A STUDY OF THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION

SATELLITES

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 APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this project work, “A Study of the Basic Concepts of

Communication Satellites”, was written by Student’s Name with Registration

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 DEDICATION

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY PAGES

Title page

Approval page

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Background of Study

1.3 Statement of Problems

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

1.5 Significance of Study

1.6 Scope of Study

1.7 Limitations of the Study

CHAPTER TWO

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LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Conceptual Review of Satellite Communication

2.3 Applications of Satellite Technology

2.4 Parabolic Satellite Dish Antenna

2.5 Transition to the Satellite Communications Act

2.6 Theoretical Review of Satellite Communications

2.6.1 Passive Satellites

2.6.2 Active Satellites

2.6.3 Advantages of Satellite Communication

2.7 General Architecture of Satellite Communication

2.8 Satellite Communication Orbital Control

2.9 Overview of Caching Over Satellite

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research Design

3.3 Population of Study

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3.4 Sampling and Sampling Technique

3.5 Validation of Research Instrument

3.6 Method of Data Collection

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

3.8 Questionnaire

3.8.1 Interview

3.8.2 Key Informants Interview

3.8.3 Observation

3.9 Statistical Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data

4.3 Test of Hypothesis 1

4.4 Discussion of Findings

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

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5.2 Summary

5.3 Conclusion

5.4 Recommendation

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A - “QUESTIONNAIRE”

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 ABSTRACT
A communication satellite is an orbiting artificial earth satellite that receives a
communications signal from a transmitting ground station, amplifies and possibly
processes it, then transmits it back to the earth for reception by one or more receiving
ground stations. The study is to scrutinize the Basic Concepts of Communication
Satellites. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out to find
out the factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication Satellites and examine
the relevance of Communication Satellites in the development of Nigeria economy. The
motivation that led to this research work is the rapid adoption of media streaming
instead of linear media broadcasting and the urgent need to extend broadband
coverage to underserved areas such as; developing countries, aero/maritime, and rural
areas. Data used in this work is derived primary from secondary sources. The
methodology therefore, is basically documentary in nature. This involves learning new
facts and principles through the study of documents and records. The documents and
records include journals, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, official publications etc. By
putting together logically evidence derived from documents and records. Conclusion
which either established facts hitherto unknown or sound generalization can be
obtained. This study will be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend to
know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on
their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for
other study.

10
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Today’s communications satellites offer extensive capabilities in applications involving

data, voice, and video, with services provided to fixed, broadcast, mobile, personal

communications, and private networks users. A communication satellite is an orbiting

artificial earth satellite that receives a communications signal from a transmitting

ground station, amplifies and possibly processes it, then transmits it back to the earth

for reception by one or more receiving ground stations. Communications information

neither originates nor terminates at the satellite itself. The satellite is an active

transmission relay, similar in function to relay towers used in terrestrial microwave

communications (Plgpl, 2021).

As a prelude to other parts of this study, this chapter will discuss the background upon

which this study was initiated, the statement of problems that led to this study, the Aim

and Objectives of the study. Others are Significance of the study, Scope of work,

Research hypothesis and questions, Limitation of the study and Definition of technical

terms.

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1.2 Background of Study

Since their inception, Satellite Communications (SatComs) have found a plethora of

applications, including media broadcasting, backhauling, news gathering etc. Nowadays,

following the evolution of Internet-based applications, SatComs are going through a

transformation phase refocusing the system design on data services, namely broadband

SatComs. Furthermore, a major milestone of the 5th generation of communication

systems (5G) is the integration and convergence of diverse wired and wireless

technologies. In this context, SatComs pave the way for seamless integration targeting

specific use cases which can take advantage of their unique capabilities. In parallel,

private ventures have led the development of a multitude of manufacturing and

launching options, previously only reserved for governments and a handful of large

international corporations (Plgpl, 2021).

Satellites face competition from other media such as fibre optics, cable, and other land-

based delivery systems such as microwaves and even power lines. The main advantage

of satellites is that they can distribute signals from one point to many locations. As

such, satellite technology is ideal for “point-to-multipoint” communications such as

broadcasting. Satellite communication does not require massive investments on the

ground-making it ideal for underserved and isolated areas with dispersed populations.

Satellite communications technology is often used during natural disasters and

emergencies when land-based communication services are down. Mobile satellite

equipment can be deployed to disaster areas to provide emergency communication

services. One major technical disadvantage of satellites, particularly those in

12
geostationary orbit, is an inherent delay in transmission. While there are ways to

compensate for this delay, it makes some applications that require real-time

transmission and feedback, such as voice communications, not ideal for satellites.

Therefore, in Nigeria where the research was carried out, the activities that was

conducted is to know the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites.

1.3 Statement of Problems

Investigation reveals the challenge for the application of precoding in practical satellite

systems is related to non-linearities. In fact, the on-board per-antenna traveling-wave-

tube amplifiers (TWTAs) usually introduce non-linear effects, which result in a distortion

on the transmitted waveforms. A typical solution to this problem in single-user links

relies on predistortion techniques, but their extension to multi-beam systems relying on

precoding is not straightforward, because of the mutual correlation between the data

streams induced by the precoding schemes.

Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) platforms operate closer to the Earth than LEO satellites.

