
alsforuse.
Ahypothesi
sisasci ent
ificf
actorst at
ementt hathasnotbeenprov
enor
experi
ment ed.
Al
aworpr i
ncipl
eisasci ent
ifi
cfactorstatementthathasbeenprovenand
experi
ment edtobet rueforallcondit
ions.
Atheorem i
saf actorstatementthatistrueandpr ov
enbutappli
cableunderspeci
fi
ccondi
ti
ons.
Whati
sphy
sics?
Phy si
csisaGreekwor dmeani ngnaturehenceitdeal
swihnat
t uralphenomena.Physi
csistheref
orea
sciencewhoseobj ect
iveisthestudyofcomponent sofmatt
erandtheirmut
ualint
eracti
ons.Physi
csis
alsodef i
nedasthestudyofmat terandit
srelati
ontoener
gy.Aphysici
sti
sabletoexplai
nbulkproper
ti
es
ofmat teraswel
l asotherphenomenaobser ved.

Br
anchesofphy
sics
Mechani cs–t hestudyofmot i
onofbodiesundert heinfl
uenceoff or
ce.
El
ect ri
cit
y–t hi sdeal
swiththemov ementofchar gefrom onepoi ntt
oanot hert
hrougha
conduct or.
Magnet ism –t hestudyofmagnet sandmagnet i
cf iel
dsandt heirext
ensiveappl
icati
ons.
Thermody nami cs/heat–thisisthest
udyoft hetransformationofheatfrom oneformto
another .
Optics–t hest udyofli
ghtasittr
avelsf
rom onemedi atoanother
Wav es–t hest udyofdi
stur
banceswhichtravelthroughmedi umsorav acuum.
Particl
ephy sics
Nuclearphy sics
Pl
asmaphy sics

Rel
ati
onofphy
sicst
oot
hersubj
ect
s
Sincephysi
csenablesustounderstandbasiccomponentsofmatterandtheirmutuali
nteract
ionsi
t
formsthebaseofnaturalsci
ence.Biol
ogyandchemistr
yborrowfrom physicsi
nexplai
ning
processesoccur
ri
nginliv
ingthi
ngsandor gani
sms.Physicsal
soprovidestechni
queswhi chare
appli
edalmostever
yareaofpur eandappliedsci
encei
.e.meteor
ology,ast
ronomyet c.

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 0714497530

Car
eeroppor
tuni
ti
esi
nphy
sics
Engineer
ing–ci v
il
Electri
cal
Mechani cal
Agricult
ural
Env i
ronmental
Chemi cal
Comput er
Meteorology
Surveyi
ng
Geology
Astronomy
NOTE:-allsci
encebasedcar eer
si.
e.doctor
s,nurses,
technol
ogi
sts,
engi
neer
s,
pharmacist
setc.needphy si
csasatruefoundati
on.

Basi
clabor
ator
ysaf
etyr
ules
Properdressingmustbeobser ved,nol oosecl othi
ng,hairandcl osedshoesmustbewor n.
I
dent i
fythelocationofel ect
ricit
yswi tches,fire-fi
ght
ingequi pment ,f
irstai
dkit
,gasandwater
supplysystems.
Keepal l
windowsopenwhenev erwor kingint helaboratory
.
Foll
owal li
nstructionscar ef
ullyandnev erattemptany thingindoubt .
Noeat i
ngordr inkingall
owedi nt helabor at
ory .
Ensurethatallelectri
calswitches, gasandwat ertapsar eturnedoffwhennoti nuse.
Keepf l
oorsandwor kingsur f
acesdr y.Anyspi ll
agemustbewi pedof fimmediately
.
Allapparat
usmustbecl eanedandr et urnedint hecorrectl
ocat i
onofst or
ageafteruse.
Handsmustbewashedbef oreleav i
ngt helabor ator
y.
Anyaccidentsmustber eportedt othet eacheri mmedi atel
y.

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 0714497530

CHAPTERTWO
MEASUREMENTI
I
nor dertomeasureweneedt oknowordef i
net hequant
it
ytobemeasur edandt heuni
tsf
or
measuringit.I
n1971asy stem knownastheInter
nati
onalSystem ofUni
ts( Sy
steme’
I
nternati
onale)andsevenbasicunit
swereagreeduponasf oll
ows.Otherquantit
iescanbe
obtai
nedf r
om thesebasicquanti
ti
esandarereferr
edtoasder i
vedquantit
ies.

Basicquanti
ty SIunit
s Symbol
s
Length Metre m
Mass Kil
ogram kg
Time Second s
Elect
ri
ccurrent Amper e A
Thermodynami c Kelvi
n K
temperat
ure
Luminousintensi
ty Candel
a Cd
Amountofsubst ance Mole mol
Lengt
h
Thisi
sthemeasureofdi
stancebet
weentwopoi
ntsi
nspace.TheSIuni
tforl
engthi
sthe
metre(m).
Ther
efor
e1km =1000m
1Hm =100m
1Dm=10m
1mm =0. 001m
Lengthi
smeasuredusi
ngamet rer
ule(
100cm),
tapemeasure(100m,300m, 500m)

Ar
ea
Thi
sisthemeasur
eoftheext
entofasur f
ace.I
tisader
ivedquant
it
yoflengt
h.It
sSIunit
saresquare
2 2 2
metr
es(m) .Ot
heruni
tsar
ecm , km , et
c.For
mulasareusedtodeter
mineareasofr
egularbodi
es
whi
lefori
rr
egul
arbodi
esanapproxi
mationofareai
sused.

Vol
ume
3
Thisi
stheamountofspaceoccupi
edbymatter
.TheSIuni
tsforvol
umeiscubicmet r
e(m).
3 3 3 3 3
Othersub-mul
ti
plesar
ecm , mm andl .Hence1m =1, 000,000cm and1l =1,000cm .
Volumecanbemeasur edusi
ngameasur i
ngcy l
i
nder,
eurekacan,pi
pett
e,buret
te,vol
umetr
ic
fl
ask,beaker
,et
c.

Mass
Thi
sisthequant
it
yofmat t
ercont
ainedi
nasubstance.Matteri
sanyt
hingthatoccupi
esspaceand
hasweight
.TheSIuni
tformassistheKil
ogr
am (
kg).Othersub-
mult
ipl
esusedar egrams(g),
mil
li
grams(mg)andtonnes(t
).1kg=1,000g=1,000,000mg=100tonnes.Abeam balancei
sused
tomeasuremass.

Densi
ty
3
Thi
sismassperuni
tvol
umeofasubst
ance.I
tissy
mbol
i
zedbyr
ho(
ρ)andi
tsSIuni
tsar
ekg/
m.
Densi
ty=mass/vol
ume.

Exampl
es

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 0714497530

Abl
ockofglassofmass187.5gis5.0cm l
ong,2.
0cm t
hickand7.5cm
-
3
hi
gh.Cal
culat
ethedensi
tyoftheglassi
nkgm .
Sol
uti
on
Densi
ty=mass/v ol
ume=( 187.
5/1000)/(
2.0×7.
5×5. 0/1,
000,
000)=2,
500
-3
kgm .
3
Thedensit
yofconcentr
atedsul
phuri
caci
dis1.
8g/cm .Calcul
atet
hev ol
ume
of3.1kgoftheacid.
Solut
ion
3 3
Volume=mass/densi t
y=3,100/1.
8=1,722cm or0.001722m .

Thef
oll
owi ngi sal i
stofdensit
iesofsomecommonsubstances
3 3
Subst ance Density(
g/cm ) Densi
ty(
kg/m)
Plat i
num 21.4 21,
400
Gol d 19.3 19,
300
Lead 11.3 11,
300
Silver 10.5 10,
500
Copper 8.93 8,
930
Iron 7.86 7,
860
Alumi ni
um 2.7 2,
700
Gl ass 2.5 2,
500
Ice 0.92 920
Mer cury 13.6 13,
600
Seawat er 1.03 1,
030
Wat er 1.0 1,
000
Ker osene 0.80 800
Alcohol 0.79 790
Car bon( i
v de 0.
)oxi 00197 1.
97
Air 0.00131 1.
31
Hy dr ogen 0.000089 0.
089

Exampl e
Themassofanempt ydensit
ybottleis20g.Itsmasswhenf i
ll
edwithwat
eris
40.0gand50. 0gwhenf il
ledwithl
iquidX.Cal
culat
ethedensi
tyofli
qui
dXifthe
-
3
densit
yofwat eris1,000kgm .
Solut
ion
Massofwat er=40–20=20g=0. 02kg.
3
Volumeofwat er=0. 02/1,000=0.00002m .Vol umeofli
qui
d=v ol
ume
ofbottleMassofl iquid=50–20=30g=0. 03kg
-3
Thereforedensityofliqui
d=0. 03/0.00002=1,500kgm

Rel
ati
vedensi
ty
Thi
sisthedensit
yofasubstancecomparedtothedensit
yofwat
er.
I
tissymbol
izedby(d)andhasnounitssincei
t’
sar at
io.
Rel
ati
vedensit
y(d)=densit
yofsubstance/densi
tyofwater
.
I
tismeasuredusingarel
ati
vedensi
tybottl
e

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 0714497530

Example
Therel
ati
vedensityofsomet
ypeofwoodis0.
8.Fi
ndt
hedensi
tyoft
hewood
3
i
nkg/m .Soluti
on
Densi
tyofsubstance=d×densi
tyofwat
er
-
3
Densi
tyofsubst
ance=0.
8×1,
000=800kgm

Densi
ti
esofmi
xtur
es
Weuset hefol
l
owingfor
mul
atocal
cul
atedensi
ti
esofmixtur
es
Densi
tyofthemixt
ure=massoft
hemixtur
e/volumeofthe
mixt
ure

Example
3 -
3 3
100cm offr
eshwat
erofdensi
ty1,
000kgm ismi
xedwi
th100cm ofseawat
erof
densi
ty-3
1030kgm .Cal
cul
atet
hedensi
tyoft
hemi
xtur
e.
Sol
uti
on
Mass=densi
ty×v ol
ume
Massoffr
eshwater=1,000×0. 0001=0. 1kg
Massofseawater=1030×0. 0001=0. 103kg
Massofmixt
ure=0.1+0. 103=0. 203kg
3 3
Vol
umeofmixtur
e=100+100=200cm =0.
0002m
3
Ther
efor
edensit
y=mass/v ume=0.
ol 203/0.
0002=1,
015kg/
m.

