SID-0000003833248_optimized

EnviBUILD 2019
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

BUILDINGS AND ENVIRONMENT
SCIENTIFIC EDITOR:
JOZEF HRAŠKA
BRATISLAVA 2020
© 2020. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-fm ii
Reviewers:
Marina Babenko Ukraine Anna Bać Poland
Miloslav Bagoňa Slovakia David Bečkovský Czechia
Boris Bielek Slovakia Marcin Brzezicki Poland
Ivan Chmúrny Slovakia Nicoleta Cobirzan Romania
Miroslav Čekon Slovakia Vladyslav Danishevskyy Ukraine
Stanislav Darula Slovakia Pavol Ďurica Slovakia
Andrea Gasparella Italy Sabine Hoffmann Germany
Jozef Hraška Slovakia Emre Ilal Turkey
Ruoyu Jin United Kingdom Peter Juráš Slovakia
Ferenc Kalmár Hungary Miloš Kalousek Czechia
Dušan Katunský Slovakia Fritz Kleeman Austria
Ákos Lakatos Hungary Martin Lopušniak Slovakia
Ardeshir Mahdavi Austria Lucia Maňková Slovakia
Urs-Peter Menti Switzerland Ligia Moga Romania
Jitka Mohelníková Czechia Milan Ostrý Czechia
Ján Pašek Czechia Ulrich Pont Austria
Roman Rabenseifer Slovakia Helmut Rechberger Austria
Mykola Savytskyi Ukraine Matthias W. Schuss Austria
Marcel Schweiker Germany Bernhard Sommer Austria
Karel Struhala Czechia Zsuzsanna Szalay Hungary
Csaba Száz Romania Ondřej Šikula Czechia
Publisher:
www.sciendo.com
ISBN:
978-83-956696-9-9
Technical editors:
Peter Hanuliak
Peter Hartman
Organisation:
Faculty of Civil Engineering STU in Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
© 2020. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-fm ii
AGRO-BUILDING CLUSTERS FOR SOLUTION CRITICAL
CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Maryna Babenko1, Tetiana Nikiforova2, Vitalii Spyrydonenkov3, Oleksandr

Savytskyi4, Sergey Andrukh5, Michael Schmidt6
Department of research, SHEI PSACEA, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro,
Ukraine,
1
Email: babenko.maryna@yahoo.com
2
Email: nikiforova_t@pgasa.dp.ua
3
Email: sva.stroitelp@gmail.com
4
Email: san.stroitelp@gmail.com
5
Department of Architecture and Engineering Survey, SNAU, Kondrat`eva, 160, Sumy, Ukraine
sl_a@ukr.net
6
Department of Enviromental Management, BTU-Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
michael.schmidt@b-tu.de
ABSTRACT
The overarching purpose of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the year 2030 is to end poverty,
protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all. A major role in addressing these problems are the agricultural
and construction sectors of the economy that provide basic human needs. However, at present, the
agricultural sector not only provides food, but is one of the largest supplier of waste. Buildings and
communal services are one of the most energy-intensive sectors of the world economy. A new sustainable
development paradigm is based on the provisions of the circular economy. A circular economy is an
economic system of closed loops in which raw materials, components and products lose their value as little
as possible, renewable energy sources are used and systems thinking is at the core. In this article we will
explain this definition in more detail. The organizational form of the creation of new formations can be
agrarian and building clusters (ABCs). Cluster is completely self-sufficient that can power and feed itself
with closed internal cycle of material and energy flows and the external supply of products and surplus
energy to other consumers. ABC will use local organic (wood, straw, hemp) and inorganic (clay, soil, loam,
sandy loam) materials for the construction of cheap Zero Energy Buildings (ZEB) or energy-positive homes,
existing green technologies such as renewable energy sources, energy storage, organic food production,
water management and waste-to-resource systems. In the frame of the presented study the autonomy of the
building unit for ABS has been analyzed for the condition of Dnipro region, Ukraine.
INTRODUCTION
Today, we have developed a number of pilot projects in Ukraine for the rehabilitation of existing and
development of new self-sufficient agrarian and building clusters. The aim of these projects is the creation
© 2020 M. Babenko. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-001 1
Agro-building clusters for solution critical challenges of sustainable development
7 November 2019, Bratislava, Slovakia
demo facilities for high tech events as a showcase for further distribution, measurement and monitoring of
environmental parameters, the built environment and human capacity. ABCs have not only environmental
and financial value, but also social value, by solving the housing problem, reducing of the rural
depopulation, contributing the return of city residents into the rural areas. The overarching purpose of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the year 2030 is to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure
prosperity for all. The World Economic Forum [1] has singled out 10 key global challenges that require
cooperation from the governments, private sector, civil society, science and education sector. The most
important ones are the following: agriculture and food security, economic growth and social inclusion,
preventing illness and preserving the health of populations. A major role in addressing these problems are the
agricultural and construction sectors of the economy that provide basic human needs (Maslow) [2]. A new
sustainable development paradigm is based on the provisions of the green economy, circular economy, Blue
Economy. The green economy is defined as economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and
ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment [3]. A
green economy is based on six main sectors: renewable energy, green buildings, sustainable transport, water
management, waste management, land management [4]. The circular economy is an economy that is
producing no waste and pollution. A circular economy is an economic system aimed at eliminating waste and
the continual use of resources. Circular systems employ recycling, reuse, remanufacturing and refurbishment
to create a closed system, minimizing the use of resource input and the creation of waste (Fig. 1)[5].
Fig.1. Linear versus circular economy [6].
Blue Economy is where the best for health and the environment is cheapest and the necessities for life are
free thanks to a local system of production and consumption that works with what you have [7]. Blue
Economy is ZERI’s philosophy in action. Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (ZERI) is a global
network of creative minds, seeking solutions to the ever increasing problems of the world [8]. The main
direction of the nearest time it is necessary to consider the sustainable development of rural areas through
reconstruction of both existing and creation of new types of individual farms and communities. The
organizational form of the creation of new formations can be agrarian and building clusters (ABCs) with
high-tech agrarian socio-eco-complexes. A business cluster is a geographic concentration of interconnected
businesses, suppliers, and associated institutions in a particular field. Clusters are considered to increase the
productivity with which companies can compete, nationally and globally [9]. Cluster is completely self-
sufficient that can power and feed itself with closed internal cycle of material and energy flows and the
external supply of products and surplus energy to other consumers.
Ukraine is primarily an agricultural state. Its formation occurred under the influence of the processes that
passed in the villages. Nowadays Ukrainian government has a difficult task to revive the village which is the
center of national traditions’ preservation such as: honoring the family and established relations between
generations, which have a significant influence on the formation of the Ukrainian mentality.
Nowadays agricultural sector is one of the most important parts of Ukrainian economy. Today more than 14
million people are employed in the agricultural sector, and only 620,000 of them are working in the large
2
farms – agro-holding companies. The core components of the government’s policy are support for micro and
small scale enterprises (MSEs) and integrated housing development. Extremely important factor for the
agricultural sphere is not only increase in production rates but also the development of rural social
infrastructure, thus we are faced with the necessity for a governmentally funded program to ensure
affordable housing in the regions [10]. The development a scientifically sound model of strategic and spatial
planning at the regional levels, which should be based on the main principles of sustainable development:
improving economic performance and energy efficiency, social orientation, environmental friendliness,
preservation of cultural heritage is an important and actual task. Decision of this task was a general goal of
this research. The formation of ABCs and their integration into the existing system of settlement was
proposed on the base of global tendency of sustainable development. The concept of ABCs is developed on
the basis of globalization trends’ analysis and awareness of Ukraine’s role in the global labor division. Other
notions taken in to account are the principles of sustainable development, the features of modern post-
industrial information society (‘knowledge society’), the formation of «national idea», the modern
technologies of natural farming, the study of international experience of ecovillages’ existence, the
innovative energy-efficient construction and information technology implementation. It is also very
important to consider the historical relationship both to the ancient agricultural Tripoli culture that was
present on the Ukrainian lands and existence of the Cossack ‘Zimovniki’ and the hamlet of farms.
The village is a place of the most natural living conditions for human. Because land provides with the feed
and the physical work which can make the body healthy and cultivate positive living traits (perseverance,
focus, optimism), of course it requires the creation of appropriate social conditions. Combination of
environmental building technologies with modern bio-agricultural technologies can solve socioeconomic
problems of the modern village - to provide affordable quality housing, safe and useful work with green
technologies for land, in tourism and in scientific spheres; to create a new attractive youth ideology of
cultural heritage restoration and cultivation of healthy life and modern thinking according to global trends in
sustainable development.Fig.2 [11]
Fig.2. Theoretical basis for effective countryside development
MAIN MATERIALS
Extremely important for the agrarian sector of the economy is not only the growth of production volumes,
but also the development of rural social infrastructure: housing, roads, kindergartens, schools, medical
institutions, shops, processing enterprises, cultural establishments. In a market economy, large agroholdings
are not interested in this; therefore, a state program for the development of rural areas is needed.
3
Fig. 2. Diagram of natural resource flows [10].
ABC will use local organic (wood, straw, hemp) and inorganic (clay, soil, loam, sandy loam) materials for
the construction of cheap Zero Energy Buildings (ZEB) or energy-positive homes, existing green
technologies such as renewable energy sources, energy storage, organic food production, water management
and waste-to-resource systems. The next step in the development of construction for ABC is buildings that
are designed according to the concept of "Three Zeros". The principle of “three zeros” (Triple Zero) - zero
energy consumption, zero harmful emissions, zero waste - from 2021 will become mandatory in Europe for
all construction projects. This, in particular, is required by the EU Directive on the energy efficiency of
buildings.
Residential buildings with the characteristics described above are required to ensure the functioning of the
ABC. For the normal functioning of the house and the provision of comfortable living conditions for the
living in it, it is necessary to expend thermal and electric energy for the following functions: cooking and
storage; heating (cooling) of air in the house to ensure comfortable living conditions for people; supply of
cold water to the house and sewerage; heating of water for heating and hot water supply; functioning of
household appliances; the functioning of the auxiliary objects of the manor (economic block, greenhouse,
etc.); work of tools and devices of management.
Within presented study the possible autonomous effective building operation has been analyzed. The analyze
has been proceeded in the context of the proposed solution implementation in ABC as the building unite of
the cluster. The following groups of electricity consumers were taken into account: basic regular consumers
(refrigerator, kitchen stove, TV, inverter, charge controller, laptop, cold water pump, electric kettle, air
recuperator, lighting lamps), auxiliary regular consumers (electric oven, washing machine, iron, vacuum
cleaner, kitchen extractor), irregular consumers (cutting machine, electric drill, welding machine, plant
crusher, lawn mower, pump greenhouses). The results of such an analysis are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Estimated average electric power consumption by periods, kWh

