EEN3700_Learning Unit 6 - 2020

LEARNING UNIT 6
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
6.1. Introduction
In this Learning unit we will discuss environmental impact assessment (EIA) in detail. We will
begin by explaining what EIA entails. We will then give you an account of EIA evolution in the
world over. We will also discuss how EIA can be used to predict environmental changes and
introduce strategic environmental assessment (SEA). We will close the Unit by listing some of
the environmental clearance procedures in practice in South Africa.
6.2. Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit, you should be able to:

• Trace the evolution of EIA and explain strategic environmental assessment.
• Evaluate the purpose and role of EIA in the decision making process with an
understanding of its social and political limitations.
• discuss environmental impact assessment (EIA) as an environmental management tool.
• Develop understanding of the administration and procedures applied in EIA.
• Select appropriate options for estimating environmental and social impacts.
• Develop an EIA report according to the required standards.
• Using a clear purpose, develop and design follow-up procedures.
6.3. Introduction to EIA

Environment assessment involves a study to determine any unique environmental attributes
from endangered species to existing hazardous waste to historical significance. Environment
Assessment procedure ensures consideration of environmental implications before making a
final decision of assessing the environmental attribute. Process of assessment analyses the
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effects on environment and is useful for reporting those effects undertaking a public
consultation exercise and lastly it reveals decision to public after reviewing the comment of
the report. One of the main strengths of environmental assessment (EA) is its flexibility.
Project planning processes can integrate EA as an essential step giving sensitivity to the social
and economic as well as environmental impacts of projects. In this way, project managers can
compensate shortcomings in the project planning process.
For example, a project which failed to adequately consult the community at the outset can take
advantage of the Environment Assessment to involve the community in a necessary exchange
of ideas and views. The EA can help establish and strengthen decision-making and
communication mechanisms within a project. It can also pave the way for introducing
innovations. An EA may reveal sound environmental, social or economic reasons for shifting a
project's direction. In view of the primacy accorded the opinions and aspirations of local people,
the EA process may also function as a project control mechanism. While the EA should not be
expected to correct all the weaknesses of a flawed planning process, when properly designed and
executed, it can be a valuable tool for project implementation. When the role of the EA is more
restricted, the situation can work in reverse. Other project planning activities can be used to
gather necessary information for the EA and to create support for the EA process. Each project
manager must decide how much importance to accord each planning.
Duration for EA will hinge on:

• The size and complexity of the proposed project.
• The extent of co-operation received from the project sponsor and third parties such
as local government.
• The level of interest and support demonstrated by the community.
• The ability of the project team to sustain interest in the EA.
• The skills of the EA team.
• The EA techniques employed.
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In principle, environmental assessment can be undertaken for
• Individual projects such as a dam, motorway, airport or factory and call it as
'Environmental Impact Assessment' (EIA).
• Plans, programs and policies and call it as 'Strategic Environmental
Assessment'(SEA).
In recent years, there has been a remarkable growth of interest in environmental issues,
sustainability and the better management of development in harmony with the environment.
Associated with this growth of interest has been the introduction of new legislation, emanating
from national and international agencies (e.g., the European Commission) that seek to influence
the relationship between development and environment. Environmental impact assessment
(EIA) is an important example. It is defined as an activity designed to identify and predict the
impact of legislative proposals, policies, programmes, projects and operational procedures on
the bio-geophysical environment and on the health and wellbeing of human beings and to
interpret and communicate information about the impact.
That is to say, EIA focuses on problems, conflicts or natural resource constraints that could
affect the viability of a project. It also examines implications of a project that might harm people,
their homeland or their livelihoods, or other nearby developments. After predicting the
problems, an EIA identifies measures to minimise the problems and outlines ways to improve
the project’s suitability for its proposed environment. In the last three decades, EIA has been
recognised as the most valuable, inter-disciplinary and objective decision-making tool with
respect to alternate routes for development, process technologies and project sites. It is
considered an ideal anticipatory mechanism allowing measures that ensure environmental
compatibility in our quest for socio- economic development.
EIA is generally wider in scope and less quantitative than other techniques, such as cost-
benefit analysis. EIA has the potential to be a basis for negotiation among the developers,
public interest groups and planning regulators.
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6.3.1. Cost and the benefits of EIA
Costs
There is an assumption that the benefits of EIA outweigh the costs however there has been
little empirical research conducted on the "cost" of EIA. This has been mostly because of the
difficult methodological challenges it presents, which include the difficulties associated with
clarifying terminology and disentangling what is meant by "cost". South Africa has been a
leading developing country in terms of introducing EIA. A decade of mandatory EIA practice
has raised serious questions about unjustified and unnecessary time delays and monetary costs
and a desperate need for improved efficiency and effectiveness.
Proponents sometimes complain that EIA causes excessive delays in projects; many of these
are caused by poor administration of the process rather than by the process itself. Delays occur
when:
• the EIA begun too late in the project cycle
• the terms of reference are poorly drafted
• the EIA is not managed to a schedule
• the technical and consultative components of EIA are inadequate
• the EIA report is incomplete or deficient as a basis for decision making.
Similar considerations apply to the timeframe for the EIA process. Most projects merely
require screening and might take only an hour or two of work. Where further EIA work is
necessary, the time taken can range from a few days or weeks, for a small irrigation or a minor
infrastructure project, to two years or more for a large dam or a major infrastructure project.
Generally speaking, the costs and time involved in EIA should decrease as experience is
gained with the process and there is a better understanding of the impacts associated with
different types of projects and the use of appropriate methods.
Full public participation will ensure that the EIA process is fair and credible. The final decision
can then be made in a fully informed and transparent manner.
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The following measures reinforce the fairness of the EIA process:
• requiring the proponent to register all consultants, their expertise and
responsibilities with the administering agency
• publishing these details in the terms of reference and the EIA report
• making all EIA documents and reports available to the public
• publishing reasons for decisions on “ screening and final approvals“ together with
requirements and terms and conditions for mitigation and environmental
management plans.
6.3.2. The Benefits of Environmental Assessment

Most governments and donor agencies acknowledge the contribution of EA to improved
project design. The weakness of EA in the past has been largely due to poor techniques and
the failure to pay attention to findings at the implementation stage (ESSA Technologies 1994).
A review of current environmental practices found the major benefits of the EA process for
project sponsors to be (ESSA Technologies 1994: 16):
• Reduced cost and time of project implementation.
• Cost-saving modifications in project design.
• Increased project acceptance.
• Avoided impacts and violations of laws and regulations.
• Improved project performance.
• Avoided treatment/clean up costs.
The benefits to local communities from taking part in environmental assessments include:
• A healthier local environment (forests, water sources, agricultural potential,
recreational potential, aesthetic values, and clean living in urban areas).
• Improved human health.
• Maintenance of biodiversity.
• Decreased resource use.
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• Fewer conflicts over natural resource use.
• Increased community skills, knowledge and pride.
Principle of EIA
It is important to recognise that there is a general principle of assessment that applies to EIA,
and to other assessment processes. There are several other processes that relate closely to the
review of environmental impacts that may result from a proposed project. The following are
well recognised processes:
• Social Impact Assessment
• Risk Assessment
• Life Cycle Analysis
• Energy Analysis
• Health Impact Assessment
• Regulatory Impact Assessment
• Species Impact Assessment
• Technology Assessment
• Economic Assessment
• Cumulative Impact Assessment
• Strategic Environmental Assessment
• Integrated Impact Assessment
Some, like Energy Analysis, focus on a particular part of the environment. Others, like Life
Cycle Analysis, enable the consideration of all those parts of the environment that are relevant
to the assessment. Also, depending on how the terms, like health, are defined for the study
you may find that it is covering most of the issues that would be found in an EIA. For example,
a Technology Assessment does include review of the impacts on ecosystems, air quality and
the like. Similarly, if the definition of environmental is taken broadly for an EIA, then the EIA
may cover the issues of the other assessment processes; for example:
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• Social aspects (such as impacts on employment, community interaction);
• Risks (such as threats to native animals, water supplies);
• Life cycle (such as the impacts at each stage of the project design through to
operation and closure); and
• Energy (such as use of non-renewable energy sources, Greenhouse gas emissions),
etc
Therefore, there is the potential for a lot of connections between the different forms of
assessment. The essential difference between them is how the terms, or scope of assessment,
are defined narrowly, or broadly. Otherwise, they all follow the same general principle. With
all the assessment approaches noted above, they are designed to identify potential impacts of
a development, action or project. To do this, the assessor needs to use personal experience and
the experiences of others, (including available knowledge) to think broadly about the changes
that are possible, and whether those impacts will be positive or negative.
Particular approaches emphasise specific types of impacts (i.e. on health, on social groups).
All have the same approach, although each may have its own individual language and detailed
techniques.
Most of the assessment processes also include a second step. After identifying the impacts,
they also consider what may be needed to avoid or reduce adverse impacts.
6.3.3. Purposes and aims of EIA