Ti
me
Thisisameasur eofdurat
ionofanev ent
.TheSIunitfort
imeisthesecond(s).Sub-
multiplesoft
hesecondaremi l
li
seconds,mi
croseconds,minut
e,hour
,day,weekand
year.Itismeasur
edusingclocks,st
opwatches,wri
stwatches,anddi
git
alwatches.

Accur
acyander
ror
s
Accur
acyistheclosenessofameasur ementtothecorrectvalueofthequanti
tybeing
measured.I
tisexpressedasanerror.Aner
roristher
eforethedev i
ati
onof
measurementtothecor r
ectv
aluebeingmeasured.Thesmal lertheerr
ortheaccurate
themeasurement.
%error=(sensit
ivi
ty/sizemeasur ed)×100.
 0714497530

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CHAPTERTHREE
FORCES.
Forceisapushorapull.Forceistherefor
ethatwhi
chchangesabody’sstat
eof
mot i
onorshape.TheSIunitforforceisNewton(N)
.Iti
sav ect
orquanti
ty.I
tis
represent
edbythefol
l
owi ngsymbol .

Ty
pesoff
orces
Gravitati
onal force–t hisist hef orceofat t
racti
onbet weent wobodi esof
givenmasses.
Ear th’sgrav it
ationalforcei sthef or
cewhi chpullsabody
towar dsi tscenter.Thi spul lofgr av i
tyiscall
edwei ght.
Forceoff r
ict ion–t hisisaf orcewhi chopposest her elati
vemot i
onoft wo
sur f
acesi ncont actwi theachot her .Fri
ctioni nf l
uidsisknownasv iscosity.
Tensionf or ce–t hisi st hepul lorcompr essionofast ri
ngorspr i
ngatbot hits
ends.
Upthrustf or ce–t hisi stheupwar dforceact ingonanobj ectimmer sedi naf lui
d.
Cohesi veandadhesi v eforces–cohesi veisthef or ceofat tr
acti
onofmol eculesof
thesameki ndwhi l
eadhesi veisthef orceofat tract i
onofmol ecul
esofdi f
ferent
kinds.
Magnet i
cf or ce–t hisi saf orcewhi chcausesat tracti
onorr epulsi
oni namagnet .
El
ect rostaticf orce–t hisi
st hef or
ceofat tr
actionorr epul
sionofst at
icchar ges.
Centripetal for ce–t hisisaf orcewhi chconst r
ai nsabodyt omov einaci rcular
orbitorpat h.
Surfacet ensi on–t hi sisthef orcewhi chcausest hesur f
aceofal iquidtobehav e
li
keast ret chedski n.Thi sf orceiscohesi ve.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingsur
facet
ensi
on
I
mpurit
ies–t heyreducethesurf
acetensi
onofaliqui
di.
e.addi
ti
onofdeter
gent
Temperat
ure–r iseintemperat
urer
educestensi
onbyweakeningint
er-
molecularforces.

Massandwei
ght
.
Massi stheamountofmat t
ercontai
nedi
nasubst ancewhil
ewei ghtisthepul
lof
gravi
tyonanobj ect.TheSIunitformassistheKgwhi l
eweightisthenewt on(
N).
Massi sconst
antr egardlessofpl
acewhileweightchangeswit
hpl ace.The
rel
ati
onshipbetweenmassandwei ghti
sgivenbythefoll
owingformula,W =mg
whereg=gr avi
tationalforce.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenmassandwei
ght

Mass Weight
I
tist
hequanti
tyofmatt
erinabody I
tisthepul
lofgrav i
tyonabody
I
tismeasur
edinkil
ogr
ams I
tismeasuredinnewt on’
s
I
tist
hesameev er
ywhere I
tchangesfrom placetopl
ace
I
tismeasur
edusingabeam bal
ance Measuredusingaspr i
ngbalance
Hasmagnit
udeonly Hasbothmagni t
udeanddi r
ection
 0714497530

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Example
Anast r
onautweighs900Nonearth.Ont
hemoonhewei
ghs150N.Cal
cul
atet
he
moons’ gr
avit
ati
onalst
rengt
h.(
Takeg=10N/kg)
.
Solut
ion
Moons’
grav
itat
ional
str
engt
h=wei
ghtofast
ronautont
hemoon/massof
ast
ronaut
.
-
1
=150/90=1.67Nkg .

Measur
ingf
orce
Weuseaspri
ngbal
ancetomeasur
eforce.Aspri
ngbal
ancei
sani
nst
rumentt
hat
usest
heext
ensi
onofaspri
ngtomeasurefor
ces.

Example
Thelengthofaspri
ngis16.0cm.itslengt
hbecomes20.0cm whensuppor
ti
nga
weightof
5.
0N.cal cul
atet
helengt
hoft hespri
ngwhensupport
ingaweightof
:
a)2.5N b)6.0N c)200
N

5Ncausesanext
ensi
onof4.
0cm, t
heref
ore1.0cm causesanext
ensi
onof4/5=
0.
8cm.
2.5N=>2.5×0.8=2.
0cm ther
efor
elengt
hbecomes=16. 0+2.0=18.0cm.
6.0N=>6.0×0.8=4.
8cm ther
efor
elengt
hbecomes=16. 0+4.8=20.8cm.
200N=>200×0. 8=160.
0cm ther
eforel
engthbecomes=16.0+160.
0=176.0
cm.
 0714497530

Vect
orandscal
arquant
it
ies

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Ascal
arquanti
tyi
saquanti
tywhi
chhasmagni
tude(
size)onl
y.Examplesaredi
stance,
mass,speed
Avect
orquanti
tyi
saquanti
tywhi
chhasbot
hmagnit
udeanddi rect
ion.Exampl
esare
di
spl
acement,wei
ght
,vel
oci
ty.

CHAPTERFOUR
PRESSURE
Pressur
eisdefi
nedasthef
orceact
ingnormall
y(perpendicul
arl
y)peruni
tar
ea.TheSIuni
tsf
or
2 -2
pressur
eisnewtonpermet
resquar
ed( N/m).OneNm i sknownasonePascal
(Pa).
Pressure=normalfor
ce/areaorpressur
e=t hrust/area.Anotheruni
tformeasuri
ng
5 2 2
pressur
eisthebar.1bar=10 N/m .1mi l
li
bar=100N/ m.
Cal
cul
ati
ngpr
essur
e
Exampl
es
Ar
ect angul
arbr
ickofweight10N,measur
es50cm ×30cm ×10cm.calcul
atet
heval
uesof
themaximum andmi nimum pr
essur
eswhi
chthebl
ockexer
twhenresti
ngonahori
zont
al
table.
Soluti
on
2
Ar
eaofthesmallestf
ace=0.3×0.1=0.03m .Ar
eaofthe
2
l
argestf
ace=0.5×0.3=0.15m .Maximum pr
essur
e=10N/
2 2
0.
03=3. 3×10 N/ m .Mi
nimum pr
essur
e=10N/0. 15=67
2
N/m.
Amanofmass84kgst andsupri
ghtonaf loor.I
fthear
eaofcont
actofhi
sshoesandt
hefl
oor
2
i
s420cm , deter
minetheaveragepressureheexertsont
hefl
oor.(
Takeg=10N/Kg)
Soluti
on
-
2
Pressure=force/area=840/0. 042=20, 000Nm .

Pr
essur
einl
i
qui
ds.
Thefoll
owingf
ormul
aisusedtodeter
minepressur
einli
quids.
Pressur
e=hρg, eh–hei
wher ghtoft
heliqui
d,ρ–densit
yandg–i sfor
ceofgravi
ty.
Examples
-
3
Adiveri
s10m belowthesur
faceofwaterinadam.Ift
hedensityofwat
eri
s1,000kgm ,
-
1
deter minethepressur eduetothewat eront hediver.(Takeg=10Nkg )
Solut i
on
-
2
Pressur e=hρg=10×1000×10=100, 000Nm .
-3
Thedensi tyofmercuryis13,600kgm .Det erminet heli
quidpressureatapoint76cm belowt
he
-
1
surfaceofmer cury.(Takeg=10Nkg )
Solut i
on
-
2
Pressur e=hρg=0. 76×13, 600×10=103, 360Nm .
Thehei ghtofthemer curycolumninabar omet erisfoundt obe67. 0cm atacer t
ain
place.Whatwoul dbet heheightofawat erbaromet eratt hesamepl ace?(Densi
ti
esof
4 3 3 3
mer curyandwat erar e1.36×10 kg/ m and1. 0×10 kg/ m respecti
vely
.)
Solut i
on
Lett hepressureduet owat erbeh1ρ1g1=hρg,hence;

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-
1 4
h1=hρ/ρ1=(
6.7×10 )×(
1.36×10 )=911.
2cm or9.
11m.