Month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1-12
305 283 340 343 328 316 325 327 361 312 279 286 3805
As stated in [12] the main article of energy consumption is heating. The statistical data a power consumption
in private building which is located in Dnipro Ukraine are given in Table 2. The conversion of gas
combustion heat into electrical energy was performed according to the ratio: 1000 cubic meters of natural
gas is equal to 3305 kWh electricity [13].
4
Table 2. Average power consumption by periods, kWh
The next stage of research was devoted to the selection of solar power plant parameters that satisfied the
annual energy requirement for the building under review. Type of installation – pitched roof, module type –
single crystal, azimuth -0, tilt angle -30. Preliminary calculation of the generation of electricity using a solar
power plant is easy to perform due to the Solar power calculator [14].
The calculation results are shown in the table 3. The results show that solar power plants with a capacity of
more than 10 kW meet the annual energy requirement for the analyzed house.
Table 3. Year consumption and generation of electrical energy, kWh

Power of photomodules, kW
Area, sq. m
Parameter 5 10 15
27 55 82
annual output 6152 12303 18455
consumption 11646 11646 11646
difference -5494 +657 +6809
5
CONCLUSIONS
1. The basic principles of development of ABCs are: ecological, technological, business and social activity
of the inhabitants, the comprehensive development of individual.
2. Strengthen sustainable economic development and lead to job creation, particularly in agriculture regions.
In this context, the resettlement of much of the urban population into ABCs is an effective solution.
3. Combination of environmental building technologies with modern bio-agricultural technologies can solve
socioeconomic problems of the modern village - to provide affordable quality housing, safe and useful work
with green technologies for land, in tourism and in scientific spheres; to create a new attractive youth
ideology of cultural heritage restoration and cultivation of healthy life and modern thinking according to
global trends in sustainable development
4. The results of the studies show that in the Central European zone of Ukraine, where Dnipro is located, it is
possible to provide an autonomous power supply for a low-rise residential building.
REFERENCES
[1] World Economics Forum [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Economic_Forum]

[2] Maslow hierarchy of needs [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs]
[3]Green Economy [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_economy]
[4] "How do you define the 'green' economy?" MNN - Mother Nature Network. 2009-01-09. Retrieved 2013-
11-09.
[5] Circular Economy [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy ]
[6] Linear versus circular [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Linear_versus_circular.jpg]
[7] Blue home [https://web.archive.org/web/20131006095609/http://www.theblueeconomy.org/
blue/Home.html]
[8] ZERI project [http://www.zeri.org/what-is-zeri.html]
[9] Business cluster [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_cluster]
[10] Аграрні соціоекокомплекси в Україні/ Савицький М.В., Ніколаєнко С.М., Бендерський Ю.Б.,
Бабенко М.М., Бондаренко О.І.// Д:ДВНЗ ПДАБА, 2014. – 103 с.
[11] Development of countryside by the building of agrarian socio-eco-comlexes. M Babenko, M Savytskyi -
Litteris et Artibus, 2015
[12] Energy technologies area [http://eetd.lbl.gov/newsletter/nl29/]
[13] Ukraine horticulture business development project
[https://uhbdp.org/images/uhbdp/pdf/library_sabo/odynyci_kilkosti_ teploty_ta_potuzhnosti.pdf]
[14] Solar power calculator [https://rentechno.ua/en/solar-calc.html]
6
NUMERICAL THERMAL ANALYSIS OF WALL STRUCTURE FOR
SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS
Maryna Babenko1, Mykola Savytskyi2, Boris Bielek3, Daniel Szabó4