This allows them to be simpler, smaller, and thus, cheaper (Llop et al., 2014). However,

such low altitudes contain a denser part of the atmosphere, and therefore, larger

aerodynamic forces. This can be seen as ame, but they can also represent an

opportunity for orbit and attitude control (Virgili-Llop et al., 2019). Moreover, the

increased drag represents a shortening of the orbital lifetime, but this also means a

more frequent fleet replacement of smaller and cheaper spacecrafts, thus, becoming

more responsive to technology and market changes (Dakka, 2018). Several private

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companies such as SpaceX, OneWeb or Telesat are planning to launch their Mobile

Satellite Services (MSS) at VLEO.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of the study is to scrutinize the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites. In

achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows:

1. To find out the factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication Satellites

2. To examine the relevance of Communication Satellites in the development of

Nigeria economy

1.5 Research Questions

The study came up with research questions so as to be able to ascertain the above

stated objectives. The specific research questions for the study are stated below as

follows:

 What are the factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication Satellites?

 What are the relevance of Communication Satellites in the development of

Nigeria economy?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

In order to pursue the objective of this study, the following generalized statements

have been designed to guide and aids in obtaining the result for the experiment to be

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conducted. For this work, the null hypothesis will be represented with H0 while the

alternative hypothesis will be represented with hypothesis H1.

 H0: There is no significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

 H1: There is a significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

1.7 Significance of Study

This study will be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend to know more on

this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research

work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.

1.8 Scope of Study

The scope of this research focuses on the study of the Basic Concepts of

Communication Satellites in Nigeria.

1.9 Limitations of the Study

During the course of this study, many things militated against its completion, some of

which are:

1. Time Constraint: The time frame given to accomplish this project was very short

due to school academic calendar and it was carried out under pressure which

made the researcher not to implement some necessary features.

2. Research material: availability of research material is a major setback to the

scope of the study.

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3. Frequent power failure: This made the researcher append more money on fuel

to ensure sustainable power.

4. Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the

researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in

the process of data collection (internet).

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the review of related literature. A literature review includes the

current knowledge as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a

particular topic. It documents the state of the art with respect to the topic you are

writing. It surveys the literature in the topic selected. In this research work the

literature review includes the Conceptual Review of Satellite Communication,

Applications of Satellite Technology, Parabolic Satellite Dish Antenna, Transition to the

Satellite Communications Act, Theoretical Review of Satellite Communications, General

Architecture of Satellite Communication, Satellite Communication Orbital Control and

Overview of Caching Over Satellite.

2.2 Conceptual Review of Satellite Communication

In a relatively short span of time, satellite technology has developed from the

experimental (Sputnik in 1957) to the sophisticated and powerful. Mega-constellations

of thousands of satellites designed to bring Internet access to anywhere on Earth are in

development. Future communication satellites will have more onboard processing

capabilities, more power, and larger-aperture antennas that will enable satellites to

handle more bandwidth. Further improvements in satellites’ propulsion and power

systems will increase their service life to 20–30 years from the current 10–15 years. In

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addition, other technical innovations such as low-cost reusable launch vehicles are in

development. With increasing video, voice, and data traffic requiring larger amounts of

bandwidth, there is no dearth of emerging applications that will drive demand for the

satellite services in the years to come. The demand for more bandwidth, coupled with

the continuing innovation and development of satellite technology, will ensure the long-

term viability of the commercial satellite industry well into the 21st century (Britannica,

2021).

Telecom Italia provides fixed and wireless telephony in Italy, with the latter being

offered through Telecom Italia Mobile SpA (TIM), of which the company owns a

majority stake. Telecom Italia offers data transmission services, local and long-distance

calling, satellite communications, and teleconferencing services. It is also the dominant

Internet service provider in Italy. Through its subsidiary TIM, Telecom Italia operates in

foreign markets, especially in Europe (Greece and Turkey) and Latin America (Brazil)

(Britannica, 2021).

Telecom Italia, incorporated in 1908, became a state-run telecommunications monopoly

when in 1933 Benito Mussolini decided to nationalize the telecommunications industry.

In 1999 Olivetti & C. SpA acquired 55 percent of the company. The merger between the

two companies was finalized in 2003. In the early 21st century, Telecom Italia began to

emphasize international expansion of its services, particularly its Internet and

broadband offerings (Britannica, 2021).

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Radio Act

Communications Act of 1934, U.S. federal law that provided the foundation for

contemporary U.S. telecommunications policy. The Communication Act of 1934

established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), an independent U.S.

agency responsible for the regulation of interstate and foreign communications by

radio, television, wire, and, later, satellite. The 1934 act built upon the Radio Act of

1927, which was a temporary measure when it was passed, intended to stabilize the

burgeoning but chaotic radio industry of the mid-1920s. The 1934 act added

communications via common carrier and television (Britannica, 2021).

Radio Act of 1927

By the early 1920s radio was popular worldwide. Public demand for receivers was high,

with technology available to nearly everyone to build their own homemade receivers.

New radio stations were being created at a rapid rate. The Radio Act of 1912 had

declared the secretary of commerce to be the regulatory authority over radio, but the

secretary was compelled by law to issue licenses to all who applied for one. In 1922

there were five radio stations on the air, and in 1923 there were 556. To avoid

interference with other stations, broadcasters changed frequencies, raised operating

power, or moved their facilities. The rapid growth was not sustainable. Attempts at self-

regulation failed in a series of radio conferences convened at the behest of Secretary of

Commerce Herbert Hoover (Britannica, 2021).