U-
tubemanomet
er
Iti
satransparenttubebentint
oU-shape.Whenali
quidispouredi
ntoau-t
ubei
t
set
tl
esatequall evelsi
ncepressur
edependsonheightandtheyshar
ethesame
bot
tom.Considerthefol
lowi
ngdiagr
ams;

Forthelevelstodi ff
erthepressureP1mustbegr eatert
hanP2,
henceP1=P2+hρg.
I
fP1i sthelungpr essure,P0ist heatmospher icpressur
e,t
henifthedif
fer
ence
s‘
i h’t
henl ungpr essurecancal cul
atedasf oll
ows.
P1=P0+hρg.
Example
Amanbl owsi ntooneendofaU- t
ubecont aini
ngwat erunt
ilt
helevel
sdiff
erby
5 2
40.0cm.i ftheatmospher i
cpr essureis1.01×10 N/ m andthedensit
yofwater
3
i
s1000kg/ m, calcul
atehislungpr essur
e.
Solut
ion
Lungpressur e=at mosphericPr essure+liquidpressure
5 5 2
P1=P0+hρg.HenceP1=( 1.01×10 )+( 0.4×10×1000)=1. 05×10 N/ m.

Measur
ingpr
essur
e
Si
mplemer curybaromet er–iti
sconst ructedusingat hi
ckwal ledglasstubeof
lengt
h1m andi scl osedatoneend.Mer curyisaddedi ntothetubethen
inver
tedanddi ppedi ntoadishcont ai
ningmor emer cury.Thespaceabov e
themer curycolumni scall
edt orri
cell
i
anv acuum.Thehei h’
ght‘ (ifi
tisatsea
level
)woul dbef oundt obe
760mm.At mospher icpressurecanbecal cul
atedas,
4 3
P=ρgh=>wher eρ( mercury)-1.36×10 kg/ m, g-9.81N/ kg,h-
4 5
0.76m.ThenP=( 1.36×10 )×9. 81×0. 76=1. 014×10 Pa.
NOTE-t hisist
hest andardatmospher i
cpressure,somet i
mescal ledone
atmospher e.I
tisappr oxi
mat elyonebar .
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For
tnbar
i ometer–thi
sisamoreaccur
atemer
curybaromet
er.Theadjust
ing
screwisadj
ustedfi
rstt
otoucht
hemercur
ylevel
inthel
eatherbag.

Aneroidbarometer–increaseinpr essur
ecausest heboxt ocontract, t
hemov ement sare
magni fi
edbythesy stem ofleversandistr
ansmi t
tedtot hepoint erbythefi
nechai nand
thi
s
causest hepoi
ntertomov e.Thescaleissuit
ablycali
bratedtor eadpr essur
e.Since
pressurefal
lsorri
sesasal t
itudefal
lsorr
ises,thepointercanal sobecal i
brat
edt oread
alt
itude.

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Bourdongauge–i ti
salsocalledgaugepr essur
eandi susedingascyli
nders.
When airi s bl
own int
ot he rubbertube,the cur
ved met
altube t
ri
es to
strai
ght
enoutandt hiscausesmov ementwhichist
ransmi
tt
edbylever
sand
gearsattachedtoapoi nter.Thisgaugecanmeasur ebothgasandl iqui
d
pressur
e.

Exampl
es
Thehei
ghtoft
hemercur
ycolumni
nabarometerisfoundtobe67.
0cm atacer
tai
npl
ace.
Whatwoul
dbet
heheightofawat
erbar
omet eratthesamepl
ace?(
densi
ti
esofmercur
y-
4 3 3
1.36×10 kg/ m andwat
er-1.0×10
3
kg/m) .Sol
uti
on
Letthepressureduet
owat erbeh1ρ1g1andt erbehρg.Then
hatofwat
-
1 4 3
h1ρ1g1=hρg.Henceh1=( 6.
7×10 )×(1.
36×10 )/1.
0×10 =911.
2cm or
9.11m.

Appl
i
cat
ionofpr
essur
eingasesandl
i
qui
ds.
1.Rubbersucker–t hi
sisashal l
owrubbercap.Beforeuseiti
smoistenedtoget
agoodsealt henpr essedfir
mlyonasmoot hsur f
acesot hatt
heairinsi
deis
pushedout.The
atmospheri
cpr essurewill
thenhol
ditfi
rmlyagainstthesurf
aceasshown
below.Theyareusedbypr i
nti
ngmachinestoli
ftpapers,l
if
ti
ngglasspanes,
heavymetalsheet setc.
 0714497530

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Dri
nki
ngst r
aw–whenal i
quidi sdr awnusingast rawairi
ssuckedt hrought he
strawtothelungs.Thisl eav esthespacei nthestrawparti
all
yev acuated.
Theat mospheri
cpr essurepushi ngdownt heliqui
dinthecontainerbecomes
greatert
hanthepressur ei nsidet hestr
awandt hi
sfor
cestheliquidintoy our
mout h.
Thesyri
nge–theywor kint hepr i
ncipleasthestraw.Theyareusedbyt he
doctorsinhospi
talsforgi vinginjecti
ons.

Bi
cycl
epump–i tusestwoval
ves,onei
nthepump( gr
easyleat
her)andthe
otheri
ntheti
re.Whenthehandlei
spushedi n,t
hepressur
einsi
det hebar
rel
becomesgreatert
hantheoneinthet
ireandt hi
spushesairi
nside.The
valvei
ntheti
reismadesuchthatai
rislockedinsi
deoncepumped.

Thesiphon–itisusedtoemptytankswhichmaynotbeeasytoemptyby
pouringtheircont
ent
sout.Thetubi
ngmustbeloweredbelowthebaseofthe
tank.Theliquidfl
owsoutduetopressur
edi
ff
erencecausedbythedif
fer
ence
inheight(hρg) .

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Li
ftpump.
Forcepump.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onofpr
essur
einl
i
qui
dsandgases.
I
twasf i
rstr ecogni zedbyaFr enchmat hematicianandphy sici
stcal l
edBl ai
se
th
Pascali nthe17 cent ury.Pr essur eisequal lydi st
ributedinaf luidandequal l
y
tr
ansmi tt
edasshowni nt hefollowi ng,
Hydraulicbr akesy stem–t hemast ercy li
ndertransmi t
spressur etothefourslave
cyli
nder soneachwheel .Thecy l
inderscont ainbr akeflui
d.Fluidisused
becausel iquidsarealmosti ncompr essi
ble.Whenf or
cei sappliedinthepedal
ther esulti
ngpr essurei nt hemast ercyli
nderi stransmi tt
edt otheslave
cyli
nder s.Thi sforcesthepi stontoopent hebr akeshoeswhi chthenpushes
thebr akel ini
ngagai nstt hedr um.Thi sforcet her otat
ionoft hewheel toslow
down.I tisimpor t
antt onot et hatpressurei sequal lydistr
ibutedinall
wheel s
sot hatt hecardoesn’ tpul lorv eertoonesi de.

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Hy
dr aul
icpress–i tconsist
soft wopistonswi thdiff
erentcross-
sect
ionalar
eas.
Sincepr essureistransmittedequall
yinfluids,whenf or
ceisappli
edinone
pistonitistransmittedtotheotherpiston.Thesmal lerpist
oniscall
edthe
forcewhi lethebiggerpistoniscall
edthel oad.Theyar eusedtol
iftheavy
loadsini ndustr
ies,bendingmet al
sandsheet setc.

Examples
2
Theareaoft hesmall
erpi
stonofahydraul
icpressis0.
01m andt hatoft
he
2
biggerpistoni
s0.5m .Ifthefor
ceappli
edt othesmal
l
erpist
onis2N,
whatf or
cei st
ransmit
tedtothel
argerpi
ston?
Soluti
on
Pressure=f or
ce/area–henceP=2/0. 01=200Pa.