and Roman Rabenseifer 5
1
Department of research, SHEI PSACEA, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro,
Ukraine, Email: babenko.maryna@yahoo.com
2
Department of reinforced concrete and masonry constructions, SHEI PSACEA, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: sav15@ukr.net
3
Department of Building Construction, STU Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Radlinského 11, 813
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: boris.bielek@stuba.sk
4
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: daniel.szabo@stuba.sk
5
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: roman.rabenseifer@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
Actuality. The last years the development of pre-urban areas around big European cities has intensified. The
strict energy efficiency requirements force the developers to apply measures to ensure the high level of
thermal protection in low-rise building. But in the same time business interest of the minimizing the initial
costs of such buildings initiates the wide implementation of synthetic, non-recyclable or difficulty recyclable
building materials for insulation, such as polystyrene insulation widely used, what is not sustainable taking
into the consideration all life cycle of the building. The purpose. The main objective of the presented
research is to define the eco-structures of recyclable organic based materials as the efficient industrial
alternative to the modern insulation of low-rise buildings. Methodology. Engineering design has been
applied to develop the structure solution and laboratory study has been realized to analyze the main physical
and thermo-physical properties of the proposed structure. Finding. The wall structure for a sustainable
building containing a wooden frame, a thermal insulation layer from materials of straw origin, an internal
massive heat accumulation layer and an outer protective layer has been developed. Experiment of the
thermo-technical properties study of the proposed structure element has been released in the big climate
chamber TiR32 in the laboratory of building physics of Civil Engineering Faculty (STU in Bratislava).
During the tests the following parameters have been evaluated: the temperatures in the external and internal
surface of the test element in several points including on the joints (wood frame elements), where the thermal
bridges were expected; overall thermal image of the external and internal wall in the extreme negative
temperatures; thermal flow to the interior (during the first stage) – to define the coefficient of thermal
conductibility of straw-wooden panel itself as well as the required long of heating periods and energy
consumption to ensure temperature stability within thermic barrier integrated in the wall element. Scientific
novelty and practical value. The received parameters are to implement for design of sustainable low-raised
buildings structures of natural origin materials. The implementation of the proposed structure solution will
facilitate balanced development of lo-raise building in EU.
©2020 M. Babenko. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-002 7
Vitruvius et al, Title of the paper…
INTRODUCTION
According to the UNEP, building sector consumes about 40% of global energy, 25% of water and creates 1/3
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. At the same time, buildings offer the greatest potential for achieving
significant GHG emission reduction. The European Parliament and the Council reasonably accepted Energy
Performance Buildings Directive (EPBD) [1], which shall ensure that by the end of 2020 all new buildings
must be Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings (NZEB). However, a progress is slower than expected because of
lack affordable solutions in innovative building design, especially taking into account different initial
conditions, social and economic situation in EU countries.
The realized research focuses on a maximizing the integration of renewable materials in design of modern
sustainable buildings taking into account the energy efficiency requires together with ecological and social
aspects in the context of adaptation and availability od the proposed solutions.
The action plan for the Circular Economy has been accepted by EC in 2015 [2]. The circular economy refers
to an industrial economy that is restorative by purpose, where components are kept in the economy at their
highest utility and value in the long-term run. In particular, the construction sector of the industry primarily
needs to provide these principles in wide application.
There are several gaps not permitting to wider implementation of the sustainable policies in building sector
area have been defined: complex technical solutions requiring the informatic support, expensive materials
and equipment providing energy-efficiency, lack of understanding and familiarity with green products,
systems, and the development process
The key feature of the upcoming research is a focus on environmentally pure and renewable local materials
such as straw, flax, reed, hemp, soil-concrete and others. The core idea of this research work is to develop
the most efficient industrial “easy-do” low cost combined solutions of sustainable low-rise building. This
approach is based on combination elements with different functions to the autonomous unite. The cost
minimization is considered in line coordinated with economical, ecological and comfort quality, e.g. building
sustainability what could theoretically ensure its popularity and overall success.
The important “easy-do” principle of the considered conception requires finding the balance between
complicated but effective “high-tech” and affordable but non-industrialized “low-tech” for design of
multifunctional (housing and industrial purposes) buildings for rural area.
CONSTRUCTION DESIGN
It is proposed an industrial wall structure for a sustainable building containing a wooden frame, a thermal
insulation layer from materials of vegetable origin, an internal massive heat accumulation layer and an
outer protective layer - which is characterized by the formation of an energy-efficient environmental wall
structure, where the bearing wooden elements are executed with metal detachable mounting elements, and
work in a complex with insulation, protective and accumulating layers; Internal accumulation layer from soil
concrete blocks, assembled dry and has installation constructive holes for communications, protective
outer layer of lime-limestone compositions of carbonization hardening, heat insulation layer from a light
heat-insulating material based on raw materials of vegetable origin (Fig.1).
The wooden frame 1 is formed by connecting the vertical wooden racks to the two-girder column by
connecting the horizontal bar 2 and the diagonal slits on the removable mounting elements 3 to ensure
geometric unchanging. The step of the columns of the step is determined by calculation depending on the
chosen architectural decision. The insulating layer 4 is provided by filling the spaces between the columns
with a light insulation material based on raw materials of straw origin (straw of cereal crops, flax, hemp,
etc.). The thickness of the thermal insulation layer is determined by the design of the energy efficiency class
of the building. The protection of wooden constructions and insulation of organic origin is carried out by a
moisture-resistant parboiler 5, separating the main structure from the internal accumulation layer. The
internal accumulated thermal energy of the massive layer is formed by the concrete concrete blocks 6, which
8
are formed dry without a solution and have technological openings 7 for the arrangement of
communications. Painting layer 8 provides the tightness of the accumulation ball and the structure as a
whole. From the outside of the wall, the frame elements and insulation isolate the wind barrier 9. The outer
protective layer 10 consists of solid blocks of limy-limestone carbonization hardening compositions.
Figure1. Detailed model of the proposed straw wall element.
LABORATORY STUDY METHODOLOGY

Laboratory study has been proceeded on the simplified model of the proposed straw wall element. The
heating layer has been ensured by info-red heating film and the accumulated one by the standard silicate
brick. Experiment of the thermo-technical properties study of the proposed structure element has been
released in the big climate chamber TiR32 in the laboratory of building physics of Civil Engineering Faculty
(Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava). The test element is the fragment of pre-fabricate straw-
wooden panel of 250 mm of width and the overall dimensions - 1000x1000 mm (thermal insulation layer);
info red electric heating film, infro film Eco Term of width 1 m (thickness 0,34 mm) 140W/m2б 1х1 m
(heating layer) [4] and brick accumulation layer of width of 120 mm. (Fig. 2)
Figure 2. The composition and parameters of the test sample.
The test was realized in two general stages:

1. First stage – test of prefabricated straw-wooden panel without accumulation layer and heating under
the conditions precise in the Table 1.
2. Second stage – test of composed wall with insulation, heating and accumulation layers under the
conditions precise in the Table 1.
The parameters of the test are presented in the Table 1.
9
Table 1. The parameters of the stages of the experiment.