EIA is a process with several important purposes, which can be categorised as follows:
• To facilitate decision-making: For the decision-maker, for example the local authority, it
provides a systematic examination of the environmental implications of a proposed action,
and sometimes alternatives, before a decision is taken. The decision-maker along with other
documentation relating to the planned activity can consider the environment impact
statement (EIS).
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• To aid in the formation of development: Many developers see EIA as another set of
hurdles for them to cross in order to proceed with their various activities. They may also see
the process involved in obtaining the permission from various authorities as costly and time-
consuming. In reality, however, EIA can be of great benefit to them, since it can provide a
framework for considering location and design issues and environmental issues in parallel. It
can be an aid to the formulation of developmental actions, indicating areas where the project
can be modified to minimise or eliminate altogether the adverse impacts on the environment.
The consideration of environmental impacts early in the planning life of a development can
lead to environmentally sensitive development; to improved relations between the developer,
the planning authority and the local communities; to a smoother planning permission process
and sometimes to a worthwhile financial return on the expenditure incurred.
• To be an instrument for sustainable development: The key characteristics of sustainable

development include maintaining the overall quality of life, maintaining continuing access
to natural resources and avoiding lasting environmental damage. Institutional responses to
sustainable development are, therefore, required at several levels. For example, issues of
global concern, such as ozone-layer depletion, climate change, deforestation and biodiversity
loss, require a global political commitment to action. The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was an example of
international concern and also of the problems of securing concerted action to deal with such
issues. Governments have recognised the interaction of economic and social development
and the ecosystems, and the reciprocal impact between human actions and the bio-
geophysical world. While there are, attempts to manage this interaction better, investigation
reveal disquieting trends that could have devastating consequences for the quality of the
environment. These trends are likely to be more pronounced in developing countries where,
because of greater rates of population growth and lower current living standards, there is
more pressure on environmental resources.
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In short, an interaction among the resources, sectors and policies is necessary for sustainable
development as illustrated in Figure 6.1.below, and EIA contributes to this process:
Figure 6.1. Sustainable Development: An illustration
The aims of EIA can be divided into two categories. The immediate aim of EIA is to inform
the process of decision-making by identifying the potentially significant environmental effects
and risks of development proposals. The long-term aim of EIA is to promote sustainable
development by ensuring that development proposals do not undermine critical resource and
ecological functions or the well-being, lifestyle and livelihood of the communities and people
who depend on them.
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Immediate objectives of EIA are to:
• improve the environmental design of the proposal
• ensure that resources are used appropriately and efficiently
• identify appropriate measures for mitigating the potential impacts of the proposal
• facilitate informed decision-making, including setting the environmental terms and
conditions for implementing the proposal.
Long term objectives of EIA are to:

• protect human health and safety
• avoid irreversible changes and serious damage to the environment
• safeguard valued resources, natural areas and ecosystem components
• enhance the social aspects of the proposal.
6.4. Steps in EIA Process

EIA represents a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of the
development actions, in advance. The emphasis of an EIA is on prevention and, therefore, is
more proactive than reactive in nature. The EIA process involves a number of steps, some of
which are listed below:
• Project screening: This entails the application of EIA to those projects that may have
significant environmental impacts. It is quite likely, however, that screening is done partly
by the EIA regulations, operating in a country at the time of assessment.
• Scoping: This step seeks to identify, at an early stage, the key, significant environmental
issues from among a host of possible impacts of a project and all the available alternatives.
• Consideration of alternatives: This seeks to ensure that the proponent has considered other
feasible approaches, including alternative project locations, scales, processes, layouts,
operating condition and the no-action option.
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• Description of the project/development action: This step seeks to clarify the purpose and
rationale of the project and understand its various characteristics, including the stages of
development, location and processes.
• Description of the environmental baseline: This includes the establishment of both the
present and future state of the environment, in the absence of the project, taking into account
the changes resulting from natural events and from other human activities.
• Identification of key impacts: This brings together the previous steps with a view to
ensuring that all potentially significant environmental impacts (adverse and beneficial) are
identified and taken into account in the process.
• The prediction of impacts: This step aims to identify the likely magnitude of the change
(i.e., impact) in the environment when the project is implemented in comparison with the
situation when the project is not carried out.
• Evaluation and assessment of significance: This seeks to assess the relative significance
of the predicted impacts to allow a focus on key adverse impacts. Formal definition of
significance is the product of consequence and likelihood as: Significance = consequence
X Likelihood
• Mitigation: This involves the introduction of measures to avoid, reduce, remedy or
compensate for any significant adverse impacts.
• Public consultation and participation: This aims to assure the quality, comprehensiveness
and effectiveness of the EIA, as well as to ensure that the public’s views are adequately
taken into consideration in the decision-making process.
• EIS presentation: This is a vital step in the process. If done badly, much good work in the
EIA may be negated.
• Review: This involves a systematic appraisal of the quality of the EIS, as a contribution to
the decision-making process.
• Decision-making: At this stage, decisions are made by the relevant authority of the EIS
(including consultation responses) together with other material considerations as to whether
to accept, defer or reject the project.
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• Post-decision monitoring: This involves the recording of outcomes associated with
development impacts, after the decision to proceed with the project. It can contribute to
effective project management.
• Auditing: This follows monitoring and involves comparing actual outcomes with predicted
outcomes, and can be used to assess the quality of predictions and the effectiveness of
mitigation. It provides a vital step in the EIA learning process. Figure 6.2 illustrates the
steps involved in the EIA process:
Figure 6.2 Steps in an EIA Process
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Note that the actual EIA process is not so linear and sequential as Figure 6.2 seems to suggest.
In other words, it is a cyclical process involving feedback and interaction among the various
steps and the sequence of the steps may also vary.
Learning Activity 6.1.
• Define the EIA Processes

• Discuss the difference between the three wastewater treatment systems
Provide your answer on the space provided below.
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6.4.1. Hierarchy in EIA
The EIA studies are broadly categorised as:
• Site selection studies: These studies involve an evaluation of the alternative sites with
respect to environmental and project attributes such as proximity to raw materials,
infrastructure facilities, markets, etc. These studies aim at ranking site alternatives for
objective decision-making.
• Rapid or comprehensive studies: Rapid studies refer to the assessment based on a one-
season monitoring (i.e., 6- month period), whereas comprehensive studies relate to the
assessment based on a three-seasons monitoring (i.e., 9- month period) of baseline data.
Rapid EIA facilitates decision-making in situations where a fair amount of knowledge
exists about the proposed site or the impacts of the proposed development. It also helps in
identifying significant issues for comprehensive EIA. Essentially, rapid and
comprehensive studies differ with respect to timeframes required for baseline data
collection.
• Regional studies: These relate to the development in/of a region based on seasonal data
collection and address themselves to the analysis of assimilative capacity of air, water and
land components of the environment.
• Carrying capacity studies: The scope of a carrying capacity study is extended to the
analysis of supportive capacity in the region with respect to resource availability/utilisation,
supply/demand, infrastructure/congestion and assimilative capacity/residuals.
In the last two decades, national governments and also financial institutions have realised that
EIA has to be an integral part of the project life cycle: from project conceptualisation to post
implementation corrective action. Figure 6.3 illustrates this cycle:
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Figure 6.3: EIA Cycle
6.5. Environmental impact statement (EIS)

The environmental impact statement (EIS) provides documentation of the information and
estimates derived from the various steps in the EIA process. The information contained in an
EIS provides the decision-makers/regulators with valuable information that could ultimately
contribute to either the abandonment or substantial modification of a proposed development
action.
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A typical EIS contains the following three parts:
• Methods and key issues: This part deals with the statement of methods used and a summary
of key issues.
• Background to the proposed development: This part deals with preliminary studies (i.e.,
need, planning, alternatives, site selection, etc.), site description/baseline conditions,
description of proposed development and construction activities and programmes.
• Environmental impact assessments on topic areas: This part deals with land use,
landscape and visual quality, geology, topography and soils, hydrology and water quality, air
quality and climate, terrestrial and aquatic ecology, noise, transport, socio-economic and
interrelationships between effects.
• Write three ways in which EIA will help in business management