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For
ce=Pr essure×Ar ea=200×0. 5=100N.
Themastercy l
i
nderpistoninacarbr aki
ngsystem hasadiamet
erof2.0cm.
Theeffectiveareaoft hebr akepadsoneachoft hefourwheelsis30
2
cm .Thedr iverexer
tsaf orceof500nont hebrakepedal
.Cal
culat
e
Thepressurei nthemast ercyl
inder
Thetotalbrakingfor
cei nthecar.
2 2
Ar
eaoft hemastercyl
inder–πr =3. 14cm
-
4 6 2
Pressure=for
ce/ar
ea=500/3. 14×10 =1. 59×10 N/m
2
Ar
eaofbr akepads=(30×4)cm .Si ncepressureint
hewheelcyl
i
nderi
s
thesameasi nthemast ercy
li
nder)
6 -4 4
F=Pr essure×Area=( 1.
59×10 )×( 120×10 )=1. 91×10 N.
 0714497530

CHAPTERFI
VE
PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER.
St
atesofmat
ter
Matterisany thingthatoccupi esspace.Mat terexistsi
nt hreestates:sol
ids,li
quids
andgases.Mat t
ercanbechangedi nvariousway swhi chincludesphy si
cal,chemical
andnucl earchanges.
Physicalchanges–t heyar enor mallyreversi
bleandnonewsubst ances
formed.Exampl esar e;
Changeofst atesuchasmel t
ingandv aporizati
on
Thermalexpansi onduet oheat i
ng
Dissolvingsolidsi nliquids
Magnet i
zing
Chargingel ectri
cal l
y
Chemi calchanges–t heyar eirrever
sibleandnewsubst ancesare
formedExampl esar e;
Changescausedbybur ning
Changesoccur ringi nsomechemi cal
sduet oheat i
nge. g.mercuricoxide
Ther eact i
onsresul ti
ngf r
om mi xingchemi calstoform othersubst ances.
Nuclearchanges–t hesear echangesoccur r
inginnucl earsubstanceswhi ch
giveoffsomepar t
icl
esi .e.Uranium andRadi um.Ast hishappenst hey
changei ntoothersubst ances.

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Par
ti
cul
atenat
ureofmat
ter
Matteri
smadeupofmi l
li
onsoftinypar
ti
cleswhichcannotbeseenwithnakedey
es.
Theseparti
clesar
ecall
edat omsandar emadeupofsub- at
omi cpart
icl
escal
led
prot
ons,neut
ronsandel
ectr
ons.Atomsjoi
nt oget
hert
of or
m molecul
es.

Mov
ementofpar
ti
cles
Par ti
clesmov ef rom oner egiont oanot herbyt hepr ocessofdi f
f on.Di
usi ff
usion
i
st hemov ementofmol eculesfr om r egionsofhi ghconcent rati
ontor egionsof
l
owconcent rationunt i
lanequi librium isr eachedorachi eved.Gasesdi ff
use
fasterorr eadi lyt hanl i
quids.Ther ateofdi ff
usi ondependsont hemannerof
arrangementofi ndi v
idual parti
cles.
Solids
Individual atomsi nsolidshav easmal lspacebet weent hem hencet heirforcesof
attractionar ev er ystrong.Theyv ibrateint heirfixedposi t
ionsandt hisgivessolids
af xedshape.Li
i quids
Forcesofat tract i
onbet weenl iqui dmol eculesar enotasst rongasi nsol idswhere
mot ioni snotr est r
icted.Theycol lidewi theachot herast heymov eabout .Theytake
theshapeoft hecont ainertheyar eputi nhencehav enodef i
niteshape.
Gases
Mol ecul esofat omsi ngaseousst atear ef urtherapar texperienci
ngv erysmal l
forcesofat tract i
on.Thi smakest hem al mostcompl et el
yf r
eef r
om eachot her
.We
sayt heyar eindependenti nspace.Gaseshav enodef ini
teshapeandv ol
umebut
theyt akeupt hespaceandv olumeoft hecont ainert heyar eputin.
 0714497530

CHAPTERSI
X
THERMALEXPANSI
ON.
I
ntr
oduct
ion
0
Temper at
ur ei
sthedegreeofhotnessorcoldnessofabody.Bot
hCelsiusscal
e(C)
and
Kelv
inscal e(t
hermodynamicscale)areusedtomeasuret
emperatur
e.TheKelvi
n
scal
ei salsoknownast heabsol
ut escal
etemperat
ureandismeasuredfrom
absolutezero(0K).

Expansi
onofsol
i
ds
Whensol idsareheatedtheyexpand.Theexpansi onissosmallsuchthatwecan’
t
seethem.
Thefollowingexperimentswil
ldemonstrateactualexpansi
onofsoli
ds.
Experi
ment1: -Ballandri
ngexperiment
Procedure
Obtainabal landri
ngapparatus.
Passt heballthr
oughtheri
ngatr oom temperatureandobservet
hatiteasi
l
y
sli
psthrough.
Heatthebal lusi
ngaBunsenbur nerforonemi nute.
Trytopasst heballt
hroughther i
ngandobser vewhathappens.
Letitcoolforsomet i
meandt r
ypassingtheballagain.

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Discussi
on
Whent hebal
lisheatedi
texpandsandincr
easesindi
ameter
.Thi
smakest
he
ballnottopassthr
oughthering.Af
tercool
ingiti
sfoundthatt
hebal
lsl
i
ps
throught
heri
ngeasil
yagai
n.

Experiment2:-Thebar -
breaker
Procedure
Tryandbr eakthecast-i
ronpi nwit
hy ourhands.Canyou?(Abar-breakerisa
strongir
onf ramewhi chholdsast eelbarfi
tt
edwit
hawi ng-nut.Theot her
endi shel
dbycast -i
ronpi nasshownbel ow).
Tight
ent henutbutdonotbr eakthepi n.
Heatt hebarstrongl
yusingt woBunsenbur ner
sasyoukeeptighteningthenut.
Continueheati
ngf oranot herfi
veminut est
henleti
tcool
.
Obser vewhathappens.

Discussi
on
Whent hebarcoolsthecast -
ir
onpinbreaks.Thisshowsthatast
hebarcool
sit
contract
sandst r
ongf orcespull
againstthepin.Thesef
orcesmakest
hepinto
break.
Experiment3:-Heati
ngabi metall
i
cstrip
Procedure
Heatabr ass-
ir
onbi metal
li
cstri
pusingaBunsenbur nerandmakesur
eiti
s
heat
edev enl
y.
Observewhathappensaf terashortwhile.

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Discussion
Whenabr ass-
ir
onbimetall
icstr
ipi
sheateditbendstowardstheir
on.Thi
smeans
thatbrassexpandsmoret hanir
onandthiscausesthestri
ptobendtowardstheir
on
side.Thisshowsthatdi
fferentmat
eri
alsexpandatdiff
erentr
ateswhenheated.

Appl
i
cat
ionsoft
heex
pansi
onofsol
i
ds
Const
ructi
onofrai
l
wayli
nes–anexpansi onjoi
nti
sall
owedbetweenanytwo
rai
lstoaccommodateexpansi
on.Afishplatei
susedtoj
ointworai
ls.
Moder nrai
l
waysyst
em usetheover
lappingjoi
ntatt
heendofrai
ls.

Const
ruct
ionofbridgesandrooftops(st
eelgirders)
–f orbr
idgesonesidehas
rol
ler
swhi l
etheotherisfi
xedtoall
owf orexpansion.Concretesl
absareal
so
lai
dont hegroundleavi
ngspacefil
l
edwi thpitchtoall
owf orexpansi
on.

Hotwaterpi
pes–pi
pescarr
yinghotwater(
steam)f
rom boi
l
ersar
efi
tt
ed
wit
hexpansionj
oint
sforexpansi
on.

Ri
vet
ing–usedt oj
ointwopiecesofmet
altoget
heri
.e.bi
metal
l
icst
ri
ps,car
bodies,drumsetc.Fi
tt
ingrai
lcar
twheel
usingheatusest
hepri
ncipl
eof
ri
vets.Bimetal
li
c

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st
ri
psareusedint
hermostat
s(contr
olt
emper
atur
e)–el
ect
ri
cir
onbox,
al
arm sy
stems,
carfl
asheruni
tsetc.

Expansi
onofl
i
qui
dsandgases.
Expansi
onofl
i
qui
ds.
Liqui
dsexpandmorethansoli
dssoi ti
seasyt
oobserv
eandseecl ear
lyast
hey
expand.Weusethehotwaterbott
let
odemonst
rat
etheexpansi
onofwater
.Water
i
sputi nt
hebott
leasshownbelow.

Whenthebot t
lei
simmer sedinhotwat
er,i
nit
ial
l
ythereisadropinthelevelofwater
i
ntheglasstubethenitsteadi
l
yri
sesaft
erawhi l
e.Thi
sshowst hatl
iquidsexpand
wit
hincrementinvol
umeasshownbyt hehotwat erbot
tle.Di
ff
erentli
quidsexpand
atdi
ff
erentrat
esasshownbel ow.

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Expansi
onofgases
Theyar etheeasi esttoobser
v esincetheyexpandthemost.
Experiment :-Expansionofai
r
Procedure
Obtainanempt y500mlr oundbot tomedflaskf
itt
edwit
hacorkandaglass
tubing.
Placeabeakerwi t
hsomewat eronabench.
Ruby ourhandst oget
herthoroughlyandplacet
hem onthef
laskandpl
aceiti
n
thewat erasshown.
Observewhathappens.

Discussi
on
Theheatproducedbythehandsmakestheai
rinsi
detheflaskt
oexpand.Thi
s
makest hevol
umetoincreaseandt
her
eforef
orcetheexcessai
routasbubbl
es.

Appl
i
cat
ionsoft
heex
pansi
onofgasesandl
i
qui
ds.
Landandseabr eeze–dur ingthedayt hel andi sheatedbyt hesuncausi ngthe
ai
rabov eittoexpand.Theai rbecomesl essdenset hereforeitri
ses.The
spaceleftisquicklyfi
ll
edbyanot hercool air(generall
yf rom theseasincethe
l
andget shotfast er)
.Thiscausesacool breezef or
mt heseadur ingtheday.
Atnightthelandlosesheatf astert hanthesea.Theai rabov ethesearises
si
nceitislessdenseandcool airfrom thel andrushest of i
llthegap.This
causesabr eezebl owingfr
om t helandt ot hesea.