Stage (type of Temperature Temperature Level of Relative Relative
sample) in external in internal heating, humidity in humidity in
camera*, tex, camera, tin, °C temperature of external internal
°C heating film, camera, Wex, camera, Win,
th, °C % %
First stage -15 20 0 50 50
prefabricated -5 0 50 50
straw-wooden +5 0 50 50
panel
Second stage -15 20 28 50 50
composed eco -5 28 50 50
wall with +5 28 50 50
insulation,
heating and
accumulation
layers
*Temperature-humidity regime has been supported certain period of time at least 24 hours
The disposition of measurement elements for the both stages of the experiment are shown on the Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4.
Exterior room Interior room

Figure 3. Disposition of measurement elements for the first stage of experiment.
Exterior room Interior room

Figure 4. Disposition of measurement elements for the second stage of experiment.
10
The expected test parameters for evaluation in the frame of the presented laboratory study are: the
temperatures in the external and internal surface of the test element in several points including on the joints
(wood frame elements), where the thermal bridges are expected; overall thermal image of the external and
internal wall in the extreme negative temperatures; thermal flow to the interior (during the first stage) – to
define the coefficient of thermal conductibility of straw-wooden panel itself; heating periods and energy
consumption to ensure temperature stability within thermic barrier integrated in the wall element.
RESULTS OF THE STRAW WALL STUDY

The temperature measurements results are shown in Tables 2–3. The received results describe the differences
of temperatures on the surfaces in interior and external rooms of climate chamber. According to the received
differences transmission of heat through a building wall has been calculated.
Table 2. First stage of measurements.
Table 3. Second stage of measurements.
Table 4. Coefficient of thermal conductibility of straw wall under different thermal conditions.
Temperature regime, U, W/m2K Coefficient of thermos-transmission in different
°C temperature regimes, W/m*K
-15 0.38 0.095
-5 0.32 0.08
+5 0.27 0.068
The analyze of the regime of work of heating layer to ensure the required interior regime is presented in the
diagrams on the Fig. 5 – Fig.6.
Figure 5. Heating periods under the external temperature regime +5°C and -5°C.
11
Figure 6. Heating periods under the external temperature regime -15°C.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The composite structure solution of straw wall for sustainable buildings has been developed. The structure
is containing a wooden frame, a thermal insulation layer from materials of vegetable origin, an internal
massive heat accumulation layer and an outer protective layer.
2. The complex study of thermal properties of the proposed structure has been proceeded in big climate
chamber TiR32 in the laboratory of building physics of Civil Engineering Faculty (Slovak University of
Technology in Bratislava). Coefficient of thermos-transmission in different temperature regimes for the
studied wall structure varies 0.095 - 0.068 W/m*K according to the external temperature conditions.
3. The enfro-red heating film performance has been analyzed according to the supporting the temperature
regime in interior room ( 20° ) and provide required temperature barrier. In average to support the
required interior temperature regime during 10 hours under the external temperature +5 °C, the heating layer
should work on the maximum regime (140 W) for 1 hour; to support the required interior temperature regime
during 7-10 hours under the external temperature - 5 °C, the heating layer should work on the maximum
regime (140 W) for 1-2 hours; to support the required interior temperature regime during 4-6 hours under
the external temperature - 15 °C, the heating layer should work on the maximum regime (140 W) for 1 hour.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been supported by the Visegrad Fund Scholarship Project no. 51810050, the Agency for
Research and Development under Contract no. APVV-16-0126, and by Scientific Grant Agency MŠVVŠ SR
and SAV under VEGA 1/0113/19.
REFERENCES
[1] Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy
performance of buildings – EPBD [https://www.emissions-euets.com/energy-performance-of-buildings-
directive-epbd]
[2] Final Circular Economy Package, EC 07/08/2019 [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-
economy/index_en.htm]
[3] Patent UA #123861 Industrial wall structure for sustainable building
[4] Zdrave vykurovanie, Slovakia [www.zdravevykurovanie.sk]
12
INFLUENCE OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE ON AIR-CONDITIONING FILTERS
FROM NANOFIBROUS STRUCTURES
Petr Blasinski1, Aleš Rubina1, Olga Rubinová1 and Marian Formánek1

1
Institute of Building Services, Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří
331/95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Email: petr.blasinski@vut.cz
ABSTRACT
The objective of the study is to find out what potential has electrostatic charge on the filtration efficiency of
nanofilters. The using of filters with nanofibrous structure (fiber thickness is less than 1 μm) is associated with
problems of high-pressure loss, which is caused by high density of the filter layer. The high degree of filtration
is achieved, but the costs for ventilators power input is very high. Nanofilters are effective in filtering with
problematic lower aerosol fractions which is occurring in a common predominantly urban environment.
For this reason, a steel grid was placed in front of the nanofibrous filter layer and a potential difference was
created between the grid and the filter element. This treatment causes the capture of coarse particles on the
steel grid, and the nanofilter retains mainly particles smaller than 0.5 μm.
The main aim of the study is to find out whether it makes sense to supplement the filtration system with the
influence of electrostatic charging. The idea is especially about separating larger dust particles on a steel grid
and electrostatically charged the nanofilter to increase its efficiency.
From the results of the measurements mentioned in the article it is stated that in all fractions of the test sample
taken together is achieved an average improvement of 14%.
INTRODUCTION
In research with the negative impact of fine dust particles on human health, significant space was devoted to
adjusting the measurement and certification methodology for the coarse and fine air filtration classes. The new
methodology offers relatively mild criteria for fulfilling the classification into new filtration groups, namely
into individual classes marked with ePMx description. It gives the user a large space to choose the quality in
connection with the filtration problem, ie the separation of the used air filter.
The methodology for assessing efficacy has changed very significantly. Much more emphasis is given to the
lower fractions of the measured solid aerosol, namely particles with a diameter of less than 1 μm [1].
This is an opportunity to use filter cartridges with a nanofiber structure (fiber thickness less than 1 μm). These
have long been associated with the problems of high pressure loss due to the higher density of the filter layer.
However, nanofilters are very effective in the filtration of air in problematic lower fractions of aerosol, which
is found in common predominantly urban environment. For this reason, the article is focused on filtration
efficiency of nanofibers in connection with electrostatic charging. An experimental prototype of filter medium
is presented in the paper, which is an alternative to the current microfiber air filters for the F9 - ePM1 filtration
levels. The presented measurement results are realized by employees of the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno
University of Technology, Institute of Building Services. This paper is a continuation of the article Application
of nanofilters in ventilation [2], where the pressure loss and efficiency of conventional nanofilters were
measured. This paper follows the inclusion of the influence of electrostatic filtration and recalculation of
efficiency according to the new standard ISO 16890 [3].
MECHANISMS OF SOLID AEROSOL CAPTURE

©2020 P. Blasinski. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-003 13
Blasinski et al, Influence of electrostatic charge on air-conditioning filters
The spectral size of the particles, which belongs to the coarse and fine filtration class, is in the range of 0.1 to
10 μm. From this perspective, two phenomena predominate. In the case of particles with a smaller diameter,
there is dominant the diffusion effect, while in the case of particles with a larger diameter, the dominant
principle is the interception principle. [1]
Figure 1. Particle filtration efficiency according to size [1]
The molecular diffusion mechanism is most effective in fraction separation < 0.5 m. It is a process when
particles smaller than 1 μm strikes to the filter fiber as a result of Brown's movement. Brown's motion defines
that molecules in a liquid or gas are in constant motion due to temperature changes. As temperatures change,
molecules precipitate, the magnitude and strength of these collisions are random. As a result of these
movements, the fibers of the filter material vibrate and thus more likely to be trapped. [4]
The interception mechanism, on the other hand, is most effective for particles > 5 μm.
This is a phenomenon that can be explained as the capture of light particles flowing at a distance equal to half
their dimension (diameter) by adhesion forces. The efficiency of the entrapment mechanism increases with
increasing particle trapping dimensions. [4]
From these descriptions of the filter capability of solid aerosol capture, it is quite logical to conclude that to
achieve high filter cartridge efficiency, it is necessary to have a material sufficiently dense with a small filter
fiber diameter.
ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS - ASSESSMENT