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The Radio Act of 1927 was intended to address the crisis. The legislation conceptualized

radio broadcasting as an industry in its own right, not as a means of point-to-point

communication or as a means of ensuring public safety (as did the Wireless Ship Act of

1910 and the Radio Act of 1912). The 1927 act created a five-member Federal Radio

Commission (FRC) with discretionary authority, which the secretary of commerce had

lacked under the 1912 act. Commissioners were nominated by the president of the

United States and were confirmed by Congress; they served overlapping terms to

maintain operational continuity. No more than three commissioners were permitted to

represent any single political party. The FRC was to share regulatory authority with the

secretary of commerce (although authority was never vested in the secretary of

commerce), and after one year the FRC was to sunset, leaving the secretary of

commerce as the sole regulatory authority. Sorting out the details was a daunting task,

and Congress extended the sunset deadline twice. Congressional attempts to make the

FRC a permanent body failed (Britannica, 2021).

The legislation of the Radio Act created the FRC’s guiding regulatory criterion—“public

interest, convenience, and necessity” (PICN). The act did not define PICN, however,

and the FRC gave much attention to clarifying PICN in the first two years of its

existence. Congress did not define the PICN standard in specific terms, leaving it to be

defined by case law. The legislation declared the airwaves were a utility owned by the

public and charged the FRC to regulate broadcasters so as to guard the interests of

airwave owners by issuing licenses to operators who wished to use that utility. The

commission was forbidden to censor radio broadcasters but was given the discretion to

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create regulations and to punish broadcasters’ subsequent offensive actions. Further

authority was given to the commission to renew the licenses of broadcasters who

served the public interest, to revoke the licenses and impose fines or prison sentences

to broadcasters who did not serve the public interest, to classify stations, to prescribe

the nature of service to be provided, to assign frequencies, to determine transmitter

power, to create regulations to prevent interference, and to set up zones of coverage

areas (Britannica, 2021).

2.3 Applications of Satellite Technology

Advances in satellite technology have given rise to a healthy satellite services sector

that provides various services to broadcasters, Internet service providers (ISPs),

governments, the military, and other sectors. There are three types of communication

services that satellites provide: telecommunications, broadcasting, and data

communications. Telecommunication services include telephone calls and services

provided to telephone companies, as well as wireless, mobile, and cellular network

providers (Britannica, 2021).

Broadcasting services include radio and television delivered directly to the consumer

and mobile broadcasting services. DTH, or satellite television, services (such as the

DirecTV and DISH Network services in the United States) are received directly by

households. Cable and network programming is delivered to local stations and affiliates

largely via satellite. Satellites also play an important role in delivering programming to

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cell phones and other mobile devices, such as personal digital assistants and laptops

(Britannica, 2021).

2.4 Parabolic Satellite Dish Antenna

Satellite dishes are often shaped like portions of a paraboloid (a parabola rotated about

its central axis) in order to focus transmission signals onto the pickup receiver, or

feedhorn. Typically, the section of the paraboloid used is offset from the centre so that

the feedhorn and its support do not unduly block signals to the reflecting dish

(Britannica, 2021).

Data communications involve the transfer of data from one point to another.

Corporations and organizations that require financial and other information to be

exchanged between their various locations use satellites to facilitate the transfer of data

through the use of very small-aperture terminal (VSAT) networks. With the growth of

the Internet, a significant amount of Internet traffic goes through satellites, making

ISPs one of the largest customers for satellite services (Britannica, 2021).

Satellite communications technology is often used during natural disasters and

emergencies when land-based communication services are down. Mobile satellite

equipment can be deployed to disaster areas to provide emergency communication

services (Britannica, 2021).

One major technical disadvantage of satellites, particularly those in geostationary orbit,

is an inherent delay in transmission. While there are ways to compensate for this delay,

22
it makes some applications that require real-time transmission and feedback, such as

voice communications, not ideal for satellites (Britannica, 2021).

Satellites face competition from other media such as fibre optics, cable, and other land-

based delivery systems such as microwaves and even power lines. The main advantage

of satellites is that they can distribute signals from one point to many locations. As

such, satellite technology is ideal for “point-to-multipoint” communications such as

broadcasting. Satellite communication does not require massive investments on the

ground—making it ideal for underserved and isolated areas with dispersed populations

(Britannica, 2021).

Satellites and other delivery mechanisms such as fibre optics, cable, and other

terrestrial networks are not mutually exclusive. A combination of various delivery

mechanisms may be needed, which has given rise to various hybrid solutions where

satellites can be one of the links in the chain in combination with other media. Ground

service providers called “teleports” have the capability to receive and transmit signals

from satellites and also provide connectivity with other terrestrial networks (Britannica,

2021).

2.5 Transition to the Satellite Communications Act

The transition from the Radio Act of 1927 to the Communications Act of 1934 was

relatively uneventful compared with the transition from the Radio Act of 1912 to the

Radio Act of 1927. There was already order on the airwaves, and an apparatus by

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which to administer law already existed. The Communications Act of 1934 did, however,

bring change (Britannica, 2021).