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Ther
momet
ers
Li
quid-in-glasst hermomet er–thisappliestot heexpansi onofal i
quidinat hi
n-
wal ledgl ass-tube.Thel i
quidmov esupt het ubewhent hebul bisheated.The
li
qui dmustbeagoodconduct or,visibl
eandbeabl et ocont r
actandexpand
qui cklyanduni f
ormlyov erawi der angeoft emperatures.Itshoul
dal sonot
stickont hesi desofthet ube.
Liqui dscommonl yusedar emer curyandcol ouredalcohol.Thescaleis
obt ainedby
choosi ngt wot emperaturepointscalledf i
xedpoint
s.InCel siusl
owerpoi ntis
o o
takent obe0 C( whenplacedi nice)andt heupperpoi ntas100 C( boi
ling
steam) .Thet wopoi ntsaret her
eforedi v
idedi nt
o100equal part
s
(cal i
brat i
on).Themel ti
ngandboi li
ngpoi ntsofbothmer curyandalcohol are
o o o o
(-39 C–357 C)and( -
112 C-78 C)r especti
vel
y.

Cl
i
nicalther momet er–thi
si saspecialtypeofmer cur
y-i
n-gl
asst her
mometer
usedt omeasur ebodyt emperature.Sincebodytemperatureisnormal
l
y37
o o
Ct hescal eisonlyafewdegr eesbel owandabov e37 C.I thasa
const r
icti
onwhi chpreventsmer curyfrom goi
ngbackaf terexpansi
onfor
conv enientreadingoftemperature.Thi st
hermometerhasanar r
owborefor
greatersensi t
ivi
tyandaccuracy.
 0714497530

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Si
x’
smaxi mum andmi ni
mum t hermomet er
–i tisusedt omeasure
temper atureofsurroundingsofanar eaorapl ace.Itcanrecordbot h
maxi mum andmi nimum t emperatur
esattained.Consi stsofalargebul b(
A)
cont ai
ningoilofcreosoteconnect edtoU-shapedst em whichconnect sto
asecondbul b(B)containingthe
samel iquid.Thebase( C)cont ai
nsat hi
nthreadofmer cur
y.Ther angeof
o o
thisthermomet erisbetween- 20 Cand50 C.Af tereachreadingthe
indicesarepulleddownt ot helevelofmercur ybyuseofamagnet .

Bi
metall
i
cthermomet er
–i tismadeupofabi metal
li
cstri
pwithoneendf i
xed
andtheotherconnectedt oapointer
.Metalsusedareusuall
ybrassand
inv
ar.Astemperatur
esi ncreasethestr
ipunwindsandmov esthepoint
er
overacal
ibrat
edscale.Itisusedt omeasurehightemperat
ures.

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Thermocouplet
hermomet er–t hermocoupl
eisajuncti
onmadeofcopperand
i
ron
l
oopedatbothends.I
npr act i
ceasensit
ivemill
iv
oltmeteri
sused
i
nsteadofagal
vanomet er.Acol dj
uncti
onismai nt
ainedinmel
ti
ngice
o
(0 C)whi
let
heotherjunctionisheatedsteadi
l
y.Thisthermomet
erdoes
notappl
ythepr
inci
pleofex pansi
on.

Unusual
expansi
onofwat
er.
o
I
fwat erisheatedlet’
ssayf r
om -15 Citexpandsnor mall
yli
keanysolidbutonlyup
o
to0 C.Att hi
spointi tst
art
stomeltandi tcontr
acts.Thiscont
ract
ionwillbe
o
observedupt o4 C.Whenheat edfurt
herwat erst
artstoexpandupt oboili
ngpoint.
o
Thi
si stheunusual expansi
onofwat er
.Thismakest hetopofwatertofr
eeze(0 C)
o
i
ntemper atecountriesall
owingtheonebel owtoremai nli
qui
d(4 C).Thi
ssuppor ts
marinelif
eduringwi nter
.

Molecul
e
sand
heat.
1.Solids
–when
heatedmol eculesinsoli
dsabsorb
heat
energyandv i
brate.Theypushagai nstoneanot herandt hiscausesexpansion.
Furtherexpansi onmayr esulttocol
lapseasmel t
inginice.
Li
qui ds–besi desv ibrati
ngpar t
iclesi
nal i
quidmov eshor tdist
ances.Asthey
mov et heycol l
idebyhi tti
ngeachot herandt hisresultstomor eexpansion.
Forboi li
ngt ooccurmol eculesabsor benoughener gyt obeabl etoescape
from theliquid.
Gases–i ndividualpar t
icl
esar ef r
eeofoneanot herandi nr apidmoti
on.
Whenheat edt herear ecoll
isionswiththewal lsoft hecont ai
ner
.This
result
st ohi ghpr essureinthecontainer
.
 0714497530

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CHAPTERSEVEN
HEATTRANSFER.
Heatistransf
err
edi
nmattert
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hods:
conduct
ion,
convect
ionandradi
ati
on.
Conduct
ion
Thisisthetransf erofheati nsol i
ds.Ther ateofconduct i
ondependson
Amountoft emper ature–t hehi gherthet emper aturethehighert herateof
tr
ansfer .
Cross-sectionalar ea–t hel argerthecr oss-secti
onalar eathehi gherthetransf
er.
Lengthofmat er
ial–t heshor t
erthemat eri
althehi gherther at
eoft ransf
er .
Typeofmat er
ial–di ffer
entmat eri
alst r
ansf erheatatdi f
ferentrates.
Goodandbadconduct ors
Conductivit
yist heabi li
tyofamat eri
altoconductheat .Goodconduct orsofheatar e
thosemat eri
alswhi char eablet ot r
ansferheateasi lyandst eadily
.Badconduct or
s
arethosewhi chdonotconductheat .
Experiment:Compar ingt hermalconduct i
v i
tyof
met al
sProcedur e
Obtainfouri denticalrodsofcopper ,iron,aluminium andbr ass.
Atoneendofeachr odattachamat chstickusingpar affi
nwaxandl etitsoli
dif
y.
Placether odsonat ri
podst andwi t
ht hef r
eeendscl osetooneanot herasshown.
Heatthef reeendsst r
onglywi thaBunsenbur ner.
Observewhathappens.

Discussion
Whendonecor r
ect
lyandcareful
lythemat chsti
ckswi l
lfal
loffinthefoll
owing
order:copper
,al
umini
um, brassandf i
nal
lyiron.Thisshowst hatdiff
erentmetal
s
conductheatatdif
fer
entrates.
NOTE–onacol dmorni
ngamet al
li
cchairwoul dfeelcoldcompar edtoawooden
chairatthesametemperature,t
hisisbecauset hemet al
li
cchairabsorbsheat
fr
om y ourbodyasopposedt owoodwhi chisabadconduct orofheat .
Appl
i
cat
ionsofconduct
ors
Goodconduct
ors
Theyareusedtomanufact
urecookingutensi
l
s
Theyareusedasl
iqui
dssuitabl
eforther
momet er
si.
e.mer
cur
y

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3.Usedasheatdumps( metalcli
ps)whensol deri
ngdel
icat
ecomponent
sin
acircui
tboardi.
e.transist
ors
Poorconduct or
s
Usedasi nsul
atorsinhandlesofcooki ngutensil
s
Usedi nmakinggoodwi nt
erclothesi.
e.wool
Hotwat ercyl
inder
sarel aggedwi t
hfibre-
glasssincegl
assisapoor
conductorofheat.
Housesi ncoldcountr
ieshav edoublewal l
swithairtr
appedint
hem t
okeep
them warm.
Conv
ect
ion
Thisisthetransferofheatt hroughflui
ds(li
quidsandgases)
.Thisoccurswhenpart
ofthef l
uidi
sheat ed:theybecomel essdenseandr i
seabovethecol
df l
uid.Ast
hey
mov etheycarryheatwi ththem.I nconvecti
onweobser vest
reamsofmov i
ngfl
uid
call
edconv ecti
onal curr
ents.
Convectioninair
Experiment:modelchi mney( smokebox)
Procedure
Obtainamodelchi mneysy st
em orconstructoneasshown
Placealightedcandleunderoneoft hechi mneys
Placeasmoul deri
ngclothneart heotherchimneyandobservewhathappens.

Discussi
on
Smokewi llbeseengoi ngint
ot hechi
mneyandcomi ngoutthr
oughtheother
chimney.The
ai
rabov ethecandl egetsheatedandrisesupthechi
mneycausingconvect
ional
current
s
whichcarrythesmokeoutwi t
ht hem.
Experiment:rev
olvingpaper-
vane
Procedure
Makeapaper -
vanebycut t
ingathincardasshown
Putast r
ingthroughthehol ei
nthecentreandhol
ditaboveali
ghtedBunsen
burner.
Observewhathappens.
 0714497530

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Discussi
on
Ast heai
rabov
ethef
lameget
sheatedconvecti
onalcur
rent
sar ef
ormed
andr i
seupwar
ds.
ast
hesecur
rent
sbrushagainstt
hepaper-vanei
trot
ates.
Conv
ect
ioni
nli
qui
ds
Experi
ment :heati
ngwaterinabeaker
Procedure
Putwat eri
nabeakerunt i
litist
hreequar
ter
sfullandplacei
tonatri
podst
and.
Dropacr yst
alofpotassi
um permanganatethr
oughat ubetoset
tl
eatone
corneratthebott
om oft hef
lask.
Heatthewat ergent
lyusingaBunsenburnerandobserv et
hemovementof
str
eamsofcol our.