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6.5.1. Impact indicators
An impact indicator is an element or a parameter that provides a measure (in at least some
qualitative sense) of the significance of the effect, i.e., the magnitude of an environmental
impact. Some indicators such as morbidity and mortality statistics and crop yields have
associated numerical scales. Other impact indicators, however, can only be ranked as ‘good’,
‘better’, ‘best’ or ‘acceptable’, ‘unacceptable’, etc. The selection of a set of indicators is often a
crucial step in the impact assessment process, requiring input from the decision-maker. In the
absence of relevant goals or policies, the assessor himself or herself may suggest some
indicators and scales, but he or she should not proceed with the assessment until his or her
proposals are accepted.
The most widely used impact indicators are those within statutory laws, acts, i.e., indicators
such as air and water quality standards that have statutory authority. For example, the problem
of designing an environmentally acceptable oil-fired generating station is simplified for the
engineers, if they are given one or both of the following:
• Emission standards for various pollutants.
• Air and water quality standards.
These standards integrate the worth that a jurisdiction places on clean air and clear water. The
numerical values that have been derived from examination of the available toxicological
matter are data relating polluting dosages to health and vegetation effects, combined with a
consideration of the best practical technology. Factors such as the displacement of arable land
by industry are also equally important. An EIA that ignores these other components is
incomplete and sometimes misleading.
6.6. Evolution of EIA
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To understand the use of EIA as a tool for environmental management, let us discuss how EIA has
evolved over the years.
6.6.1. Evolution of EIA worldwide

United States of America was the first country to assign mandatory status to EIA through its
National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) of 1969. A host of industrialised countries have
since implemented EIA procedures. Canada, Australia, the Netherlands and Japan adopted EIA
legislation in 1973, 1974, 1981 and 1984, respectively. In July 1985, the European Community
(EC) issued a directive making environmental assessments mandatory for certain categories of
projects.
Among the developing countries, Columbia was the first Latin American country to institute
a system of EIA in 1974. In Asia and the Pacific region, Thailand and the Philippines have
long established procedures for EIA. EIA was made mandatory in Sri Lanka in 1984. The EIA
process in Africa is sketchy, although a number of nations including Rwanda, Botswana and
Sudan have some experience of EIA. Bilateral and multilateral agencies have also recognised
the value of EIA as a decision-making tool. The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and
Development (OECD) issued recommendations on EIA to its constituent States in 1974 and
1979, and for development aid projects in 1986. OECD issued guidelines for good practices in
EIA in 1992.
The World Conservation Strategy pinpointed the need to integrate environmental

considerations with development in 1980. EIA became an integral part of World Bank policy
in 1987 which states that environmental issues must be addressed as part of overall economic
policy. In 1989, the World Bank issued the Operational Directive on Environmental
Assessment (O.D. 4.00), which was revised and updated in October 1991 (O.D. 4.01).Asian
Development Bank in 1990 published guidelines for EIA (ADB, 1990). Importance of EIA
was echoed in the Brundtland Report, and at United Nations Earth Summit on environment
and development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
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As foreseen by Garner and O'Riodan (1982) development of EIA, as a tool for decision-
making world-over, has emerged through the following stages:
• No formal accounting, decisions made on interest group lobbying and engineering
feasibility; primary emphasis on economic development.
• Conventional cost-benefit analysis; emphasis on efficiency criterion and engineering
feasibility; major concern still on economic development.
• Innovative cost-benefit analysis, use of multiple objectives and discount rates,
imaginative proxy pricing mechanisms; economic development as one of the
objectives.
• EIA mainly concerned with describing the repercussions of the proposals on bio-
physical processes; economic development still primary objective.
• EIA with more attention paid to socio-cultural as well as biophysical systems,
economic development but not the sole objective.
The summary of evolution of EIA in various countries is presented in Table 6.1 below:
Australia Environmental Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act1974,

Commonwealth of Australia
Bangladesh No specific EIA legislation, however there was a Declaration that
Environmental Impact Assessments should be carried out for all
major development projects, 1995
China Environmental Protection Law, 1979
USA(California) California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) of1971
Canada Federal Environmental Assessment and Review Process
Guidelines Order 1984, Canada
France Law on Protection de la Nature, 1978
India Notifications dated May 5, 1994 under the Environment Protection
Act, 1986
Japan Principles for Implementing EIA by Environmental Agency, 1984
Malaysia Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activity) (EIA) Order, 1987
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New Zealand Resource Management Act 1991, New Zealand
Philippines Presidential Decree (PD) 1151 Philippines Environment
Policy, 1975 PD 1586 Establishing the Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS), 1978 Rules and Regulations to Implement
the EIS System, 1987
Sri Lanka National Environmental Act 1980, amended in 1986
Thailand Improvement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality
Act 1975, amended in 1978
The EIA Policy, 1986
Netherlands
United States US Environment al Policy Act, 1969
Vietnam Environmental Protection Law, 1994
Western Environmental Protection Act 1986
Australia
West Germany Cabinet Resolution, 1975
Table 6.1 Evolution of EIA Worldwide
6.6.2. EIA practice and outcomes

Same system, depending upon events, the complexity of the proposal, the experience of those
involved and the time and money allocated.
Deficiencies of EIA practice include:
• Technical shortcomings, expressed by the poor quality of many EIA reports. The
accuracy of impact predictions, the utility of mitigation and management measures,
and the relevance of reports for decision-making often fall short of internationally
accepted standards.
• Procedural limitations, such as:
o Inconsistencies in process administration and guidance
o Time delays and costs of applying EIA
o Lack of quality control of EIA studies
o Enforcement of mitigation measures.
• Structural issues, stemming from the application of EIA as a separate process,
unrelated to the project cycle or the larger context of decision-making.
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• Lack of a coherent policy-planning framework and systematic follow-up procedures.
Studies revealed constraints on EIA practice that are found in developing countries as
compared to developed ones. There are particular limitations on domestic EIA practice in
poorer countries-, where, typically, institutional arrangements are weak-, and human,
technical and financial resources are lacking.
What constitute good outcomes for EIA practice? Reaching the following targets:
• Screens out environmentally unsound projects
• Modifies the design of feasible proposals to reduce their environmental impact
• Identify the best practicable environmental option
• predict the significant adverse effects of proposals with reasonable accuracy
• Identify mitigation measures that work successfully to avoid, reduce and offset
major impacts
• Influences decision making and approvals and the implementation of terms and
conditions
• Achieve in environmental gains and benefits relative to other options.
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• List at least three countries where law requires EIA. Also name relevant
laws
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6.7. Nature and scope of environmental issues and impacts
Numerous reports on the state of the world indicate the environmental problems facing
society. According to reports in 2001, there were full -scale emergencies on a number of areas,
including:
• water scarcity,
• land degradation,
• tropical forest clearance,
• species loss and
• climate warming.
Some of these issues (climate warming and biodiversity loss) are global or so pervasive that
they affect all countries. Other environmental problems are concentrated regionally, and thus
affect only certain countries or are more serious for some than others. The major
environmental challenges facing developing countries are summarised as in Table 6.2.
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Table 6.2: Environmental challenges facing developing countries
6.8. Key elements of the EIA process

EIA systems have three components:
• Legal and institutional framework :It deals with regulation, guidance and procedure,
which establishes the requirements for the conduct of EIA.
• EIA process: steps and activities applied to specific types of proposals.
• EIA practice and outcomes: as evidenced by the quality of EIA reports prepared, the
decisions taken and the environmental benefits delivered.
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6.8.1. Legal and institutional framework
The provision for EIA may be made through legislation, administrative or policy directives.
The main features of the EIA legal and institutional framework are:
Basic responsibilities
The engineer carries out the EIA in accordance with directions given by the competent
authority (usually the agency which makes the final decision on the proposal but in certain
cases an independent commission or panel). EIA studies can also be carried out by an
interdisciplinary team, which is appointed specifically to the task and has an appropriate
range of scientific, economic and social expertise.
Scope of application
EIA systems could be narrow in scope for example those limited to projects of a specified
type and size or can have a broader remit, such as encompassing all proposals that have
potentially significant adverse environmental impacts. This environment is defined broadly
as including social, health and cumulative effects. The definition is now accepted as the
international standard of good practice and its coverage should be mandatory.
Consideration of alternatives
A range of alternatives can be included in the proposal, and there are different requirements
for the evaluation and comparison of alternatives as part of the EIA process.
Public participation
Public participation is an important concept of an EIA. There are specific requirements,
such as access to information, procedures for notification and involvement of the public.
At a minimum, public participation should take account of the concerns of those directly
affected by a proposal.
Quality control and assurance
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EIA components provide a set of legal and institutional controls on the quality and
effectiveness of the process. The main stages of the EIA process constitute a set of procedural
checks and balances. The respective functions of each stage should be applied iteratively as
part of a whole-process approach to provide EIA quality assurance.
6.8.2. EIA process structure