Enacted on June 19, the 34-page Communications Act of 1934 created a permanent

administrative body, the FCC, at the request of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and

incorporated virtually all of the Radio Act of 1927, including the cornerstone principles

of public ownership of the airwaves and the PICN standard. The FCC was vested with

broader regulatory authority that included all radiotelephone activity, including the

newly developing broadcast media FM radio and television, and added interstate

telegraph and telephone communication (which had previously been under the control

of the Interstate Commerce Commission) and wire and wireless common carrier

industries (which had been under the control of the Department of Commerce)

(Britannica, 2021).

The act was organized in a series of six titles. Title I outlined general provisions,

including the responsibilities and organization of the FCC. Title II dealt with telephone

and telegraph common carriers. Title III contained the provisions retained from the

Radio Act of 1927. Title IV described procedural and administrative provisions. Title V

dealt with the range of forfeitures the FCC could assess. Title VI dealt with

miscellaneous provisions, including the repeal of the Radio Act of 1927. The Cable

Communications Policy Act was enacted in 1984. It detailed regulations for the cable

television industry, including video delivery by telephone companies (Britannica, 2021).

2.6 Theoretical Review of Satellite Communications

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Today’s communications satellites offer extensive capabilities in applications involving

data, voice, and video, with services provided to fixed, broadcast, mobile, personal

communications, and private networks users. A communication satellite is an orbiting

artificial earth satellite that receives a communications signal from a transmitting

ground station, amplifies and possibly processes it, then transmits it back to the earth

for reception by one or more receiving ground stations. Communications information

neither originates nor terminates at the satellite itself. The satellite is an active

transmission relay, similar in function to relay towers used in terrestrial microwave

communications (Plgpl, 2021).

2.6.1 Passive Satellites

According to Plgpl (2021), the following are advantages and disadvantages of passive

satelites;

Advantages:

 A satellite that only reflects signals from one Earth station to another or from

several Earth stations to several others.

 It reflects the incident electromagnetic radiation without any modification or

amplification.

 It can't generate power, they simply reflect the incident power.

 The first artificial passive satellite Echo-I of NASA was launched in August 1960.

Disadvantages:

 Earth Stations required high power to transmit signals.

 Large Earth Stations with tracking facilities were expensive.

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 A global system would have required a large number of passive satellites accessed

randomly by different users.

 Control of satellites not possible from ground.

 The large attenuation of the signal while traveling the large distance between the

transmitter and the receiver via the satellite was one of the most serious problems.

2.6.2 Active Satellites

According to Plgpl (2021), the following are advantages and disadvantages of active

satelites;

Advantages:

 In active satellites, it amplifies or modifies and retransmits the signal received from

the earth.

 Satellites which can transmit power are called active satellite.

 Have several advantages over the passive satellites.

 Require lower power earth station.

 Not open to random use.

 Directly controlled by operators from ground.

Disadvantages:

 Requirement of larger and powerful rockets to launch heavier satellites in orbit.

 Requirement of on-board power supply.

 Interruption of service due to failure of electronics components.

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Two major elements of Satellite Communications Systems are:

The satellite communications portion is broken down into two areas or segments: the

space segment and the ground (or earth) segment.

2.6.3 Advantages of Satellite Communication

According to Plgpl (2021), the following are advantages satellites communication;

 Universal: Satellite communications are available virtually everywhere.

 Versatile: Satellites can support all of today's communications needs.

 Reliable: Satellite is a proven medium for supporting a company's

communications needs.

 Seamless: Satellite's inherent strength as a broadcast medium makes it perfect.

 Fast: Since satellite networks can be set up quickly, companies can be fast-to-

market with new services.

 Flexible

 Expandable

 High Quality

 Quick Provision of Services

 Mobile and Emergency Communication

 Suitable for both Digital and Analog Transmission

2.7 General Architecture of Satellite Communication

Space Segment: The elements of the space segment of a communications satellite

system are shown in Figure. The space segment includes the satellite (or satellites) in

27
orbit in the system, and the ground station that provides the operational control of the

satellite(s) in orbit.

The ground station is variously referred to as the Tracking, Telemetry, Command

(TT&C) or the Tracking, Telemetry, Command and Monitoring (TTC&M) station.

The TTC&M station provides essential spacecraft management and control functions to

keep the satellite operating safely in orbit. The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and

the ground are usually separate from the user communications links.

TTC&M links may operate in the same frequency bands or in other bands. TTC&M is

most often accomplished through a separate earth terminal facility specifically designed

for the complex operations required to maintain a spacecraft in orbit.

Ground segment:

The ground segment of the communications satellite system consists of the earth

surface area based terminals that utilize the communications capabilities of the Space

Segment. TTC&M ground stations are not included in the ground segment.

The ground segment terminals consist of three basic types:

 Fixed (in-place) terminals;

 Transportable terminals;

 Mobile terminals.

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Fixed terminals are designed to access the satellite while fixed in-place on the ground.

They may be providing different types of services, but they are defined by the fact that

they are not moving while communicating with the satellite. Examples of fixed terminals

are small terminals used in private networks (VSATs), or terminals mounted on

residence buildings used to receive broadcast satellite signals.

Transportable terminals are designed to be movable, but once on location remain fixed

during transmissions to the satellite. Examples of the transportable terminal are satellite

news gathering (SGN) trucks, which move to locations, stop in place, and then deploy

an antenna to establish links to the satellite.