The assessment of the electrostatic charge efficiency is according to ISO 16890 [3] entailed by the introduction
of mathematical distribution functions.
The mathematical description of the classification is given below:
∑ , ∙ ∙∆ /∑ ∙∆ , (1)
, ∑ , ∙ ∙∆ /∑ ∙∆ , (2)
∑ , ∙ ∙∆ /∑ ∙∆ , (3)
∙ , (4)
Where:
, – Mean fraction efficiency of particle size interval
– Discrete particle size distribution
∆ – Logarithmic width of the particle size diameter interval
– Lower limit of particle diameter in the interval
– Upper limit of particle diameter in the size of interval
The distribution functions that enter to the mathematical distribution functions are shown in the figures below.
14
Figure 2. Typical urban size distribution [3]
Figure 3. Typical rural size distribution [3]
MEASUREMENTS INCLUDING THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE OF THE

FILTER ELEMENT
With the partner company ASIO spol. s r.o. was built measuring track, at the Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Department of Building Services. The efficiency was measured by the initial separation of the unloaded
electrostatically discharged filter and the separation of the electrostatically charged filter by a high voltage.
The filter cartridge was loaded with normal house dust and DEHS test aerosol. The sample consists of a fabric
filter, above which was a metal grid connected to the high voltage circuit. The test air was flowing through the
filter fabric and used fan has an air flow rate from 0 to 1.400 m3/h. Air flow was measured by using a Prohood
PH721 ballometer. The pressure drop was measured using an internal pressure sensor of measuring instrument
Testo model 435-4. The particle number before and after nanofilter was measured by using a Fluke 985 optical
particle counter.
15
Figure 4. The shape of the test track
Figure 5. Sample detail of the tested filter element
Particle separation was measured as an experimental sample of 10 measurements over a 20-second intervals.
For an electrostatically charged and discharged filters.
The electrostatic discharge of the filter was realized by grounding. The maximal voltage up to 1200 V was
achieved with electrostatic charging (see Fig. 6).The measurement was carried out with model samples of dust
particles with defined diameter distribution and with test aerosol DEHS (diethyl hexyl sebacate). The aerosol
is formed using a Laskin nozzle, thereby forming particles with a diameter of 0.2 to 3.0 mm.
Figure 6. Measured voltage on filter, left - discharged filter, right - charged filter
A sample measurement protocol is presented on Figure 7. Figure 7 shows the results of one measurement in
the form of a protocol in the ISO 16890 standard. The efficiency of the discharged filter and highlighted by
green color and charged filter are highlighted by red color.
Figure 7. Sample from the results of the measured data
16
The summary results of all measurements are presented by means of the average values in the bar graph on
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Average efficiency values of measured samples
The influence of electrostatic charge is evident, it increases the filtration efficiency according to the measured
fraction in the range from 12% to 19%.
In all fractions taken together, an average improvement it is achieved 14% for the measured sample.
CONCLUSIONS
In the future, if the degree of filtration of particles smaller than 1 μm is added to define the fine filter, or if the
requirement for separation exceeds the required limit of 50%, the requirements for existing fine filters will
also increase. This is a step in the right direction because the indoor air quality will increase too.
However, the increase in the quality of air filtration currently also entails an rising electrical energy per fan
input. One way to reduce this effect is to use electrostatic air pre-treatment to reduce clogging of the filter
element by the coarse component of the outdoor dust spectrum. This air pre-treatment leads to increased filter
life and fewer filter changes and reduced operating costs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The article was created with the support of the specific research project No. FAST-S-19-5863.
Materials for testing were provided by ASIO spol. s r.o. and SPUR a.s.
REFERENCES
[1] Definition of filtration performance From EN 779 to ISO 16890. In: COURTEY, Sylvain. REHVA Journal
[online]. Belgium: REHVA OFFICE, 2017, s. 3 [cit. 2019-09-11]. ISSN 1307-3729. Available from:
https://www.rehva.eu/rehva-journal/chapter/definition-of-filtration-performance-from-en-779-to-iso-
16890
[2] RUBINA, A.; BLASINSKI, P.; RUBINOVÁ, O. Application of nanofilters in ventilation. International
Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering, 2019, roč. 1848, č. 0008, s. 1-6. ISSN: 2063-4269.
[3] ISO 16890-1, Air filters for general ventilation -- Part 1: Technical specifications, requirements and
classification system based upon particular matter efficiency (ePM).
[4] ANSI/ASHRAE 52.2 - 2007, Method of testing general ventilation air-cleaning devices for removal
efficiency by particle size
17
CFD SIMULATION, CHANGE OF WIND VELOCITY THROUGH
NETTING AS PERFORATED BARRIER
Jozef Bockaj 1 and Juraj Zilinsky 2
1
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: jozef.bockaj@stuba.sk
2
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: juraj.zilinsky@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
Main purpose of this article is determining the change in wind velocity and direction around and
through the aerodynamic barrier. The barriers are made of four different types permeable materials and one
barrier made of impermeable material. In the article is detailed description of the simulation procedure of the
precise barriers in the program (CFD) Ansys Fluent 19.2.
The simulation of the particular barriers consists of determining the eligible size of the
computational domain, which proposition was based on the connections with the barrier height, since the
barrier width is negligible in this case. Choosing the suitable computational model for the simulation was
important, especially being based on the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations.
Based on the Forschheimer's equation, eligible positioning location of the aerodynamic barrier and
adjustment for the permeability of individual materials in computer simulations.
Conclusion of this article is the evaluation of the aerodynamic barrier simulations with simple
pointing at the speed changes and wind flow, around and through the aerodynamic barriers.
INTRODUCTION
The aerodynamic barriers divide the continuous flow area around the barrier into two principal parts.
In the first part, in front of the barrier, windward area is formed (overpressure) and behind the barrier,
leeward area (underpressure). The efficiency of reducing the flow rate and intensity of turbulence wind by
the barrier is influenced by the following parameters: height, length, orientation, width, continuity, cross-
section, permeability.
The main parameter of aerodynamic barriers is permeability (porosity or cross-section fullness) ɸ,
which can be expressed as ratio between open parts area and total barrier area (expressed in m2/m2) [Jensen,
1954; Tillie, 1992].
Air flow and the change of the wind flow around solid obstacles has been as in the past also in the
present time interesting area of research for many scientists such as Robertson [Robertson, 1996], Briassoulis
[Briassoulis, 2010], Dong [Dong, 2010], Bailiang [Baliang, 2015] and others.
COMPUTER NUMERICAL SIMULATION