Resources are directed at the proposals that matter environmentally. It should end with a
follow up on the implementation of the decisions and actions taken as a result of an EIA report
as illustrated in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Illustrations of where decision-making occurs in typical EIA process
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6.9. Principle of EIA
6.9.1. Major trends in EIA
EIA is one of a number of policy tools used to evaluate project proposals. It is also a relatively
recent development compared to use of economic appraisal methods.
The following factors led to the introduction of EIA:
• public concern about the quality of the environment
• increasing effects of new technologies and ever-larger development schemes
EIA is applied in more than 100 countries, and by all development banks and international aid
agencies. EIA has also evolved significantly, driven by improvements in law, procedure and
methodology.
6.9.2. Guiding principles of EIA good practice

In developing of the EIA process, the following question is asked:
What would constitute EIA good practice and effective performance?
A number of reviews of this issue have been undertaken. They described basic and operational
principles for the main steps and activities undertaken in the EIA process. Guiding principles
of EIA good practice are listed in table 6.3.
The following basic core values identified on which the EIA process is based, have been
identified:
• Integrity: the EIA process should meet internationally accepted requirements and
standards of practice
• Utility: the EIA process should provide information which is sufficient and relevant
for decision-making
• Sustainability: the EIA process should result in the implementation of
environmental safeguards which are sufficient to mitigate serious adverse effects
and avoid irreversible loss of resource and ecosystem functions.
27
Table 6.3: Principles of EIA good practice
6.10. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

One of the most recent trends in EIA is its application at earlier, more strategic stages of
development at the level of policies, plans and programmes, and is known as strategic
environmental assessment (SEA). SEA is defined as the formalised, systematic and
comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental impacts of a policy, plan or
28
programme (PPP) and its alternatives, including the preparation of a written report on the
findings of that evaluation, and using the findings in publicly accountable decision-making.
In other words, the EIA of policies, plans and programmes, keeping in mind that the process
of evaluating environmental impacts at a strategic level is not necessarily the same as that at
a project level. In theory, PPPs are tiered – a policy provides a framework for the establishment
of plans, plans provide frameworks for programmes and programmes lead to projects. The EIAs
for these different PPP tiers can themselves be tiered as shown in Figure 6.5, and so the issues
at higher tiers need not be reconsidered as the lower tiers:
Figure 6.5. Tiers in SEAs
A hierarchy exists between policies, plans and programs with policies are at the top level of
conceptualization (Figure 6.6) and generality; plans are one level down from policies, and
programs. Programs make plans more specific by including a time schedule for specific
activities. Implementation of a program involves carrying out specific projects, which can be
subjected to traditional EIA.
29
Figure 6.6. Policy Plan Program (PPP) and SEA
6.10.1. Rationale and scope

The EIA practice is constrained by certain limitations and weaknesses. These include structural
weaknesses centred on the relatively late stage at which EIA is usually applied in decision-
making. Put differently, high-order questions of whether, where and what type of development
should take place are decided, often with little or no environmental analysis. Project-by-project
EIA is also an ineffective means of examining these issues. SEA, or an equivalent approach, can
be used as a complement to project-level EIA to incorporate environmental considerations and
alternatives directly into policy, plan and programme design. Thus, when applied systematically
in the upstream part of the decision cycle and to the economic, fiscal and trade policies that
guide the overall course of development, SEA can be a vector for a sustainability approach to
planning and decision-making (Brundtland Commission of WCED, 1987 and Agenda 21 of
UNCED, 1992). This upstream approach can also help in making EIA projects more
consequential and reducing the time and effort involved in their preparation. SEA may yield
significant other benefits, as well. For example, by ruling out certain kinds of development at the
policy level, reducing the need for many project-level EIA and thus relieving pressure where
institutional and/or skills capacity is limited.
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Arguably, SEA offers a better opportunity than project-level impact assessment to address
cumulative effects. Recently, considerable efforts have been made to extend EIA-based
frameworks to encompass certain types of cumulative effects. These deal reasonably well with
the ancillary impacts of large-scale projects (e.g., dams, transport infrastructure) and the
incremental effects of numerous, small-scale actions of a similar type (e.g., road realignment
and improvement). However, more pervasive cumulative effects and large-scale environmental
change (which are the end result of multiple actions and stresses that cut across policy and
ecological boundaries) are difficult to address. In principle, these can be addressed best by SEA
of policies, plans and programmes. In practice, however, this has not proven to be the case.
Most practitioners view SEA as a decision aiding rather than a decision-making process. In
other words, it is seen as a tool for forward planning to be flexibly applied at various stages of
the policy-making cycle. Under this broad perspective, SEA encompasses assessments of both
broad policy initiatives and more concrete programmes and plans that have physical and spatial
references (e.g., town and regional plans, regional development programmes, etc.). With this
scope of coverage, one problem becomes evident, and that is, the methodologies to be applied at
the opposite ends of the decision-making spectrum differ markedly. However, the principles of
EIA apply at all levels. Table 6.4. Compares EIA and the evolving processes of SEA.
EIA SEA
Is usually reactive to a development Is pro-active and informs development

proposal. proposals.
Assesses the effect of a proposed Assesses the effect of a policy, plan or

development on the environment. programme on the environment, or the
effect of the environment on development
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needs and opportunities.
Addresses a specific project. Addresses areas, regions or sectors of

development.
Assesses direct impacts and Assesses cumulative impacts and identifies

benefits. implications and issues for sustainable
development.
Focuses on the mitigation of impacts. Focuses on maintaining a chosen level of

environmental quality.
Narrow perspective and a high level Wide perspective and a low level of detail
of detail. to provide a vision and overall framework.
Focuses on project-specific impacts. Creates a framework against which impacts

and benefits can be measured.
Table 6.4: Comparison of EIA and SEA
6.10.2. SEA Process

In project EIA, impact mitigation, i.e., avoiding or reducing the project’s impacts, restoring the
affected environment or compensating for adverse effects, is often considered a separate stage
in the process. In SEA, instead, the focus of the project is on reconsidering the PPP from a cross-
cutting perspective, leading to an improved understanding of the PPP and possibly changes to
the PPP: each stage considers whether and how the PPP can be changed and improved. These
changes mostly involve rewriting the PPP to minimise any negative environmental/sustainability
impacts but could also involve establishing management guidelines for the implementation of
the PPP, placing constraints on lower-tier PPP. (For instance, establishing criteria for identifying
future developments away from sensitive sites or requiring SEA/EIA for lower-tier PPPs and
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projects). Alternatively, developing environmentally beneficial shadow PPPs or projects. As
such, mitigation in SEA is an ongoing process as illustrated in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7. Mitigation SEA
Methodological difference between EIA and SEA are:

• Scale of SEA is wider than EIA as there would be number of activities involved, larger
extent of impacts to be assessed, and greater range of alternatives defined and also
wider area of significance.
• Time interval is longer in SEA this is between planning, approval, and implementation.
Even data collection in SEA is time consuming stage.
Alternatives chosen at project level can be easily differentiated and they are abstract in nature
such as policy, not technical. An SEA report should be regarded as a documentation of the
processes used and available, where necessary, for later review. The real value in SEA is as a
creative tool in the design cycle of the formulation and reformulation of PPPs, modifying them
where necessary to respond to environmental/sustainability objective.
6.10.3. Benefits and constraints of SEA

Some of the benefits of SEA include the following:
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a) promoting integrated environment and development decision-making;
b) facilitating the design of environmentally-sustainable policies and plans;
c) providing for consideration of a larger range of alternatives than is normally possible
in project EIA;
d) taking account, where possible, of cumulative effects (particularly by focusing on the
consequences of sectoral or regional-level developments) and global change;
e) enhancing institutional efficiency (particularly, where EIA related skills, operational
funds and institutional capacities are limited) by obviating the need for unnecessary
project- level EAs;
f) strengthening and streamlining project EA by incorporating environmental goals and
principles into policies, plans and programmes that shape individual projects;
identifying in advance the impacts and information requirements; resolving strategic
issues and information requirements and reducing time and effort taken to conduct
reviews.
g) providing a mechanism for public engagement in discussions relevant to sustainability
at a strategic level.
Some of the constraints of SEA include the following:

• A level of institutional maturity is necessary, which allows for effective inter-sectoral
dialogue, for environmental considerations to be taken into account in formulating,
revising and implementing policies, plans and programs effectively, and to influence
decision-making.
• Appropriate skills are needed, within government departments/ agencies and private
sectors (e.g., industry, environmental consulting companies) and amongst academics
and NGOs.
• There is a need for adequate capacity in these sectors (both human and financial
resources).
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In practice, the extent to which the benefits of SEA are achieved will also depend on a number
of other important factors such as:
• provisions made for SEA, e.g., legal versus administrative;
• prior record of implementation and acceptance by decision- makers;
• degree to which overall strategies of sustainable development are in place;
• scope and level(s) of process application; with the broadest range of benefits being
gained from SEA systems that include review of policies as well as plans and
programs. (Adapted from Dalal-Clayton and Sadler, 1995 and Sadler & Baxter, 1997.)
6.11. Preliminary stages of EIA