Mobile terminals are designed to communicate with the satellite while in motion. They

are further defined as land mobile, aeronautical mobile, or maritime mobile, depending

on their locations on or near the earth surface.

Satellite Control Centre function:

 Tracking of the satellite

 Receiving data

 Eclipse management of satellite

 Commanding the Satellite for station keeping.

 Determining Orbital parameters from Tracking and Ranging data

 Switching ON/OFF of different subsystems as per the operational requirements

29
2.8 Satellite Communication Orbital Control

Orbital control, often called station keeping, is the process required to maintain a

satellite in its proper orbit location. It is similar to, although not functionally the same

as, attitude control.

GSO satellites will undergo forces that would cause the satellite to drift in the east-west

(longitude) and north-south (latitude) directions, as well as in altitude, if not

compensated for with active orbital control jets. Orbital control is usually maintained

with the thruster system.

The non-spherical (oblate) properties of the earth, primarily exhibited as an equatorial

bulge, cause the satellite to drift slowly in longitude along the equatorial plane. Control

jets are pulsed to impart an opposite velocity component to the satellite, which causes

the satellite to drift back to its nominal position. These corrections are referred to as

east-west station keeping maneuvers, which are accomplished periodically every two to

three weeks.

Latitude drift will be induced primarily by gravitational forces from the sun and the

moon. These forces cause the satellite inclination to change about 0.075◦ per month if

left uncorrected. Periodic pulsing to compensate for these forces, called north-south

station keeping maneuvers, must also be accomplished periodically to maintain the

nominal satellite orbit location.

30
2.9 Overview of Caching Over Satellite

One of the challenges in the edge caching is how to effectively prefetch the popular

content to the caches considering the high volume of data (Ramesh et al., 2001). In

order to overcome this issue, satellite backhauling has attracted much attention as a

promising solution for cache placement phase to exploit the large coverage of the

satellite beams. Satellite systems have the ability to provide high throughput links and

to operate in multi/broad-cast modes for immense area coverage.

Due to their multi-hop unicast architecture, the cached content via terrestrial networks

has to go through multiple links and has to be transmitted individually towards each

base station (BS). On the other hand, with wide area coverage, the satellite backhaul

can broadcast content to all BSs or multi-cast contents to multiple groups of BSs.

Therefore, bringing these two technologies together can further off-load the network.

The main idea is to integrate the satellite and terrestrial telecommunication systems in

order to create a hybrid federated content delivery network, which can improve the

user experience. The joint deployment of satellite and terrestrial networks can be found

in Brinton et al. (2003), Kalantari et al., (2017), and Vu et al. (2018). The application of

satellite communications in feeding several network caches at the same time using

broad/multi-cast is investigated in Brinton et al. (2003), Evans et al., (2005) and Linder

et al., (2000).

The work of Linder et al., (2010) proposes using the broad/multi-cast ability of the

satellite to send the requested contents to the caches located at the user side. Online

31
satellite assisted caching is studied in Brinton et al., (2013). In this work, satellite

broadcast is used to help placing the files in the caches located in the proxy servers.

Each server uses the local and global file popularity to update the cache.

Recent works on caching over satellite are presented in Wang et al., (2019). A two-

layer caching algorithm is studied in Wu et al., (2016) in which cache on the satellite is

the first caching layer and the cache in the ground station is the second one. The joint

cache optimal is carried out via generic algorithm of the original mixed integer linear

programming. In Luglio et al., (2019), a service model is proposed for hybrid

terrestrial/satellite networks in order to identify viable alternatives to deploy converged

satellite-terrestrial services. Two caching policies, namely pull-based and push-based,

are studied. In Li et al., (2018), a back-tracing partition directed on-path caching

mechanism is proposed for hybrid LEO constellation and terrestrial network. By

reducing intermittent connectivity as much as possible, it is shown that the redundant

transmissions of data access for different users can be largely reduced since the

requested files are favorably fetched from intermediate caching nodes, instead of

directly from the source. The authors in Dowhuszko et al., (2018) propose a resource

allocation strategy for cache filling in hybrid optimalsatellite networks. It is shown that

the placement time can be notably reduced in a hybrid terrestrial-satellite backhaul

network; particularly in case of bad weather that impacts the data rate of the wireless

optical links. The authors in Liu et al., (2018) propose a novel caching algorithm for

optimizing content placement in LEO satellite networks based on many-to-many

matching game. In An et al., (2019), the authors investigate the performance of hybrid

32
satellite-terrestrial relay network (HSTRN) under different caching policies. Analytical

closed-forms are derived for the outage probability under the most popular uniform

content based caching schemes.

33
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter data sampling techniques, sampling size, methods of data collection,

methods of data analysis and site selection criteria will be discussed. The variables were

analyzed by means of percentages and simple table method. This technique permits

inferences about observation and are useful for testing the research propositions for

generalization the propositions were tested by descriptive statistical terms and detailed

percentage was adopted for clear interpretation and presentation.

3.2 Research Design

The researcher used descriptive research survey design in building up this project work

the choice of this research design was considered appropriate because of its

advantages of identifying attributes of a large population from a group of individuals.

The design was suitable for the Study of the Basic Concepts of Communication

Satellites.

3.3 Population of Study

Population of a study is a group of persons or aggregate items, things the researcher is

interested in getting information to scrutinize the Basic Concepts of Communication

Satellites. A total of One hundred (100) respondents formed the population of the

study.