Discussion
Ast r
eam ofcolourwil
lbeseenmov i
ngupwar dsanddownwardsagainatt
heot
her
si
deoft hebeaker.Thi
swi l
lconti
nuegraduall
yuntil
all
thewaterbecomes
coloured.Thi
sshowst hatconvect
ionalcur
rentsal
soexisti
nli
quids.

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Experi
ment:modelofhotwatersystem
Procedur
e
Obtai
ntwof l
atbot
tomedflasksandsetuptheapparat
usasshownbel
ow.
Holdthefl
asksinpl
acebyuseofcl ampstands.
Heatthebott
om ofthel
owerf l
askandobservewhathappens.

Discussi
on
Whent hewateri
nthel
owerfl
askbecomeshoti
tri
sesupt
otheupperf
lask.
Aftersometi
met hewat
eri
ntheupperfl
askwi
ll
becomehotduet
oconv ect
ional
current
s.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofconv
ect
ion
Bri
ngsaboutthelandandseabreezes.
Canbeusedtoexpl ai
ntheweatherphenomena.
Usedincarr
adiators.
Usedini
mmer sionwaterheat
ersbyplacingt
hem att
hebot
tom.

Radi
ati
on
Thi
sissi
mplythef
lowofheatf
rom onepoi
ntt
oanot
herbymeansof
el
ectr
omagnet
icwaves.

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Radi
ati
onf
rom di
ff
erentsur
faces
Weuset heLesliecubet odeterminer adi
ationofdifferentsurf
aces.Itisa
rect
angul armetal containerofsquar ebasewi thsmal lopeningatthetop.Onesi de
i
scoat edwi thpolishedsi l
ver,anotherdullblack(candleflamesoot )
,theothergrey
andthef ourthwhi te.Experi
ment :Radiati
onf rom dif
ferentsurfaces
Procedur e
PlaceaLesl i
ecubeonat r i
podst andandat tachat hermomet eroneachoft he
foursides.
Allthermomet er sshouldbeatl east5.0cm f ormt hesurfaceandshould
readt hesamet emper atur
e.
0
Pourhotwat er(about80 C)unt i
liti
sfullandnot ethereadingofeach
thermomet eraf ter1mi nute.
0
Repeatt heabov eprocedureusi ngboil
ingwat er(100 C) .

Discussion
Thet hermometeragainstt
heblacksurfacerecordsthehighesttemperat
ure,
foll
owedbyt heoneont hegreyside,
thenthewhi tesurf
acewhi l
ethepoli
shedside
recordedthelowesttemperat
ure.Thereadingswhent hewat eri
sboil
ingwer ehi
gher
,
i
ndicatingthatr
adiat
iondependsont emperature.I
talsodependsont henatureof
surface.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofr
adi
ati
on
El
ect
ri
ckettl
eshaveachr omecoatt oreduceradi
ati
on.
El
ect
ri
cironaresil
vercoatedtominimizeradi
ati
on.
Gr
eenhousesuser adi
ati
on( heatt
rap)togrowcrops.
Cl
oudsrefl
ectradi
ati
onbackt otheearthhencecl
oudynight
sar
ewar
mert
han
cl
earnight
s.

Vacuum f
lask
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I
twasdev elopedbySirJamesI varin1890.Itkeepsali
qui
dhotorcold(
dependson
whatisputin).Thel
iqui
dst aysatt hetemperatur
eiti
spouredi
neit
herhotorcol
d.
I
thasthefollowingpri
nciplef
eatur es;
Thev acuum betweent hedoubl ewall
s
Thet woi nt
eri
orwall
scoat edwi thsil
ver
Insul
atingcorksupports(anti
-shockpads)
Insul
atingcorkstopperatthet op.
 0714497530

CHAPTEREI
GHT
RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONANDREFLECTI
ONAT
PLANESURFACES.
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Object sthatproducet heirownl i
ghtareknownasl umi nousobjectsi.e.t
hesun,
torchlampset c.objectsthatdonotpr oducetheirownl i
ghtarecall
ednon- l
umi nous
objectsi.e.themoon.Opaqueobj ectsarethosewhi chdonotal lowl i
ghttopass
throught hem.Tr anslucentmat eri
alsarethosewhichal l
owl i
ghttopasst hrough
them butwecannotseet hroughthem i.
e.churchgl assandbat hroom glass.
Transpar entmat eri
alsar ethosewhichallowlighttopasst hrought hem andwecan
seet hrought hem i.
e.wi ndowpanes, carwindowset c.Arayisthedi r
ecti
onoft he
pathf oll
owedbyl i
ght.Abeam i sagr oupofray str
av ell
ingtogether
.

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Experi
ment :li
ghttr
avelsinstrai
ghtli
nes
Procedure
Obtaint
hr eecardboardswi t
haholeatt hecenterandmountthem sucht
hat
t
heyf orm astrai
ghtli
ne.
Arr
anget hem asshownandpl acealightedcandleatoneendandmakesure
t
haty oucanseet heflamef r
om theot herend.
Mov eanyoft hecardboardsandobser vewhathappens.

Discussion
Whenonecar dboar di
sdi splacedormov edslightl
ythef lamecannotbeseenatt he
otherend.Thi sshowst hatl ighttravel
sinast rai
ghtline.Thi spri
ncipleisappliedin
thefoll
owi ng,Pinholecamer a
I
tconsist sofacl osedboxwi t
hasmal lhol
eononef aceandascr eenoft racing
paper/frost edglassont heopposi t
efaceasshown.Ani magewi llbef ormedon
thescreen.Si ncel i
ghtt
rav el
sf rom onepoi ntoftheobj ectthrought heholean
i
magewi llbef ormedont heopposi tescreenoft hebox.I ftheobjecti snearthe
holeiti
smagni f
iedwhiledi minishedifawayf rom thehol e.Magnificationis
theref
oret her at
ionofthei maget oobjectheight,expressedas,
Magni f
ication=hei ghtofi mage/hei ghtofobjector
=di st
anceofi magef r
om pinhole/distanceofobj ectf rom pinhole

Shadows

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Shadowsaref or
medwhenanopaqueobj ectisplacedbetweenasourceof
l
ightandascreen.Whentheshadowisbigadarkpatchatthecent
rei
sformed
(umbra)whi
l
easur roundi
ngl
ight
erpatchcal
ledpenumbraisfor
med.

Ecli
pses
Ecli
pseofthesun(sol
arecl
ipse)
Thisoccurswhenthemooni sbetweentheear
thandtheearth.Theshadowof
themoonf all
sontheear
th’
ssurface.Someti
mesthedist
ancei slar
gefort
he
shadowt oreacht
heeart
handwhent hi
shappensanannularecli
pseoccur
s.

Annul
arecl
i
pse

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Ecl
ipseofthemoon
I
tisalsoknownasl
unarecl
i
pseandoccur
swhentheear
thi
sbet
weent
hesun
andthemoon.Theshadowoft
heeart
hfal
lsont
hemoon.

Examples
Cal
culatethehei ghtofabui lding300m awayf r
om api nholecamer awhich
producesani mage2. 5cm hi ghifthedistancebetweent hepi nhol
eandthe
screeni s5. 0cm.Sol uti
on
Obj ectdistance=300m, imagehei ght=2.5cm, imagedi stance=
5.0cm.Obj ectheight/imagehei ght=obj ectdi
stance/image
distance
Obj ectheight=( 30,000×2. 5)/5. 0=15, 000cm =150m.
Thelengthofapi nholecamer ai s25. 0cm.Anobj ect2.0cm i splaced10.
0m
from thepi nhole.Calcul
at et hehei ghtoftheimagepr oducedandi t
s
magni ficati
on.
Solut i
on
Imagehei ght=( i
magedi st ance×obj ectheight)/objectdistance
(25×200)/10=500cm or5
m.Magni fi
cation=i magedi st
ance/obj ect
distance
25/ 10=2. 5

Ref
lect
ionf
rom pl
anesur
faces
Dif
fuseandr egul
arrefl
ect
ion
Regularref
lect
ionoccurswhenaparal
lelbeam ofl
ightfall
sonapl anemirr
orband
ref
lectedasapar al
l
elbeam.Theyoccuronpoli
shedsur faces.Adi
f f
useref
lect
ion
occursonroughsur f
aceswhereaparall
elbeam ofli
ghtisrefl
ect
edi nal
ldi
rect
ions.

Lawsofrefl
ect
ion
1.Theinci
dentr
ay,t
henor
malandt
her
efl
ect
edr
ayatt
hepointofinci
dence
mustbe
onthesameplane
2.The angl
eofincidencei
s
equal
tothe angleofrefl
ecti
on.
 0714497530

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I
magesf
ormedbyr
efl
ect
ionf
rom pl
anesur
faces
Charact
eri
sti
csofimagesf ormedinapl anemir
ror
Theimageisthesamesi zeast heobject
Theimageisthesamedi stancebehindthemir
rorast
heobj
ecti
sinf
ront
Theimageisl
aterall
yinver
ted
Theimageisvir
tual
Theimageiserect.