The EIA process invariably involves an interdisciplinary team approach, and such an approach
reflects the normal scope of EIA studies which range from the biophysical to the socio-
economic. The team producing the EIS may be one, or a combination, of the proponents in-
house, lead external consultants, external sub- consultants and individual specialists. The team
project manager has a pivotal role to play. In addition to personnel and team management skills,
the manager should have a broad appreciation of the project type under consideration,
knowledge of the relevant processes and impacts subject to EIA, the ability to identify important
issues and preferably a substantial expertise in the area of work. The role of a project manager,
in the main, consists of:
• selecting an appropriate project team;
• managing specialist inputs;
• liaising with the people involved in the process;
• Co-ordinating the contributions of the team in the various documentary outputs.
The management team has to co-ordinate the resources, i.e., information, people and
equipment, to achieve an EIA study of quality, on time and within its budget.
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• Explain what will happen if the project proponent prepares the EIA report
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The management team has to co-ordinate the resources, i.e., information, people and
equipment, to achieve an EIA study of quality, on time and within its budget.
The preliminary stages of an EIA consist of the following steps:
• Project screening.
• Scoping.
• Consideration of alternatives.
• Establishment of environmental baseline.
• Impact identification.
6.11.1. Project screening

The number of projects that could be subjected to EIA is potentially very large. Yet, many
projects have no substantial or significant environmental impacts. A screening mechanism seeks
to focus on those projects with potentially significant adverse environmental impacts or where
the impacts are not fully known. Those with little or no impacts are screened out and are allowed
to proceed to the normal planning permission/administrative processes without any additional
assessment and without additional loss of time and expense.
Screening can be partly determined by the EIA regulations operating in a country at the time of
the assessment. In countries like the UK, there are some projects that will always be screened
out for full assessment, by virtue of their scale and potential environmental impacts (e.g., a crude
oil refinery, a sizeable thermal power station, a special road, etc.). In South Africa, the screening
process is implemented within the EIA legal framework within the Environmental
Conservation Act (Act. No. 73 of 1989). There are many other projects where the screening
decision is less clear. In this scenario, two examples of the project may be screened in different
ways (one „in‟, one „out‟ for full assessment) based on a combination of criteria, including
project scale, sensitivity of proposed location and expectation of adverse environmental impacts.
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Some EIA procedures include an initial EIA study to check on the likely environmental impacts
and their significance. An initial study, which is usually a simple checklist against which
environmental impacts must be ticked as ‘yes’, ‘maybe’ or ‘no’ must substantiate the declaration.
If the responses are primarily ‘no’, most of the ‘yes’ and ‘maybe’ can be mitigated, then the
project may be screened out from a full EIA.
6.11.2. Scoping
The scope of the EIA depends on the impacts and issues that it addresses. The process of
scoping is to determine the key impacts of the project. An initial scoping of possible impacts
may help distinguish the key impacts from those thought to be non- significant and unclear.
Scoping is carried out generally in discussions among the developer, the competent authority,
other relevant agencies and ideally the public. It is often the first stage of negotiations and
consultation between a developer and other interested parties. It is an important step in EIA
because it enables the limited resources of the team preparing a EIA to be allocated to the best
effect, and prevents misunderstanding among the parties concerned about the information
required in the report. Scoping can also identify issues that should later be monitored.
Scoping should begin with the identification of individuals, communities, local authorities and
statutory consultees likely to be affected by the project. A good practice is to bring them together
in a working group and/or meetings with the developer. Other key issues could include:
• particularly valued environmental attributes;
• those impacts perceived to be of particular concern to the affected parties; and
• social, economic, political and environmental issues related to the specific locality.
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• List aspects that need to be considered in the screening of EIA
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• What are the advantages of scoping in the EIA process
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6.11.3. Consideration of alternatives
The question of options is particularly important to decide whether or not the selected option is
really justified. In other words, by considering alternatives, the worth of the option is determined
with other credible alternatives, in environmental, functional, economic and social terms. The
rigorous comparison of viable alternatives:
• strengthens decision-making;
• strengthens public credibility;
• Improves the methodology of the EIA and the integration of the techniques used for
relative comparisons
To help decision-makers, an EIA report must present clear choices on the planning and
implementation of the project, and it should make clear the likely results of each option. For
instance, to mitigate adverse impacts, the EIA could propose:
• pollution control technology or design features;
• reduction, treatment or disposal of wastes;
• compensation or concessions to affected groups.
It should be obvious that options must be comparable. In other words, they must be developed
to an equal level of detail, a level that must permit measurement of impacts, again at an
equivalent level. In reality, this condition can be met only if the project under examination has
evolved by examining options. For example, a common failing lies with site selection. The
purchase of sites in the effort to force on them a project that is unsuited to the planning
environment, or to the physical and foundation conditions, has been a frequent mistake that
would have emerged clearly had the siting options been evaluated.
If you are presented with a project in which site selection has not been the result of a credible
options study, or in which the industrial process chosen suffers a similar deficiency, you have a
problem that can be solved only by persuading the project sponsor to carry out option studies at
a later stage. It is probable that different personnel from those associated with the original project
40
development would have to be employed. While comparisons should as far as possible be
quantitative, this is not feasible in all cases. For example, a comparison of the social, cultural
or visual impacts of project options must be inevitably the outcome of subjective judgements.
At the simplest level of quantitative comparison, there is the quantified volume of earthwork for
two optional road routes, or the measured area of forest eliminated, or the number of stream
crossings involved. These all will give some primary guidance as to the extent of the impact
that will perhaps be sufficient for a preliminary assessment. Each of the impacts would have to
be followed further in a formal EIA. For example, while earthwork quantity may give a first
order assessment of possible damage, the effect on water table may be related to depth of
cutting. The options may have different visual significance, and therefore, the location and
effects of soil dumps may also have to be considered. The area of forest removed does not (but
should) take into account forest composition effects, or the presence or absence of rare plants.
Note that this step, i.e., consideration of alternatives, is not a requirement in some countries.
This is, in other words, more of a voluntary action than of a mandatory requirement in these
countries.
6.11.4. Establishing the environmental baseline

The establishment of environmental baseline includes both the present and likely future state of
the environment, assuming that the project is not undertaken, taking into account changes
resulting from natural events and from other human activities. For example, the population of a
species of fish in a lake may already be declining even before the potential introduction of an
industrial project on the lakeshore.
Initial baseline studies may be wide ranging, but comprehensive overviews can be a waste of
resources. The studies should focus as quickly as possible on those aspects of the environment
that may be significantly affected by the project, either directly or indirectly. The rationale for
the choice of focus should be explained with reference to the nature of the project and to initial
scoping and consultation exercises. Although the studies would normally take the various
environmental elements separately, it is also important to understand the interaction between
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them and the functional relationship involved – flora, for example, will be affected by air and
water quality and fauna will be affected by flora. This will facilitate prediction.
Baseline studies can be presented in the EIS in a variety of ways. These often involve either a
brief overview of both the physical and socio-economic environments of the area of study,
following the project description, with the detailed focus studies in subsequent impact chapters
(e.g., air quality, geology, employment).
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• Do you feel that the procedure for EIA can be defined as a procedure for
designing engineering systems? Justify your answer in words.
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6.11.5. Impact identification
Impact identification brings together project characteristics and baseline environmental
characteristics with the aim of ensuring that all potentially significant environmental impacts
(adverse or favourable) are identified and taken into account in the EIA process. A wide range
of methods has been developed for the purpose.
Many of the methods were developed in response to the NEPA and have since been expanded
and refined. The simplest involves the use of lists of impacts to ensure that none has been left
out.
The most complex include the use of interactive computer programmes, networks showing
energy flows and schemes to allocate significance weightings to various impacts.
In choosing a method, however, the analyst needs to:

• ensure compliance with regulations;
• provide a comprehensive coverage of a full range of impacts including social, economic
and physical;
• distinguish between positive and negative, large and small, long-term and short-term,
reversible and irreversible impacts;
• identify secondary, indirect and cumulative impacts as well as direct impacts;
• distinguish between significant and insignificant impacts;
• allow comparison of alternative developmental proposals;
• consider impacts within the constraints of an area’s carrying capacity;
• incorporate qualitative as well as quantitative information;
• be easy and economical to use;
• be unbiased and to give consistent results;
• be of use in summarising and presenting impacts in the EIS.
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6.12. Impact on Decisions
The primary purpose of EIA studies is to aid decision-making and serve as an instrument for
sustainable development. Decisions can be made at various levels. A national department of
energy may take decisions on the direction of energy policy (e.g., the mix of coal-fired versus
gas-fired electricity generation) and on the resultant sector programmes (e.g., a 10- year
programme to develop a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant). Various combinations of
stakeholders (e.g., private sector, public sector) can also take decisions at various stages in the
planning and development process. Figure 6.8 represents a sound integrated decision-making
process. Table 6.5illustrates both socio-economic and biophysical environmental categories with
examples of negotiable and non- negotiable impacts.
Figure.6.8. Environmental Considerations in Decision-Making