34
3.4 Sampling and Sampling Technique

Sample is the set people or items which constitute part of a given population sampling.

Due to large size of the target population, the researcher used the Taro Yamani formula

to arrive at the sample population of the study.

n= N____

1+N (e)2

n: describes the sample size.

N: describes total number of population of the area

e: describes maximum variability or margin of Error = 0.09.

1: describes the probability of the event occurring.

n= 100_______

1+100(0.05)2

n= 100_______

1+100(0.0025)

n= 100 / (1+0.25) = 100 / 1.25 = 80.

3.5 Validation of Research Instrument

The major research instrument used is the questionnaires. This was appropriately

moderated. The respondents were administered with the questionnaires to complete,

with or without disclosing their identities. The questionnaire was designed to obtain

sufficient and relevant information from the respondents.

The primary data contained information extracted from the questionnaires in which the

respondents were required to give specific answer to a question by ticking in front of an

35
appropriate answer, the questionnaires were administered to the respondents,

however, some respondents were asked the questions orally and their responses were

noted in the questionnaire. The questionnaires contained about 15 structured

questions which were divided into sections A and B.

3.6 Method of Data Collection

Data were collected from two main sources namely:

Primary source and Secondary source

1. Primary source: These are materials of statistical investigation which were

collected by the research for a particular purpose. They can be obtained through a

survey, observation questionnaire or as experiment; the researcher has adopted

the questionnaire method for this study.

2. Secondary source: These are data from textbook Journal handset etc. they arise

as byproducts of the same other purposes. Example administration, various other

unpublished works and write ups were also used.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected was not an end in itself but it served as a means to an end. The end

being the use of the required data to understand the various situations it is with a view

to making valuable recommendations and contributions. To this end, the data collected

has to be analyzed for any meaningful interpretation to come out with some results. It

is for this reason that the following methods were adopted in the research project for

the analysis of the data collected.

36
For a comprehensive analysis of data collected, emphasis was laid on the use of

absolute numbers frequencies of responses and percentages. Answers to the research

questions were provided through the comparison of the percentage of workers

response to each statement in the questionnaire related to any specified question being

considered.

Frequency in this study refers to the arrangement of responses in order of magnitude

or occurrence while percentage refers to the arrangements of the responses in order of

their proportion.

The simple percentage method is believed to be straight forward easy to interpret and

understand method. The researcher therefore chooses the simple percentage as the

method to use.

The formula for percentage is shown as.

% = f/N x 100/1

Where f = frequency of respondents response

N = Total Number of response of the sample, 100 = Consistency in the percentage of

respondents for each item contained in questions.

3.8 Questionnaire

Due to resource and time constraint, the research could not entertain large number of

people in case studies, in depth interviews and wider focus group discussions.

Therefore, questionnaires were used to fill the gap and support the representative

sample to address as many individuals as possible to help gather relevant firsthand

37
information. Two different sets of questions were prepared: close-ended and open-

ended questions (see Appendix-A).

For those respondents who could not understand English, the questionnaire was

prepared and translated in to Amharic while asking them, so that the respondents could

easily understand. The items of the questionnaires were classified based on the

objectives of the study.

3.8.1 Interview

The researcher used semi-structured interview in order to gather data from,

administrative bodies or government officials, key informants and experts (see

Appendix-A). This was preferred because it is flexible, allowing new questions to be

brought up during the interview and also it gives equal chances for both interviewers

and interviewees. This was aimed at obtaining background information regarding the

affordable housing problem in the study area.

3.8.2 Key Informants Interview

When the researcher felt doubt about the reliability of information gathered through

other techniques or when there is a need to reinforce the data with further information,

key informant interview used as best solution as a tool, which offers the opportunity to

acquire, information directly from knowledgeable people. Moreover, the tool also has

been instrumental in generating recommendations. Accordingly, key informant interview

was used to gather more of qualitative data explains and narrates the study population

rather than expressing it in terms of numbers.

38
3.8.3 Observation

Among the primary data collection techniques, observation is crucial to understand

peoples’ activity in the basis of how, what and why they are doing something. This

allows developing confidence to speak and analyze what is being said and what is really

going on the actual setting.

3.9 Statistical Analysis

Demographic study of the Study of the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites was

described using descriptive statistics including percentages, and frequencies. All analysis

was conducted using SPSS version 11 software.

The statistical method was chosen to help in the interpretation of the data collected

during the investigation the null hypothesis (H0) stated in the first chapter was verified

to determine it accountancy or other wish the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis

(H1) The chi-square (X2) distribution was chosen and this tested at 5% level of

significance. Decision for the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis as stated in

chapter one are as follows:

1. If X2 which is the critical value calculated less than the critical value tabulated

accept the null hypothesis (H0) But if critical value calculated is greater than

critical value tabulated you ejective null hypothesis and accept the alternative

hypothesis.

39
Chi-square test is the goodness of fit test used to determine whether a significant

number of object or responses falling in each category and an expected number based

on the null hypothesis.

Chi-square is applied in the following situations.

a) When there are two variables drawn from independent samples each of which is

categorized in two ways e.g. Yes or No responses.

b) When the data are non-numeric, that is when the data are expressed in

frequencies.