Locati
onofani magebyt henon-parall
axmet hod
Paral
laxistheappar entr el
ati
vemot ionoftwoobj ectsduet ot hemov ementof
theobserver.Itonlyoccur swhent heobjectsareatadi stancef r
om oneanot her.
Thiscanbeusedt ofindthepositi
onofi magesi nplanemi rr
ors.
Experi
ment :Tof i
ndt hepositi
onofani mageofapi nbynon- paral
lax
methodPr ocedur e
Obtainasheetofpaperanddr awami rr
orline
Pl
acet hemi rroront heli
neasshown
Pl
acet hepi natleast5cm f r
om t hemirrorandobt ai
nanot herpin(searchpin)
Mov ethepi ntil
lyougetapoi ntwher ethereisnopar all
axandpl acey our
secondpi n.
Measur ethedi st
ances( bot
himageandobj ect
)andconf irmy ourresult
s.

Mi
rr
orsatanangl
e
Whenmirr
orsarepl
acedatananglesever
alimagesareobtaineddependingon
0
t
heanglebetweent
hem.Iftheangl
eis60 theimagesformedwi l
lbefive.Weuse
t
hefol
lowingfor
mulatofi
ndthenumberofimages
0
n=(360 /θ)–1
Whenmirr
orsareparal
l
elthent
heimagesformedareinfi
nit
e.

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Kalei
doscope
I
tappliest
heprinci
pleofmir
rorsatanangle.Consi
stsoftwomirr
orsarr
angedatan
0
angleof60 tooneanotheri
nsideatube.Thebottom hasagr
ound-gl
assplatewit
h
bri
ghtl
ycolour
edglassforal
lowingl
ight
.Whenoneobser vest
hroughthetubefi
ve
i
magesar eseen.

Theper
iscope
0
Thi
sconsist
soft womirr
orsar
rangedatanangleof45 asshown.Thi
spr
inci
ple
i
susedinperiscopes(
pri
sms)andtelescopes.

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CHAPTERNI
NE
ELECROSTATI
CSI
.
Somesubstancesgetchargedwhenrubbedagai
nstot
hersubst
ancesi.e.ny
lon,
pl
ast
ic,paperetc.thechargeacqui
redstayswit
hinthebodyi.e.itdoesnot
moveandtherefor
eknownaselectr
ostat
icchar
georst
ati
celect
ri
city
.

Thel
awofchar
ges–t
ypesofchar
ges
Therearetwoty pesofchargesi.
e.negati
veandposit
ivecharges.Thenegativ
echarge
consist
sofelectronswhicharemobi l
e.Thelawofchargesinsummar ystatesthat“
li
ke
chargesrepel
,unlikechar
gesattract
’’
.Justl
i
keinmagnet i
sm attr
acti
onisnotasur e
wayoft est
ingforchargebutrepulsi
onbecausei
twillonl
yoccurifthebodiesare
si
milarl
ycharged.

Char
ges,
atomsandel
ect
rons
Theat om i
smadeupofacent ralpartcall
edthenucl eus,contai
ningpositi
vel
y
chargedionscall
edprotonsandout wardlysurroundedbynegat ivel
ycharged
el
ectrons.Thenucleusalsocontaintheparti
clescalledneut r
onswhi charenot
charged.Whenanat om isnotchargedthenumberofpr otonsequalsthenumberof
el
ectrons.Whenamat eri
ali
srubbedwi thanotheri.
e.acet atewit
hsi l
k,el
ectr
onsare
tr
ansferr
edf r
om onebodyt oanother.Thebodyaccept i
ngorr eceiv
ingelect
rons
becomesnegat i
velychargedwhiletheonedonat ingorlosi ngel
ectronsbecomes
posi
tivel
ycharged.Protonsandneut r
onsinthenucl eusdonotmov e.TheSIuni
tfor
chargeistheCoulomb( Coul.
)

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18
Coul
.=char
geon6.
25×10 elect
rons.
-19
Char
geononeel
ect
ron=1.
60×10
Coul
.
Coul
.=1Amperesecond(
As)
.

Thel
eafel
ect
roscope
Thisisasensi t
iveinst
rumentf ormeasur
ingchar ge.Itconsist
sofamet alcap
connectedt
oast em whoselowerparti
sflatt
enedi nt
oapl atewi t
hathi
nstri
pof
al
uminium f
oilatt
achedt oit
.Theplat
eandt heleafareenclosedinametalcasi
ng
whichisear
thed.Thesi desofthemetalar
emadeofgl asstoallowthel
eaftobe
seen.

Otherleafel
ectr
oscopesar
emadeusi
nggol
dst
ri
psandar
eref
err
edt
oas
goldleafel
ectr
oscope.

Char
ginganddi
schar
ginganel
ect
roscope
Whenachar gedbodyi sbroughtnearthecapoft heelectr
oscopetheleafdiverges,
andwhenr emov editcollapses.Whenanegat i
velychargedbodyisbroughtnear
themetalcapel ect
ronsar erepel
ledfrom t
hecapt othelowerpartsofthest em
andtheleaf.Thisconcent r
ati
onofnegat i
vechargesmakest heleaftodiverge.
Simil
arl
ywhenaposi ti
velychargedbodycomesneart hemet al
captheelect rons
areatt
ract
edbyt heprotonsandmov eupthestem, l
eav i
ngahighconcent r
ationof
posi
tiv
echar geswhichmaket heleaftodiver
ge.

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Ifyoutouchthemetalcapwi t
hy ourfi
ngert hel
eafcoll
apsesshowi ngthatthe
chargeshavebeendischar
gedt hroughy ourbody.Anunchar gedbodywillalway
s
causetheleafofachargedelectroscopetocollapser
egardlessofthechar geonthe
elect
roscope.Thi
sshowst hatchargemov esfr
om thechargedelectr
oscopet othe
unchargedbody.

Conduct
orsandi
nsul
ator
s
Conductorsaret hosesubst anceswhi challoweasypassageofachar ge.Insulat
ors
donotallowachar get opasst hrougheasily.Achar gedel ectroscopecanbeused
toclassi
fyobject sintoconduct orsandi nsulators.
Experiment:Arrangi ngobject sintoconduct orsandi nsul ator
s.
Procedure
Chargeanel ect roscopebyr ubbingitwithf urunt ilit
sl eafdiverges.
Obtainanumberofmat erialsli
kealuminium, paper ,copper ,
iron,cl
oth,glass,
woodet c.
Holdtheseit emsi ny ourhandi nturnsandt oucht hechar gedel ect
roscopes’
metalcapwi thi t
.
Recordyourr esultsinthet ableshownbel ow.

Materi
al Conduct
or I
nsul
ator
I
ron √
Cork √
Al
uminium √
Copper √
Char
gingan Paper √ el
ect
roscope
by
i
nduct
ion

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Wehav eseenthatwhenachar gedbodyi sbroughtnearal eafel

ect
roscope,
char
gesaretr
ansfer
redtotheelect
roscopeandtheleafdiv
erges.Thi
smethodof
tr
ansfer
ri
ngchar
gewi t
houtact
ualcontacti
scall
edinducti
on.

Usesoft
heel
ect
roscope
Todetectthepresenceofchargeonabody
Totestthequantit
yofchargeonachargebody.
Totestforinsul
ati
onpropert
iesofamater
ial
.
Totestthesignofchargeonachargedbody.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofel
ect
rost
ati
cchar
ges.
El
ect
rostaticprecipi
tator–t heyareusedinchimney st oreducepolluti
onby
att
ractingpollutantsthroughelectr
ici
onizat
ionwhi cht hentrapsthem by
useofpl ates(wi r
emesh) .Fi
ngerpri
nti
ngandphot ocopy i
ngusest hesame
pri
nciple.
Spr
aypai nti
ng–asai rcruisesabov ethepaintdroplet sacquiresimilar
chargest hereforespr eadoutf i
nelyduetor epulsion.Litt
lepaintisthen
used.

Danger
sofel
ect
rost
ati
cs
Asli
quidfl
owst hroughapi peit
smoleculesgetchargedduetorubbi
ngagainst
i
nnersurf
ace.Iftheli
quidisflammablethenthi
scancausespar ksandexpl
ode.
Thesamehappenst ofuelscarr
iedi
nplasti
ccanst her
efor
eiti
sadv i
sabl
etocarry
fuel
inmetall
i
ccanst oleakoutthecont
inuousl
yproducedcharges.
 0714497530

CHAPTERTEN
CELLSANDSI
MPLECI
RCUI
TS.
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Workdoneperunitchar
geiscall
edel
ect
ri
calpot
enti
al.Cur
renti
sthefl
owof
char
ge.Forcur
renttobecont
inuous,
pot
enti
aldi
ff
erencebetweenthet
wopoi
nts
mustbesustai
ned.