45
Non-negotiable impacts Negotiable impacts
Degrades essential life No degradation beyond

Ecological (physical
support systems. carrying capacity.
and biological
components)
Degrades conservation. No degradation of productive
Estate. systems.
Adversely affects ecological Wise use of natural resources.

integrity.
Loss of biodiversity.
Loss of human life. Community benefits and costs

Social (humans as
and where they are borne.
individuals or in
Reduces public health and
social
safety unacceptably. Reasonable apportionment
groupings)
Of costs and benefits.
Unreasonably degrades quality
of life where people live. Reasonable apportionment
of intergenerational equity.
Compatibility with defined

environmental policy goals.
Table 6.5. Judging Environmental Acceptability
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6.12. Impacts of developmental activities
Example: A Housing and golf estate project
Let us look at an example of a project described below.
Project description
A development converting agricultural land into a golf estate is proposed. The proposed
development will consist of approximately 400 residential units, an 18-hole golf course, a
driving range, a clubhouse, fishing facilities, two new dams, a 20-room lodge and 100 person
conference centre, and staff accommodation, maintenance workshop, sewage treatment
works, an irrigation reservoir, a clean water reservoir, and water purification works. The entire
complex will be surrounded by an electric fence. The proposed project will be located in an
area that is currently grasslands and agricultural. Several streams run across the property, one
of which will be dammed and trout will be introduced.
Possible impacts Environmental and social impacts

1). Biodiversity
The development is proposed in an area of grasslands and wetlands. The construction of a golf
course, houses (which includes water, electricity and sewage pipes) and roads, will result in a
reduction of the local biodiversity (plants and animals) and ecosystem functioning and
services (the ability of the environment to filter and clean water). In addition, gardens that will
be planted in the development may contain alien and invasive species that will displace
indigenous species. Grasslands and wetlands are two important habitats for many endangered
species and the development could impact on local species by destroying their habitat. South
Africa has had substantial losses of grasslands and wetlands and subsequently crane numbers,
for example, have declined throughout their grassland range. The proposed development will
directly take habitat from the cranes and also from many endangered plant and mammal
species and will indirectly render a large portion of land unsuitable for these species due to
the increase in traffic, activity, noise and general disturbance from people.
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The electric fence around the development is likely to electrocute species that venture too near
to it. Further, the electrical perimeter fence will restrict movement and migration of many
mammal, bird and reptile species. Normal fences do not generally limit the movements of
small mammals and reptiles, thus ensuring a more continuous habitat for them on farmlands.
The electric perimeter fence will for all practical purposes isolate the small mammal and
reptile populations on the property from surrounding populations. Small, isolated populations
have a much higher chance of extinction.
The introduction of a large number of trout into the local streams could potentially destroy the
native fish population through replacement, disease and removal of essential prey species on
which the indigenous fish feed. This could also result in changes within the ecosystem that
could affect other plant and animal species. Trout move with ease up and down rivers, unless
there are waterfalls preventing them from doing so. The proposed dam will not prevent trout
from moving further downstream. Mitigation measures that will keep trout out of parts of the
river will also prevent indigenous fish from migrating up and down the river.
In this particular example, several other developments are planned in the area. Both from an
animal and plant habitat and general environmental impact point of view, these developments
should not be seen in isolation, but their impact should be considered cumulatively as required
by NEMA (South African National Environmental Management Act). The main impact that
all these developments will have on species is a direct loss of habitat. Indirectly, the
developments will result in habitat fragmentation (leaving pieces of natural land too small for
species to survive on). This will impact negatively on, especially threatened species especially,
or sensitive species that require large tracts of intact habitat to survive.
3). Impacts on water

In this example, there are three impacts on the water resources of the area. Firstly, the
development poses a threat to the already strained local water supply. Golf courses require a
tremendous amount of water and the water demands of the golf course, 400 new homes, and
48
a hotel means that there may not be enough water left for other downstream households and
agricultural users in the area.
Secondly, golf courses consume large amounts of pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers. These
substances inevitably leach into the surrounding environment, and can especially impact on
water bodies by reducing water quality to a point where it is no longer suitable for
consumption and the fauna and flora die. Sewage from the houses also may impact
the water quality. While some sewage might be recycled as fertiliser, not all of the sewage
from a development this size could be recycled. Coupled with increased storm water run-off
from houses, potential leaching of fertilisers, treated sewage and pesticides from the golf can
be very high and long in duration. The possibility of large amounts of sediment finding its
way into the watercourses during the construction phase can also not be ruled out.
Thirdly, you must look at water requirements for maintaining ecosystem functioning and how
the need for water for the development was calculated. For example, if you assumes that the
homes would only be used on the weekend, the estimation would be that much less water will
be needed than will actually be used. Constructing a further eight weirs and a large storage
dam to support the need for the development will have severe impacts that will be difficult to
mitigate. Downstream water users may experience a decrease in water quality and quantity
because of this development.
4). Theoretical benefits

The developer attempts to balance some of the environmental harm caused by the development
by stating that the project will have environmental benefits. For example, the developer claims
that the turf grass on golf courses produces oxygen, perhaps implying that this housing
development will help slow global warming. However, the same can be said for natural
grassland on the property, which does so without the need of irrigation, fertiliser or pesticides.
The developer also states that the turf grass filters out rainfall contaminants, yet so do natural
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grasslands. Considering the amounts of contaminants that the turf grass will require to grow,
this will far outweigh its filtration role.
5). Other Issues

NEMA states that an environmental assessment practitioner must not have a “financial or
other interest in the undertaking of the proposed activity”. In this example, the environmental
assessment practitioner is not independent as it also has an agreement to perform the
landscaping for the development once it is approved. As a consequence, the environmental
reports cannot be used and the developer must hire a new environmental assessment
practitioner.
In most projects, the developer will state that the development will create a great number of
jobs for the local community. However, the reality of these new jobs is often unclear. Make
sure that the report explains the existing socio-economic status of the area, including
employment statistics, skills levels and demographics and clearly states what and how many
jobs will be created, the sustainability of the jobs and what percentage of local population has
the skills to fill the jobs.
The developer should also explain the impacts on existing social services such as, medical
facilities and schools, as a result of both the influx of workers to the area and the new residents.
It should assess the potential social effects of migrant labour, including conflict with local
residents, sexually transmitted diseases, alcoholism and the potential increase in HIV/AIDS
infections as a result of migrant labour.
6. 13. Summary
In this unit, we introduced you to the concept of environmental impact assessment (EIA). We
began the by giving an overview of what EIA entails, and in this context, touched upon the
purpose of EIA, the processes involved in EIA, etc. Subsequently, we gave an account of the
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evolution of EIA both in India and in other countries. We also discussed how prediction or
forecasting of environmental change is vital for EIA. We then discussed strategic
environmental assessment (SEA) and described the overlaps and differences between SEA
and EIA.
EIA is a method of ensuring that environmental factors are considered in the decision-making
process along with the traditional economic and technical factors. Importantly, EIA requires
the scientific and value issues to be dealt with in a single assessment process. This helps in the
proper consideration of all advantages and disadvantages of a proposal. Environmental
considerations may, therefore, be set aside in favour of what are felt to be more important
considerations.
Alternatively, predicted adverse effects on the environment might lead to strict conditions
being imposed to avoid these effects or remedy any adverse effects, or might perhaps lead to
the complete abandonment of a proposal. Decisions that are unsatisfactory from an
environmental point of view can still be made, but with full knowledge of the environmental
consequences. The final decision about a proposal depends upon the likely severity of the
adverse effects, balanced against expected benefits.
EIA is therefore an administrative process that identifies the potential environmental effects
of undertaking a proposal, and presents these environmental effects alongside the other
advantages and disadvantages of the proposal to the decision-makers.
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6.14. Environmental Assessment Report
You are required to develop an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report for the project
as per the terms of reference (TOR) indicated below. Think carefully how you go about
planning and designing this report. You will submit a well organised report as per the TOR.
6.14.1. Terms of reference (TOR)
Requirements for the preparation of an EIA report should be clearly outlined in a terms of
reference (TOR) for projects to be assessed. The EIA report should be prepared by the
proponent to the requirements of the review authority that will examine the report. The report
should be of a high enough standard to enable the review panel to decide whether the project
should be permitted to proceed. If the project does proceed then appropriate terms and
conditions must be set to ensure an environmentally sound project.
Spent searching for sophisticated answers to unimportant questions. It is also compromised

whenever important issues are neglected through failure to consider a broad range of interests
in the early stages of the EIA.
6.14.2. Scoping
Scoping has the objective of identifying the right questions to ask during the conduct of an
environmental assessment. Scoping is the process of interaction between interested members
of the public, government agencies and proponents to determine the important issues and
alternatives that should be examined in the EIA. Scoping is the process of determining the
issues to be addressed, the information to be collected, and the analysis required to assess the
environmental impacts of a project.
Scoping is the process within which methods are applied to:

• Identify concerns of the public and scientists about a proposed project
• Evaluate these concerns to determine the key issues for the purposes of the EIA
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• Organise and communicate these issues to assist in the analysis of the project and
the ultimate making of decisions.
Scoping includes the following key processes:

• identify the nature and severity of environmental issues associated with the project
• identify easily implementable mitigations for the significant environmental issues
• produce a detailed TOR should further EIA studies be needed.
The TOR should be specific about the information requirements and level of detail to be
included in each major section of the report.
6.14.3. Contents of the EIA report
The following table of contents should be included in an EIA report.