Chi-square is noted with X2, it is defined as

X2c = ∑Co-E)2
E

Where X2c = chi-square calculated

O = observed frequency

E = expected frequency.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

Efforts will be made at this stage to present, analyze and interpret the data collected

during the field survey. This presentation will be based on the responses from the

completed questionnaires. The result of this exercise will be summarized in tabular

forms for easy references and analysis. It will also show answers to questions relating

to the research questions for this research study. The researcher employed simple

percentage in the analysis.

4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data

The data collected from the respondents were analyzed in tabular form with simple

percentage for easy understanding.

A total of 80 (Eighty) questionnaires were distributed and 80 questionnaires were

returned.

The Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

This section deals with the description of the characteristics of all the respondents (80)

involved in the study by randomly selection of respondents from the study area. The

characteristics of respondents include age, gender, and educational state.

41
Section A

QUESTION 1: What is your name?

TABLE 4.1: Response of the respondent

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

Filled 67 83.75% 83.75%

Valid Unfilled 13 16.25% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 83.75% of the respondents filled the section while

16.25% of the respondents didn’t respond.

Figure 4.1: Response of the respondent

42
QUESTION 2: Gender distribution of the respondents

TABLE 4.2: Gender distribution of the respondents

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

Female 43 53.75% 53.75%

Valid Male 37 46.25% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 53.75% of the respondents were female while

46.25% of the respondents were male.

Figure 4.2: Gender distribution of the respondents

43
QUESTION 3: Age of Respondent

TABLE 4.3: Age of Respondent

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

21-30 39 48.75% 48.75%

31-40 28 35.00% 83.75%

Valid
41-50 13 16.25% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 48.75% of the respondents were 21-30years,

35.00% of the respondents were 31-40years and 16.25% of the respondents were 41-

50years.

44
 Figure 4.3: Age of Respondent

QUESTION 4: Marital Status

TABLE 4.4: Marital Status

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Single 38 47.50% 47.50%

Engaged 25 31.25% 78.75%

Valid Married 14 17.50% 96.25%

Divorced 3 3.75% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 47.50% of the respondents were single, 31.25% of

the respondents were engaged, 17.50% of the respondents were married and 3.75% of

the respondents were divorced.

45
 Figure 4.4: Marital Status

QUESTION 5: Religious Identity

TABLE 4.5: Religious Identity

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Christian 46 57.50% 57.50%

Muslim 21 26.25% 83.75%

Valid
Others 13 16.25% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 57.50% of the respondents were Christian, 26.25%

of the respondents were Muslim, 16.25% of the respondents didn’t respond.

46
 Figure 4.5: Religious Identity

QUESTION 6: Ethnicity (Ethnic Group)

TABLE 4.6: Ethnicity

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Yoruba 25 31.25% 31.25%

Hausa 17 21.25% 52.50%

Valid Igbo 32 40.00% 92.50%

Others 6 7.50% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

47
From the above table it shows that 31.25% of the respondents were from Yoruba

ethnicity, 21.25% of the respondents were from Hausa ethnicity, 40.00% of the

respondents were from Igbo ethnicity, and 7.50% of other ethnic group respondents

didn’t respond to the question.

Figure 4.6: Ethnicity

QUESTION 7: Educational Status

TABLE 4.7: Educational Status

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid BSC 21 26.25% 26.25%

MSC 9 11.25% 37.50%

PHD 4 5.00% 42.50%

HND 20 25.00% 67.50%

ND 23 28.75% 96.25%

48
 Others 3 3.75% 100.00%

Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 26.25% of the respondents were BSC, 11.25% of

the respondents were MSC, 5.00% of the respondents were PHD, 25.00% of the

respondents were HND, 28.75% of the respondents were ND, and 3.75% of the

respondents were others.

Figure 4.7: Educational Status

QUESTION 9: What are the factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites?

TABLE 4.9: Response of the respondent

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent

49
 Filled 47 58.75% 58.75%
Valid Unfilled 33 41.25% 100.00%
Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 58.75% of the respondents filled the section while

41.25% of the respondents didn’t respond.

Figure 4.9: Response of the respondent

QUESTION 10: What are the relevance of Communication Satellites in the

development of Nigeria economy?

TABLE 4.10: Response of the respondent

Response Frequency Percent Cumulative

Percent
Filled 31 38.75% 38.75%
Valid Unfilled 49 61.25% 100.00%
Total 80 100.00%

From the above table it shows that 38.75% of the respondents filled the section while

61.25% of the respondents didn’t respond.

50
 Figure 4.10: Response of the respondent

4.3 Test of Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis One

H0; There is no significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

H1; There is a significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

51
Table I: There is no significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

Response Observed N Expected N Residual

Agreed 27 20 7

strongly agreed 23 20 3

Disagreed 14 20 -6

strongly disagreed 16 20 -4

Total 80

Figure I: There is no significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

52
Test Statistics

There is no significant factors mitigating the enhancement of

Communication Satellites

Chi-Square 19.331a

Df 3

Asymp. Sig. .000

a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell

frequency is 20.

Decision rule:

The researcher therefore accepts the null hypothesis which states that there is no

significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication Satellites, as the

calculated value of 5.5 is lesser than the critical value of 7.82.

Therefore the alternate hypothesis is rejected which states that there is a significant

factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication Satellites.