For the purpose of simulations of perforated (permeable) barriers the program ANSYS FLUENT
19.2 was used. ANSYS FLUENT is program based on the methods of finite volumes in three-dimensional
©2020 J. Bockaj. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-004 18
Bockaj et al, CFD simulation, change of wind velocity through netting as perforated barrier
3D models, simulating fluid flow (in this case air) around specific barriers. In this case we examined air flow
around the aerodynamic barrier, with height 2 m and length 4 m and with different material permeability.
The thickness of the permeable barriers is actually very small and is between 0,2 - 0,8 mm.
For the permeability barrier simulation in ANSYS FLUENT, the parameters D and C2 indicated in
the equation (1) are essential, as well the parameters describing the permeable barrier α and β. If chosen the
parameters α and β is possible to elect different thickness of the aerodynamic barrier Δx, taking in mind that
the two-dimensional characteristics of the barrier will maintain. This implies that D and C2 can be calculated
with the equation (3). Even though the barrier thickness Δx while using the parameters α and β doesn’t
implements the aerodynamic barrier permeability of the mesh, the thickness can affect the air flow through
and around the barrier. Based on this fact, the aerodynamic barrier thickness has to be thin compared to her
height. That’s why the aerodynamic barrier thickness is 20 mm which corresponds to the sides ratio (height/
thickness) equals to 100 [Agarwal, 2018].
The aerodynamic barriers were simulated as elevated above, the bottom surface of the computer 3D
domains and wind flow perpendicular to the barrier plane. The size of the computational domain along the
planes X, Y and Z was 40 m (20 h), 16 m (8 h), 14 m (7 h) (Fig. 3). The barrier was placed 12 m from the
domain entry and 2 m height above the bottom surface of the computational domain. The domain size was
chosen to fit to the height ratio of the barrier, since in this case has the main role for creating the windward
and leeward barrier side. The barrier thickness is negligible. The domain size was considered so as to
sufficiently eliminate the effects of air flow over the barrier on the windward and leeward side. The blockage
ratio in the exposure plane was approximately 3,6 % [Agarwal, 2018].
In this article we are describing the simulations of five different aerodynamic barriers with different
material permeability. Four aerodynamic barriers are simulated as permeable and one barrier as
impermeable. The mesh of the final elements in the domain consist three-dimensional hexahedral elements
for all barriers.
The barriers with permeable structure are discretized along the thickness of the barrier, and the
impermeable barrier is modeled as impermeable wall and no elements were defined in the barrier volume.
For creating the aerodynamic barrier computational mash, the use of hexahedral elements was inevitable.
They were necessary to achieve the required convergence. In the computational domain with impermeable
barrier fewer discretization elements were needed and used [Agarwal, 2018]. On the figure 2 we can see the
disposition and the number of elements on the aerodynamic barrier surface. The amount of turbulence was
higher in the areas of flow separation, that’s why in the areas near the panel we needed to achieve a large
number of elements. The zoomed part on the figure 2 shows detailed geometric characteristics of the
orthogonal hexahedral elements placed along the panel thickness. The areas y - z from the front panel were
evenly placed in square elements. The aerodynamic barrier was divided by height on 20 lines and 40
columns on width. For the accuracy of the simulations of permeable materials was necessary to create a finer
mesh along the thickness of the barrier. The numerical simulation is more sensitive especially within the
porous material and that’s why five layers were formed along the barrier.
Figure 1. Dimensions of the simulated barrier. Figure 2. Dividing the computational elements on the barrier.
19
MODELING THE AERODYNAMIC BARRIER PERMEABILITY

The permeability of the aerodynamic barrier material was specified in the calculation based on the
Forschheimer's equation [Paulotto, 2006]. This equation indicate the pressure loss Δp (N/m2) through the
porous material with thickness Δx (m).
= + , (1)
where V - fluid velocity (m/s), µ - dynamic fluid viscosity (kg/m/s), - fluid density (km/m3), D -
specific material permeability (m2), C2 - aerodynamic resistance coefficient (m-1).
For thin panel with permeability:
= + , (2)
= , = , (3)
where α (Ns2/m4) and β (Ns/m3) are the permeability characteristics and can be specified on the basis
of measurements in the wind tunnel.
While simulating the aerodynamic barriers, four different materials were used with various porosity
and one barrier made of impermeable material (Tab. 1). The table indicate the aerodynamic properties of the
used materials. The values α and β express the permeability of the materials based on the experimental
measurements in the wind tunnel [Hemming, 2005].
Permeable barrier Impermeable barrier

Permeability (%) Aerodynamic coefficient Permeability (%) Aerodynamic coefficient
2 4 3
α (Ns /m ) β (Ns/m ) α (Ns2/m4) β (Ns/m3)
38 3,02 0,12 0 - -
46 0,79 0,86
54 0,94 0,3 Table 1. Barrier permeability with aerodynamic coefficients
62 0,36 0,5 [Park, 2001].
MODELING THE TURBULENT STEAM IN SIMULATIONS

For the purposes of turbulent steam simulations through and around the barrier was used standard
turbulent model k- and RNG k- . The standard model k- in most of the cases estimates turbulent kinetic
energy. The given estimation usually happens during fluid flow around bluff bodies, where comes to
significant changes in the speed gradient in the flow stream separation areas. Opposite of the k- model is the
RNG k- model, which deals with the spread of kinetic energy turbulence more efficiently. Singular
measure dispersion it’s not assumed for all turbulence regardless to their size such as in the standard model
k- , that’s the reason why some of the turbulence are filtered [Agarwal, 2018].
In this case, we are no longer talking about permeable nets simulation but walls. We have added
certain amount of permeability to the walls, based on the equation (1), and that’s the reason why for this aim
the computational model RNG k- has been selected.
CONDITIONS FOR WIND FLOW AND TURBULENCE

Speed profile given on the input to the computational area was set as logarithmical with
computational wind speed Vz (m/s) with height z (m), given with the equation (4):
= ∗
, (4)
20
where z - reference height (m), Vz - wind speed at height z (m/s), u* - internal friction speed (m/s), z0
- surface roughness (m), K - von- Karman constant (≈ 0,41).
The inlet boundary conditions in the wind profile also contain turbulent wind characteristics k (m2/s2)
and (m2/s3), which are given with the equations (5 and 6):
= ∗
, (5)
!"#
= ∗
, (6)
( )
where Cµ - 0,09 is a constant from the k- model, u* - is friction in the atmospheric boundary layer.
For the simulations of air flow in the modeled area is very important to consider the conditions
related to air friction on the domain bottom surface (in this case the friction wasn’t considered - smooth
surface) (Wall boundary condition). As boundary conditions for the top and side surfaces were set domains
without surface friction (Symmetry). On the output from the computational domain, was calculated with zero
pressure and with that confirmed the open end rule (Outlet).
For individual wall barriers conditions were set on the surfaces related to porosity by using the
parameters for web materials D and C2.
Figure 3. Placement the barrier in the computer domain. Figure 4. Scheme of the levels where wind speed
was examined.
(a)
(b)
1. Impermeable barrier
2. Permeable barrier (38 %)
Cf - pressure coefficient, expresses the efficiency
and distribution of the wind load on the
aerodynamic barrier surface
(c)
Figure 5. Simulation results