1. Executive Summary
2. Introduction
3. Description of the project
4. Description of the environment
5. Anticipated environmental impacts and mitigation measures
6. Alternatives
7. Environmental monitoring
8. Additional studies
9. Environmental Management Plan
10. Summary and conclusions
11. Annexures
1) Executive Summary
The executive summary describes each significant environmental issue and its resolution in
sufficient detail so that the reader can understand its importance and scope, as well as the
53
appropriateness of the approach taken to resolve it. The executive summary should be a clear
presentation of the critical facts that make up each issue, and the resolution of these issues.
Information should be condensed into succinct, but meaningful presentations.
2) Introduction
The introduction section of the EIA usually includes the following:
• Purpose of the report including identification of the project and project proponent
• a brief description of the nature, size, and location of the project and its importance
• Stage of project preparation.
• Extent of the EIA study, including scope of study, magnitude of effort, and person or
agency performing the study.
• Brief outline of the contents of the report, including mention of any special techniques
or methods used for identifying issues, assessing impacts, and designing environmental
protection measures.
• References and Acknowledgments.
A review of relevant studies and examples of environmental impacts of similar projects should
also be presented.
3) Description of the project

The project description should be based on the project feasibility study. Not all the detailed
engineering information needs to be included, as much of it is unnecessary for the
environmental review.
The project description should be a condensed description of those aspects of the project likely
to cause environmental effects. This project description section of the report should furnish
sufficient details to give a brief picture of the following:
• type of project.
• need for the project.
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• location (maps showing general location, specific location, project boundary and
project site layout).
• size and magnitude of the project in terms of operation, including any associated
activities
• proposed schedule for approval and implementation.
• description of the project, including drawings showing project layout, components of
project.
• description of mitigation measures incorporated into the project to meet environmental
standards and conditions.
4) Description of the location

Locality
There must be a clear delineation of the area surrounding the project in order to define the area
within which impacts must be considered.
Establish a baseline
It is necessary to collect and provide sufficient information on the existing environmental
situation, evaluating the following parameter:
• Physical resources: topography, soils, climate, surface water, ground water, geology/
seismology.
• Ecological resources: fisheries, aquatic biology, wildlife, forests, rare or endangered
species, wilderness or protected areas.
• Human and economic development: population and communities (numbers,
locations, composition, employment), industries, infrastructural facilities (including
water supply, sewerage, flood control/damage), institutions, transportation (roads,
harbours, airports, navigation), land-use planning, power sources and transmission,
agricultural development, mineral development and tourism.
55
• Quality-of-life values: socio-economic values, public health, recreational activities
and development, aesthetic values, archaeological or historical sites.
You should note that baseline studies should be conducted on those environmental parameters
that may significantly be impacted by the project.
Base maps
Environmental parameters can be represented as spatial data by creating various maps of the
project location indicating basic physical features and infrastructure such as, vegetation types,
communities, animal habitat, and major population centres.
5) Mitigation and impact management

Impact analysis
Mitigation measures to minimise environmental impacts of a project are the core of a
successful EIA. One approach is to present this information in terms of the various stages of
the project:
• preliminary design
• final design
• construction and operation
Addressing impacts through project stages indicates clearly which aspects of the project will
require mitigative actions in the form of design changes, and matches the decisions regarding
mitigation with the project implementation schedule.
Environmental impacts to be investigated should include:
• impacts due to project location
• impacts caused by possible accidents
• impacts related to design
• impacts resulting from construction (regular operations, final decommissioning or
rehabilitation of a completed project)
56
The EIA report should identify the extent to which the proposed project would irreversibly
curtail potential uses of the environment. For example, highways that cut through river
corridors, wetlands, or a natural estuary can result in irreversible damage to these sensitive
ecosystems. Other impacts that may be irreversible include alteration
of historic sites.
The construction phase of the project usually involves environmental impacts that will cease
at completion of construction. These impacts may be significant, particularly when
construction occurs over a number of years. These impacts and the mitigation measures must
be discussed separately in the EIA report.
Significance of Impact
Determination of the significance of impacts of proposed projects is a key component of the
EIA process. While your professional engineering judgement is exercised in the assessment
of significance, there are also guidelines that you can follow in performing such an assessment.
Criteria for determining impacts include:
• loss of rare or endangered species
• reductions in species diversity
• loss of critical/productive habitat
• transformation of natural landscapes
• impacts on human health
• reductions in the capacity of renewable resources to meet the needs of present and
future generations
The significance of impacts depends on their magnitude, geographic extent, duration and
frequency, irreversibility, ecological context and socio-economic activities.
Typical questions that you can evaluate to assess the significant impact of a project are:
57
• Will the project create unwarranted losses in precious or irreplaceable biodiversity or
other resources? Scarce resources and favour short-term over long-term economic
gains?
• Will the project adversely affect national energy to an unwarranted degree?
• Will the project result in unwarranted hazards to endangered species?
• Will the project tend to intensify undesirable rural-to-urban migration to an
unwarranted degree?
• Will the project tend to increase the income gap between the poor and affluent sectors
of the population?
• Will the project contribute to global effects (for example, increasing carbon dioxide,
ozone depletion, climate change)?
• Will the project have effects on national financing (for example, domestic hydropower
projects reducing dependence on imported oil)?
Criteria for evaluating a project’s environmental issues are:

• Importance: the value that is attached to a specific environmental component in its
current condition
• Extent of Disturbance: the area affected by the disturbance that is anticipated to occur
from the project.
• Duration and Frequency: the amount of continuous time the disturbance-causing
activity will occur and the frequency of occurrence.
• Risk: the probability of an unplanned incident caused by the project that would result
in significant impact.
• Reversibility: the ability of the environmental components to recover their value after
a disturbance has occurred.
The proponent of an EIA report assigns a significance to potential impacts in one of five
possible categories, as follows:
58
1. No Impact
2. Significant Impact
3. Insignificant Impact
4. Unknown Impact
5. Mitigated Impact.
Mitigation measures
The EIA report should provide a detailed description of recommended mitigation measures.
Each mitigation measure should be described in terms of:
• the impacts it is designed to mitigate
• an assessment of its likely effectiveness in terms of reducing or preventing impacts
• the next best alternative
• the cost of mitigation
• the implementation plan for putting the measure into practice.
Proposing alternatives
Environmental components or serious health effects, the EIA report should include
consideration on alternative projects or approaches. The TOR should spell out the alternative
to be evaluated and identify the environmental and social factors upon which it is to be
evaluated.
EIAs address at least two alternatives. For example, an assessment of a highway project may
include consideration of different routes, different traffic capacities, or various ways of
scheduling construction. Depending on the project need, available budget and the TOR, it may
be necessary to consider alternate modes of transportation (for example, railways).
6) Implementation and follow-up
59
The technical aspects of monitoring the effectiveness of mitigation measures must be
described in the Implementation and Follow-up sections of the report. Monitoring should
include:
• a technical plan which spells out in detail:
• the methodologies for measurement
• the required frequency of measurements
• the planned location of measurements
• data storage and analysis
• reporting schedules
• emergency procedures
• detailed budgets and procurement schedules for :
• the necessary equipment and supplies
• technical and administrative manpower.
7) Additional studies
Public participation
The EIA must include documentation on the affected people’s responses to the project. The
determination of public response to a project may include an initial educational campaign
using mass media or public forums to describe the project, followed by a structured poll or
survey of people’s attitudes.
The extent of public education about the project, and the level of public participation required
in the EIA, depend upon the magnitude of the impact, the size of the affected population and
the requirements of the approving authority. The TOR for an EIA requiring public
participation must describe how the issue will be addressed, including the media to be used
and the fraction of the population contacted by the educational
programme and survey.
60
The Public Participation section of the EIA report should include:
• summary issues identified by stakeholders
• the TOR for the EIA public meetings and participation
• list of persons receiving this and previous draft reports
• compliance with coordination and regulatory requirements
• public hearings, press releases, notifications
• a summary of the principal community’s concerns.
Benefit cost analysis