4.4 Discussion of Findings

In this study of the Study of the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites, findings

from this study have demonstrated that there are significant relationships between

these variables. The questionnaire administered to 80 respondents shows that 53.75%

of the respondents were female while 46.25% of the respondents were male for gender

distribution of the respondents, Age of Respondent from table 4.2 shows that 48.75%

53
of the respondents were 21-30years, 35.00% of the respondents were 31-40years and

16.25% of the respondents were 41-50years and table 4.7 shows that 26.25% of the

respondents were BSC, 11.25% of the respondents were MSC, 5.00% of the

respondents were PHD, 25.00% of the respondents were HND, 28.75% of the

respondents were ND, and 3.75% of the respondents were others. The study has

succeeded in achieving all the stated objectives in chapter one, with furtherance to the

administered questionnaire data received from respondents.

54
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

It is important to ascertain that the objective of this study was on the Study of the

Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites. In the preceding chapter, the relevant data

collected for this study were presented, critically analyzed and appropriate

interpretation given. In this chapter, certain recommendations made which in the

opinion of the researcher will be of benefits in addressing the Study of the Basic

Concepts of Communication Satellites.

5.2 Summary

A communication satellite is an orbiting artificial earth satellite that receives a

communications signal from a transmitting ground station, amplifies and possibly

processes it, then transmits it back to the earth for reception by one or more receiving

ground stations. Today’s communications satellites offer extensive capabilities in

applications involving data, voice, and video, with services provided to fixed, broadcast,

mobile, personal communications, and private networks users. A communication

satellite is an orbiting artificial earth satellite that receives a communications signal from

a transmitting ground station, amplifies and possibly processes it, then transmits it back

to the earth for reception by one or more receiving ground stations. Communications

information neither originates nor terminates at the satellite itself. The satellite is an

active transmission relay, similar in function to relay towers used in terrestrial

microwave communications (Plgpl, 2021).

55
The study is to scrutinize the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites. In achieving

this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out to find out the factors mitigating

the enhancement of Communication Satellites and examine the relevance of

Communication Satellites in the development of Nigeria economy. The motivation that

led to this research work is the rapid adoption of media streaming instead of linear

media broadcasting and the urgent need to extend broadband coverage to underserved

areas such as; developing countries, aero/maritime, and rural areas.

The research design used in this report is descriptive design, utilizing questionnaire

method to obtain information from the respondents for this project. A total of 80

(eighty) respondents were selected for this study to represent the entire population of

the study. For null hypotheses were formulated and tested using the one-way ANOVA

and the t-test statistical tools at zero point zero five (0.05) level of significance. Primary

data were collected from the primary source which questionnaire was used as an

instrument of data collection while secondary data were sources from textbooks,

journals, newspapers and the internet were employed. The data were presented on a

frequency distribution table and analyzed using simple percentage, while hypothesis

was tested using chi-square test. This study will be of immense benefit to other

researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-

researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge

and could serve as a guide for other study.

56
5.3 Conclusion

In essence, the research work was successfully researched to meet the objectives set at

the beginning of the project work. While one cannot completely rule out one form of

limitation or the other, it was a success to a greater extent. On the whole, the research

has been a worthwhile exercise. It has afforded the researcher the opportunity to really

appraise the situation on the ground and allow one to bring out areas that might need

attention for the improvement of the research work.

5.4 Recommendation

Based on the findings, it is strongly recommended for subsequent researcher to expand

the scope of the research work.

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61
 APPENDIX A

“QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTRATION”

Survey Questionnaire

Research Title: A Study of the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites

Objective: To Scrutinize the Basic Concepts of Communication Satellites

Target: Nigeria

Dear Respondent,

I am a Your Full Name and Location currently conducting a survey on the above title
research. Kindly find below set of self-explanatory questions that will not take much of
your time to answer. Your kind and unbiased response would be valued as it will
expressively contribute in the direction of achieving of the above mentioned objective of
the study. Please note that your response will be preserved with firmness of confidence,
therefore do not put down your name of on the questionnaire.

Please do not hesitate to contact the researcher for any request for information about
this research.

Thank you.

Your Full Name

Contact: Add your Phone Number

E- mail: Email Address is Optional

62
INSTRUCTION

Please tick or fill in where necessary as the case may be.

Section A

(1) What is your name? ……………………………………………………………………

(2) Gender of respondent

A male { }

B female { }

(3) Age of Respondent

a) 21-30 { }

b) 31-40 { }

c) 41-50 { }

(4) Marital Status

(a) Single { }

(b) Engaged { }

(c) Married { }

(d) Divorced { }

(5) Religious Identity

(a) Christian { }

(b) Muslim { }

(c) Others { }

63
(6) Ethnicity (Ethnic Group)

(a) Yoruba [ ]

(b) Hausa [ ]

(c) Igbo [ ]

(d) Others [ ]

(7) Educational Status

(a) BSC [ ]

(b) MSC [ ]

(c) PHD [ ]

(d) HND [ ]

(e) ND [ ]

Others……………………………….

SECTION B

(8) There is no significant factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication

Satellites

(a) Agreed { }

(b) Strongly agreed { }

(c) Disagreed { }

(d) Strongly disagreed { }

(9) What are the factors mitigating the enhancement of Communication Satellites?

64
 _________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

(10) What are the relevance of Communication Satellites in the development of

Nigeria economy?

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

65