(a) Pressure coefficient Cf along barrier section 1-1 (analysis RNG k- ).
(b) Pressure coefficient Cf by barrier height section 2-2 (analysis RNG k- ).
(c) Velocity fluctuation by barrier height section 2-2 (analysis RNG k- ).
21
(a) (a)
(b) (b)
(c) (c)
(d) (d)
(e) (e)
Figure 6. Illustration of the speed by barrier height section 2-2 Figure 7. Trail of air flow by barrier height section 2-2
(a) 1. Impermeable barrier (0 %) (a) 1. Impermeable barrier (0 %)
(b) 2. Permeable barrier (38 %) (b) 2. Permeable barrier (38 %)
(c) 3. Permeable barrier (46 %) (c) 3. Permeable barrier (46 %)
(d) 4. Permeable barrier (54 %) (d) 4. Permeable barrier (54 %)
(e) 5. Permeable barrier (62 %) (e) 5. Permeable barrier (62 %) 22
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion we can evaluate and assume that the aerodynamic barriers made of perforated
materials efficiently eliminate the wind flow velocity in the areas in front and behind the barrier. In this
article are described simulations of aerodynamic barriers from impermeable and permeable materials based
on the Forschheimer's equation, which specifies loss of air pressure through the barrier.
We need to take in considerations that the consistency of the simulations made in the program with
specified permeability based on the the Forschheimer's equation compared with the simulations of the barrier
as mesh (without using the equation for pressure loss) is questionable. As an example is the comparison of
the aerodynamic barrier simulation with permeability 50 % and individual openings with dimensions 2 x 2
mm and aerodynamic barrier simulation with equal permeability but with individual openings with
dimensions 20 x 20 mm.
Shouldn’t be forgotten that in case of simulations of very fine mesh materials is necessary to meet
the conditions for minimum number of computational cells on the barrier surface in each opening (minimum
9 cells), which in this case is very demanding for the computational technology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This article was created with the support of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport
of the Slovak Republic within the Research and Development Operational Programme for the project
"University Science Park of STU Bratislava", ITMS 26240220084, co-funded by the European Regional
Development Fund.
REFERENCES
[1] Jensen M., 1954, Shelter Effect: Investigations into Aerodynamics of Shelter and its Effects on Climate
and Crops, Danish Tech, press, Copenhagen.
[2] Tillie M., 1992, Ambiance dans les batimentsd´élevagebovin, Session Institut de l´Elevage, No. 222,
Paris.
[3] Robertson A. P., et. al., 1996, Full-scale testing to determine the wind loads on free-standing walls,
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 60, p. 123-137.
[4] Briassoulis D., et. al., 2010, Wind forces on porous elevated panels, Journal of Wind Engineering at
Industrial Aerodynamics, 98 , p. 919-928.
[5] Dong Z., et. al., 2010, A wind tunnel simulation of the turbulence fields behind upright porous wind
fences, Journal of Arid Environments, 74, p. 193-207
[6] Bailiang L., et. al., 2015, Aerodynamics and morphodynamics of sand fences: A review, Aeolian
Research, 17, p. 33-48.
[7] Agarwal A., et. al., 2018, Numerical Investigation of the Turbulent Wind Flow Through Elevated
Windbreak, Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series, 99, p. 311-320.
[8] Paulotto C., et. al., 2006, Wind tunnel evaluation of mean wind pressure on a frame-type signboard,
Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series, 98, p. 919-928.
[9] Hemming S., et. al., 2005, Testing of air permeability performance of agricultural nets, in Internal
Report, Agrotechnology and Food Innovations, ed. By B.V Wageningen, U.R. Wabgeningen (The
Netherlands, 2005).
[10] Park C. W., et. al., 2001, The effects of a bottom gap and non-uniform porosity in a wind fence on the
surface pressure of a triangular prism located behind the fence, Journal of Wind Engineering at
Industrial Aerodynamics, 89, p. 1137-1154.
23
OPTIMIZATION OF BIOCOMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR OUTER SHELL OF
BUILDINGS
Lukáš Bosák1 , Jozef Kováč2
1
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: lukas.bosak@stuba.sk
2
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: jozef.kovac@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The subject of the article is a bio-composite material which will serve as the outer shell for buildings. It deals
with the testing and optimization of bio-composite laminate. Conventional constructions materials, such are
steel and plastic are currently used for buldings envelopes. Bio-composites may be used as a suitable
alternative material. They are made by nature fibers and matrix. Bio-composites will have great potential in
the future in the construction industry as the outer envelope of buildings. The main intention of this article is
to analyze the impact of UV radiation and humidity on bio-composites and creation a bio-composite panel
for using in building envelope with inclusion of wider use of these types of materials in the future.
INTRODUCTION
Biocomposites represent the most advantageous material for structures in terms of ecology, sustainability,
global warming and energy saving. They are also an ideal material in terms of economic demands.
Biocomposites are made of natural materials and are an alternative to commonly used synthetic composites.
These relatively new materials are currently used in many industries, including the construction industry.
Biocomposites represent an element that is composed and manufactured exclusively from biologically
renewable and naturally degradable sources. Biocomposite consists of matrix (resin, PLA – Polylactic acid,
biodegradable thermoplastic polymer derived from natural renewable sources) and an inner reinforcing layer
of natural fibers (obtained from plant stems - mostly Linen, Jute, Flax). The matrix provides the role of the
protective casing, preserves the shape of the composite and protects the inner reinforcement. Petrochemical
resins are replaced by natural resins or PLA and synthetic fibers (carbon, glass fiber) are replaced by natural
fibers (Flax, Linen, Jute). [1]
DEGRADATION
The main cause of the degradation of natural fibers due to moisture is the presence of the hydroxyl group and
other polar groups in the natural fibers. This group makes the fibers hydrophilic. Polymer composites are
capable of absorbing moisture in humid environments or when immersed in water. This is most relevant for
natural fiber composites [2]. It has been shown that the absorption of water by biocomposites is typically 0.7
to 2% after 24 hours, 1 to 5% per week and 18 to 22% after several months. This applies to fibers with a high
content of hydrophilic components [3]. Higher humidity also causes microbial degradation - biodegradation.
Outdoor biocomposites are exposed to direct sunlight, which breaks covalent bonds in organic polymers,
causing yellowing, color fading, weight reduction, surface roughening. Impairment of mechanical properties
and brittleness of the material, which is increased by outdoor use, are: UV resistance, moisture resistance,
©2020 L. Bosak. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-005 24
Bosák, Testing and Optimalization of Biocomposites due to UV Radiation and Humidity
dimensional stability. The UV-induced weathering process causes a loss of tensile strength of the composite
material. When biocomposite samples are exposed to external environment, it leds to fiber and matrix
degradation [3]. The ultraviolet radiation absorbed by the polymer modifies the chemical structure and
cleaves the molecular chain. Degradation processes of weathering create changes in chemical, physical and
mechanical properties of materials [4]. Photodegradation creates a photo-oxidation process that creates
cracks. Cracks on the surface cause light scattering (bleaching effect in appearance) and impair mechanical
properties. During production process, hydroperoxide and carbonyl catalysts can be introduced into the
composite. These absorb UV radiation at wavelengths above 290 nm and trigger photochemical reactions.
TESTING
The samples of the tested biocomposites have a core of woven flax fiber. The test samples are divided as
follows: a 1-layer sample of woven flax fiber in natural shade and shade of bordeaux in PLA (polylactic
acid) matrix, a 1-layer sample of woven flax fiber in natural shade and shade of bordeaux in PP
(polypropylene) matrix and a 3-layer sample of woven flax fiber in natural shade and shade of bordeaux in
PLA matrix. The edges of the samples were sealed and samples were placed in test frames. Note:
abbreviation L N.PLA.3V 04 means: laboratory tested, natural color, PLA matrix, 3layers, number of
sample. Testing of degradation is performed under laboratory conditions according to STN EN ISO 4892-3:
Plastics. Methods of exposure to laboratory light sources. Part 3: Fluorescent UV lamps (ISO 4892-3: 2016).
[5] Method A was chosen from Table 4 - Exposure Cycles (Table 1): Accelerated laboratory aging with
UVA-340 type fluorescent lamps. From this part was selected cycle no. 2. This cycle corresponds to the
standard testing of plastic products.
Table 1. ISO 4892-3: 2016, Table 4 - Exposure cycles.