Economic analysis of environmental impacts provides one means of quantifying the severity
of the impacts. The net environmental benefit or loss provided by a project can be evaluated
if monetary values can be assigned to environmental and social parameters. Project options
may be assessed by comparing their net economic impact. For example, if a project is
anticipated to cause negative impacts on a component such as fisheries, resulting in
quantifiable loss of income to local fishermen and subsequent losses of income to fish
marketers or processors, an appropriate mitigation measure could be the development of
aquaculture on a scale that would at least offset the economic losses suffered the original
fishery.
Economic analysis of the projects should include the present value of all benefits and all costs
compared in the form of internal-rate return on investment, and net present value. The net of
economic cost and benefit impacts may be totalled by component, by implementation phase
of the project, and for the project as a whole.
Environmental Risk Assessment

An environmental risk assessment may be a necessary part of the EIA if there is considerable
uncertainty about the likelihood or the magnitude of environmental impacts. The data
collected during basic EIA studies provides much of the information needed for explicitly
dealing with the uncertainties relating to environment impacts.
61
Two major categories of risks:
• those to human health
• those to ecosystem integrity.
The primary goal of environmental risk assessment is to evaluate risks, their monetary costs.
The costs of environmental risk assessment studies require a high degree of scientific and
mathematical rigor and may be costly if not properly planned.
8) Environmental management plan

The environmental management plan (EMP) is needed to ensure that the mitigation measures
specified in the EIA will actually be complied with when the project is approved for
implementation. Funding to cover the costs of administering the EMP should be guaranteed
in the basic project budget.
Contents of the EMP:

• checking the final design documents to ensure they incorporate the management
measures
• monitoring construction and interacting with the contractor to ensure compliance with
the constraints involved with the environmental protection or mitigation measures
during construction
• following construction, continued monitoring during project operations to ensure that
the project meets its environmental goals, and to initiate needed modifications to the
project design or operations for this purpose.
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References
1) Integrated Environmental Management Information Series 20.
2) Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). Pretoria. ISBN: 0-
9584729-6-3
3) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT. Course Module. S.a. [Online].
Available from: http://eia.unu.edu/course/?page_id=178
4) LIPTAK, B.G. & LIU, D. H. F. 1999. Environmental Engineers' Handbook. ISBN:
9780849321573
5) Ahmad, Y. J. and Swamy G. K., (1985). Guidelines to Environmental Impact Assessment
in Developing Countries, Hodder & Stoughton, London.
6) Canter, L.W., (1977). Environmental Impact Assessment, MCGraw Mill, New York
7) Clark, B.D., Chapman, K., Bisset, R., Wathern, P. and Barret, M., (1981). A Manual
for the Assessment of Major Developments, HMSO, London.
8) Commission of European Communities, (1985). On the Assessment of Effects of
Certain Public and Private Projects on the Environment, Official Journal, L175,
28.5.85.
9) Holling, C.S., (1987), Adaptive Environmental Assessment & Management, John
Willey & Sons, New York.
10) Htun, N., (1988), The EIA Process in Asia and Pacific Region. In: P. Wathern ed.
Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice, UNwin Hyman, London.
11) Lohani, B., J.W. Evans, H. Ludwig, R.R. Everitt, Richard A. Carpenter, and S.L., Tu.
1997. Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing Countries in Asia. Vol. 1 -
Overview. ADB. Ministry of Environment and Forests (2000) EIA Manual.
12) Munn, R.E., (1979), Environmental Impact Assessment: Principles of Procedures,
International Council of Scientific Unions, Scientific Committee on Problems of
Environment, Report -5 (SCOPE -5) Rau, J.G., and Wotten, D.C., (1980), Environmental
Impact Analysis Hand Book, McGraw-Hill, New York.
13) Ramachandra T V, Subash Chandran M D, Gururaja K V and Sreekantha, 2007.
Cumulative Environmental Impact assessment, Nova Science Publishrers, New York
14) UNCED, (1992). Rio Declaration, United Nations Conference on Environment and
63
Development Rio de Janeiro.
15) UNEP, (1980). Guidelines for Assessing Industrial Environmental Impact and
Environmental Criteria for the sitting of Industry, UNEP Industry and Environment
Guidelines Series, Vol. 1.
16) UNEP, (1988). Environmental Impact Assessment: Basic Procedures for Developing
Countries, Nairobi.
17) Wathern, P., (1988). The EIA Directive of the European Community in P. Wathern ed.,
Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice, Unwin Hymann, London.
18) WCED, (1987), Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and
Development Oxford University Press, London
19) World Bank, (1991), Operational Directive 4.01, Environmental Assessment, The
World Bank, Washington, D.C.
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Model Answers to Learning Activities
Learning Activity 6.1

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal study process used to predict the
environmental consequences of a proposed development project. Such projects may include,
for example, building a hydroelectric dam or a factory, irrigating a large valley, or developing
a harbour.

• Selection of site for locating new industry which is not in an ecologically sensitive
area.
• Selection of manufacturing technology which results in minimum environmental
impacts.
• Involving project affected population in the process of project development.

Country Law
Thailand Improvement and Conservation of National Environmental

Quality Act 1975, amended in 1978.
India Notifications dated May 5, 1994 under the Environment
Protection Act, 1986.
Sri Lanka National Environmental Act 1980, amended in 1986.

The project proponent may not have the expertise for understanding environmental impacts
associated with the proposed project. Also, he or she may be biased in favour of the project
as proposed by him or her. 65
• Size of the project (production capacity/investment).
• Location (ecological sensitivity).
• Pollution load addition.

Power transmission line. This will help in the selection of route.

No. The process of EIA has to take into consideration the socio- economic environment,
topography of the proposed location and the existing environmental quality.

• Air: Winter
• Surface water: Summer
• Groundwater: Post-monsoon
66

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LEARNING UNIT 6

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

6.2. Learning Outcomes

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

6.3. Introduction to EIA

Duration for EA will hinge on:

6.3.2. The Benefits of Environmental Assessment

6.3.3. Purposes and aims of EIA

• To be an instrument for sustainable development: The key characteristics of sustainable

Figure 6.1. Sustainable Development: An illustration

Long term objectives of EIA are to:

6.4. Steps in EIA Process

Figure 6.2 Steps in an EIA Process

Learning Activity 6.1.

• Define the EIA Processes

6.5. Environmental impact statement (EIS)

Learning Activity 6.2.

• Write three ways in which EIA will help in business management

6.6. Evolution of EIA

6.6.1. Evolution of EIA worldwide

The World Conservation Strategy pinpointed the need to integrate environmental

Australia Environmental Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act1974,

Table 6.1 Evolution of EIA Worldwide

6.6.2. EIA practice and outcomes

6.8. Key elements of the EIA process

6.8.2. EIA process structure

Figure 6.4: Illustrations of where decision-making occurs in typical EIA process

6.9.2. Guiding principles of EIA good practice

What would constitute EIA good practice and effective performance?

6.10. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Figure 6.5. Tiers in SEAs

6.10.1. Rationale and scope

Is usually reactive to a development Is pro-active and informs development

Assesses the effect of a proposed Assesses the effect of a policy, plan or

Addresses a specific project. Addresses areas, regions or sectors of

Assesses direct impacts and Assesses cumulative impacts and identifies

Focuses on the mitigation of impacts. Focuses on maintaining a chosen level of

Focuses on project-specific impacts. Creates a framework against which impacts

Table 6.4: Comparison of EIA and SEA

6.10.2. SEA Process

Figure 6.7. Mitigation SEA

Methodological difference between EIA and SEA are:

6.10.3. Benefits and constraints of SEA

Some of the constraints of SEA include the following:

6.11. Preliminary stages of EIA

Provide your answer on the space provided below.

6.11.1. Project screening

• List aspects that need to be considered in the screening of EIA

Provide your answer on the space provided below.

6.11.4. Establishing the environmental baseline

Provide your answer on the space provided below.

In choosing a method, however, the analyst needs to:

Figure.6.8. Environmental Considerations in Decision-Making

Degrades essential life No degradation beyond

Adversely affects ecological Wise use of natural resources.

Loss of human life. Community benefits and costs

Compatibility with defined

Table 6.5. Judging Environmental Acceptability

Example: A Housing and golf estate project