Sour
cesofcont
inuouscur
rent
s.
Inthispr ocesswor kiscont inuousl ydonei nmov i
ngelect ronsagai nstar epulsive
force.Adev i
ceinwhi cht hepot entialdi fferencei ssustainedi scal l
edacel l.Acel l
i
sasour ceofcont i
nuouscur rent .Theendofacel lwithahi gherpot ential(fewer
electrons) i
scal l
edt heposi t
ivet erminal whi l
et heendwi thl owerpot ent ial(higher
electrons)iscal l
edt henegat i
v et ermi nal .
1.Chemi calsour ces
Agoodexampl ei stheel ectrochemi cal cel lwheresi multaneousoxi dat i
on-reduction
processoccur sbetweent heel ect r
olyteandt heel ect
rodes.Anext ernal ci
rcuitis
usedt ot ransfert heelectr ons.Exampl esofel ectr
ochemi cal cellsaret hepr imar y
cellsi.e.thedr ycellandDani el cell.Ther eactantsmustber epl
acedaf t
ersuppl yi
nga
givenamountofener gy .Thesecondt y pei sthesecondar ycel lorstor agecel lwhere
thechemi cal r
eact i
oni sr eversibl ei .
e.t hel ead-acidbatteryandni ckel -
cadmi um cell.
Thet hirdt ypeist hefuel cell wher echemi calenergysuppl i
edi scont inuousl y
conv ertedintoel ectri
cal ener gyi .
e.hy dr ogen-oxy gencell usedi nspacecr aft.

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 0714497530

2.Thermoelect r
icsources
Agoodexampl ei sthethermocoupl ewherep. dissustai
nedbytheconti
nuous
heati
ngwhi chkeepst heterminalsatdif
ferenttemperatur
es.
3.Solarsources
Thisoccurswhensomesemi -
conduct ormat er
ialcal
ledPandNt ypeabsorbsl
ight
atthei
rtr
ansiti
onr egionandgainener gyenought omov eelect
ronsj
ustli
keincell
s.
Theyareusedi nspaceships,calcul
ators,l
i
ght i
ng,etc.

DCci
rcui
ts
Conventi
onal
lycurr
entisafl
ow ofposi
ti
vechar
geandf l
owsfrom t
heposi
ti
ve
ter
minaltot henegat
ivet
erminal
.A dccurr
entisthefl
ow ofcurr
entinone
dir
ecti
onthatisf
rom t
heposi
ti
vetermi
nalt
othenegati
vet
ermi
nalwhenthel
oop
i
sclosed.

Cir
cui
tsymbol
s
Thefol
lowi
ngsymbol
sar
eusedi
nel
ect
ri
cal
cir
cui
ts.

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 0714497530

Pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceandcur
rent
Pdist hewor kdonebymov i
nganelect
ronf
rom onepoi
ntofaconductort
oanot
her
.
Currentisbydef i
nit
ionther at
eoffl
owofcharge.
Current=char ge/time
TheSIuni tforcur r
entist heampere,A.
1A=1Coul /sec
-
3
mil
liamper e( mA)=10 A
-
6
microamper e( µA)=10
AExampl es
Thecur rentinasi ngleloopis3.
0A.Howl ongwoul
ditt
akeforachargeof
3600coul ombst of l
ow?
Solution
Cur r
ent=char ge/t i
me
Time=char ge/cur r
ent=>3600/3=1200seconds=20mi nutes.
2.

Pr
imar
ycel
l
s
Thisisacellformedbydippingtwodiff
erentmetalsint
oanel ectrol
yte.
Experi
ment :makingasimplecell
Procedure
Takeapi eceofcopperstri
pandzincstri
pandcl eanthoroughlywithemer
ypaper
.
Putthetwost ri
psinabeakercontai
ningdil
utesulphuri
caci d.
Observewhathappenst othestr
ips.
Connectthest r
ipsext
ernal
lytoamill
iameterandav olt
met er.

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 0714497530

Discussi
on
Sulphuri
caci
dischemical
l
ywr
it
tenas,
 + 2-
H2SO4-
--
-- 2H +SO4
Theel
ect
ronsl
i
berat
edbyt
heaci
dmov
etot
hezi
ncel
ect
rode
 2+ -
Zn-
--
--
- Zn +2e
Thehy
drogeni
onsmov
etot
hecopperst
ri
p
+ - 
2H +2e-
--
- H2
Copperst ri
pt her
ef or
ebecomesposi t
ivelychargedwhi lethezincbecomes
negativ
elychar gedel ect
rode.
Theaccumul ati
onofbubbl esar oundt hecopperst r
ipiscall
edpol ar
izati
on.The
bubblesfor medar oundt hezincstripisther eacti
onofaci dwit hzi
ncimpur it
iesand
i
scal l
edlocal action.Polar
izati
onpr oducesi nsulati
onbetweent hestri
pandt heacid
cutt
ingof fproduct i
onofcur r
entev entually
.Thi sisknownast heint
ernalresist
ance
ofthecell.Local acti
oneat sawayt hezi ncstripandamer curycoatisappliedto
preventthis(amal gamation).Polar
izationandl ocal act
ionaret hemaindef ectsof
si
mpl ecells.

TheLecl anche’cel
l
Int hiscellcar
bonr odisusedasthepositi
vet er
mi nalandzincasthenegat i
ve
electrode.Theelect
roly
teisammonium chl
ori
desol uti
on(NH4Cl).Nopol
arizati
on
since itisr educed byuse ofmanganese (IV)oxi de (MnO2)which oxidi
zes
hydr ogenintowater
.Localact
ionst
il
loccur
s.Theyar eusedinoperati
ngbellsand
telephoneboxes.

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 0714497530

Thedrycell
Itisrefer
redtoasdr ybecauseitcontainsnol i
qui
d.Theammoni um sol
uti
onis
repl
acedwi t
hammoni um chlor
idejell
yorpast e,themanganese( I
V)oxi
deand
carbonpowderareusedast hedepolar
izer.Thehydr
ogengasproducedi
soxidi
zed
towat erwhi
chev entual
l
ymakest hecellwetafteruse.Theyar
eusedi nt
orches,
radi
oscalcul
ator
set c.

Secondar ycel
ls
Theyar ealsocall
edstoragecel
l
ssincetheystoreel
ect
ri
cal char
geas
chemi calener
gy.Experi
ment:Tochargeanddischar
geasi mplesecondar
ycel
l
Procedure
Setupt heapparat
usasshownbel ow.
ClosetheswitchS1andobservet
hechangesinthepl
atesifany.
Not ehowtheammet err
eadi
ngv ar
ieswit
ht i
me.

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 0714497530

Discussi
on
Whenchar gingoxygenisproducedattheanodeandhy drogenatt
hecathode.The
oxygenreactswithleadtoformlead(I
V)oxidewhichisdeposit
edattheanode.The
hydrogenformedhasnoef f
ect.
Whendi schargi
ngcur r
entfl
owsinopposit
edirect
ionwi t
hoxygenbeingfor
med
atthecathodeandhy dr
ogenattheanode.Thecol ouroftheposi
ti
veelect
rode
changesf r
om brownt ogrey.

Lead-aci
daccumul at
or.
A12Vaccumul at
orhassixcel
lsconnectedinseries.Eachcel lhassever
alplat es
formingl
atti
cegridwithposi
ti
veplatescarr
yinglead(IV)oxideandt henegative
plat
eshav i
ngspongylead.Theyareplacedclosetooneanot herwithaninsulat i
ng
sheetseparat
ingthem.Theyareratedinamper e-
hoursi.e.30Ahmeanst hati tcan
supply1amper efor30hoursor2amper esfor15hour set c.

Exampl
e
Abatt
eryisrat
edat30Ah.Forhowl
ongwil
li
twor
kifi
tst
eadi
l
ysuppl
i
esacur
rent
of3A?Soluti
on
Q=It,hencet=Q/I=>30/3=10hour s.

Alkali
neaccumul ators
Potassium hydroxide(KOH).Ni
ckelhydroxi
de(Ni(
OH)f or
msthepositi
veelectr
ode
whileironformsthenegat i
veelectr
ode.Theyaret
wot ypesni
ckelcadmium (Ni
Cd)
andni ckel
iron(NiFe).Theyareusedinships,
hospit
alsandbui
ldi
ngswherel ar
ge
currentsarerequir
edf oremergenci
es.

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 0714497530

Advantagesofalkali
neaccumul ator
sov erl
ead-
aci
daccumulat
ors
Largecurr
entscanbedr awnfrom them
Theyrequi
relitt
lemaintenance
Theyareportable
Theycanremai ndischargedforalongtimewit
houtget
ti
ng
rui
ned.Disadvantages
Theyareveryexpensive
Theyhavelowere. m.fpercell
.
0714497530
 0714497530

Meanwhi l
e,Onaddition;
Cont act0714497530f or;
Otherwel ldesignedhi ghschool
mat erial
s
Updat edCPA, CIFA,CICT,CPS
mat erial
s
Sever alnovelcoll
ections
Mot i
v ati
onalbooks
I
nspi rati
onalbooks
Setbooksandgui des
Teachi ngschemes
KCSE, Mockpastpaper s&Topicals
Revisionmat erial
s
KRAPI N&returnsser vices
HELBser vi
ces
Websi teDesign&dev elopmentt eam
Guidance&Counsel l
ingser v
ices

CONTACT
0714497530(
MRI
SABOKE)
 0714497530

(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com)
Regar
ds

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