Method A: Artifical accelerated weathering with UVA-340 lamps
Black-panel
Cycle No. Exposure period Lamp type Irradiation
temperature
8 h dry UVA-340 (type 1A) 0,76 Wm-2 × nm-1 at 340nm 60 °C ± 3 °C
1
4 h condensastion UV lamps off 50 °C ± 3 °C
8 h dry UVA-340 (type 1A) 0,76 Wm-2 × nm-1 at340nm 50 °C ± 3 °C
2 0,25 h water spray UV lamps off Not controlled
3,75 h condensation UV lamps off 50 °C ± 3 °C
3
1 h water spray UV lamps off Not controlled
4
1 h water spray UV lamps off Not controlled
The total test time was set to 4000 hours. One sample of each species was taken after 500 hours. From the
results of the testing of samples it is possible to state several facts, which are explained in the following
subchapters.
INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL AND LAYERS ON COMPOSITE DEGRADATION

The monolayer samples whose matrix is formed by the PLA layer have degraded most rapidly. These
samples began to degrade as early as 117 hours in laboratory conditions.
After 2000 hours, all single layer PLA samples were removed for overall degradation - total matrix damage
was throughout the sample thickness.
Multilayer PLA samples and single layer PP matrix samples were more resistant due to the thicker coating
and did not cause overall matrix degradation and moisture penetration into the fibers in the sample core. In
25
figure 1., a change in the color of the sample is visible but no visible damage to the matrix. Total degradation
of the sample occurred after 3000 hours.
Figure 1. Visible color changes of three-layer PLA samples - 170 h and 300 h and its total degradation after
3000 h on the right side.
When comparing the degraded samples with the reference samples, there is a difference in degradation due
to material and composite thickness. Layer thickness has a significant effect on degradation, single layer
PLA samples have degraded completely within 2000 h. However, when comparing the material base, single-
layered PP samples degraded less (color change only) than three-layered PLA.
Bordeaux shade samples - the conclusion is similar to natural shade samples, but bordeaux shade samples
have degraded significantly more.
The sample thicknesses were compared to the reference samples. Not all samples were measured, only
selected samples at the end of testing (Table 2). The original samples were stored in a plastic waterproof and
airtight container in a dark place to prevent their deterioration.
Table 2. Biocomposite sample thickness.

Biocomposite sample thickness
Percentage of
Reference Thickness Thickness
Sample number thickness loss
sample (µm) (µm)
(%)
N.PP.1v 1097 L N.PP.1v 07 1088 0,82%
N.PLA.1v 575 L N.PLA.1v 08 546 5,04%
N.PLA.3v 1450 L N.PLA.3v 07 1242 14,34%
B.PP.1v 992 L B.PP.1v 03 981 1,11%
B.PLA.1v 543 L B.PLA.1v 08 506 6,81%
B.PLA.3v 1570 L B.PLA.3v 06 1020 35,03%
Based on the thickness comparison, it can be stated that the greatest difference in thickness was recorded in
the case of the three-layer PLA shade of bordeaux. When comparing the percentage decrease in thickness, it
can be stated that the color of the reinforcement has an effect on the degradation of the material - when
26
comparing the same composites with another color of the reinforcement, the thickness loss at the Bordeaux
shade is higher.
By comparing the weights of the composites, it can be stated that the greatest percentage average weight loss
was recorded for the 3-layer PLA shade of Bordeaux (Table 3).
Table 3. Biocomposite sample thickness.

Type of Average weight loss
biocomposite percentage (%)
N.PLA.3v 6,26%
B.PLA.3v 12,62%
N.PP.1v 3,24%
B.PP.1v 3,87%
N.PLA.1v 9,65%
B.PLA.1v 6,88%
When comparing the percentage weight loss, the same conclusion can be stated as for the thickness
comparison and that the color of the reinforcement has an effect on the degradation of the material - when
comparing the same composites with another color of the reinforcement, the thickness loss at Bordeaux
shade is higher. However, this does not apply in this case to 1-ply PLA shades of Bordeaux. Higher value
here is for 1-layer PLA samples of natural shade. This was caused by more imperfections on the matrix
surface in the case of natural shade samples. The influence of the exposure time of the samples also has a
considerable effect on the degradation of the material, which is also evident from the tables. Single-layer
biocomposites encapsulated in PP (Polypropylene) reached the best results. However, these cannot be
considered ecological, since biological plastic is not used in their matrix.
INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL AND LAYERS ON COMPOSITE DEGRADATION

In the process of producing biocomposites, imperfections occur on the surface of the matrix; small to
microscopic imperfections and cracks on the surface. These may be due to the material or used production
process. After comparing the percentage of weight loss for 1-ply PLA natural shade samples, the samples
were examined in more detail.
Samples and imperfections were then examined under an optical microscope and dimensions and depth were
recorded.
Research has shown, among other things, that moisture has penetrated into the multilayer biocomposite
specimens due to defects and imperfections on the matrix surface (Fig. 2). These drawbacks that arise in the
manufacturing process reduce the thickness of the biocomposite coating and significantly reduce its life.
27
Figure 2. Imperfection on the surface of PLA samples - under a microscope in 3D space
Imperfections in other composites have shown that in some cases the imperfection is so deep that the fiber-
protecting matrix is only a few micrometers thick. This causes rapid degradation and penetration of moisture
into the interior of the hydrophilic reinforcement.
Based on the results of testing, it is recommended to change the production process or to add another
covering layer of matrix material. This approach is especially needed in the manufacture of PLA
biocomposites.
TREATMENT OF BIOCOMPOSITE LAMINATES

Under laboratory conditions, an attempt was made to treat the surface of biocomposites with a biological
UV-resistant varnish, but this solution did not prevent the degradation of the composites, only postponed it
by a few weeks.
After consulting the presentation of the research results to the manufacturer, the company's production
director and other representatives took into account the risks associated with the current state of the
production process and the errors of imperfections introduced in the production of the samples. After
consultation, samples were sent to Germany and their surface was modified. The surface was smoothed and
the imperfections removed. The recommendations consisted in adding an additional layer of PLA to the
surface of the composite. By heating and laminating, the composite surface was gradually smoothed. The
individual phases of the process are shown in Fig. 3.
28
Figure 3. Smoothing the surface and removing imperfections
CONCLUSIONS
This research was mainly focused to the study of the degradation process of biocomposites under laboratory
conditions and their surface protection. The assumption of using this type of material in construction is based
on the possibility of replacing conventional materials. This will partially reduce the environmental burden in
the construction industry.
Based on the results of the research, it is recommended to increase the thickness of the top layer of the matrix
or to use several layers of PLA to prevent imperfections in the matrix and its subsequent degradation and
thus the degradation of the entire laminate.
The color of the reinforcement layer and the thickness of the composite itself also have a significant effect on
the degradation process. Therefore, it is recommended to choose color, thickness / number of layers
depending on this fact.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by Young Scientist Grant under number 1602.
REFERENCES
[1] Bosák, L.: Starnutie bio-kompozitov v reálnych podmienkach a v laboratóriu. In Advances in
Architectural, Civil and Environmental Engineering: 27th Annual PhD Student Conference on Applied
Mathematics, Applied Mechanics, Geodesy and Cartography, Landscaping, Building Technology,
Theory and Structures of Buildings, Theory and Structures of Civil Engineering Works, Theory and
Environmental Technology of Buildings, Water Resources Engineering. 25. October 2017, Bratislava,
Slovakia. Vol. 1. Bratislava: Spektrum STU, (2017), CD-ROM, p. 380-387. ISBN 978-80-227-4751-6.
[2] Shubhra, Q.T.H., Alam, A.K.M.M., Beg, M.D.H.: Mechanical and degradation characteristics of natural
silk fiber reinforced gelatin composites. Mater Lett, 2011.
[3] Dittenber, D.B., GangaRao, H.V.S.: Critical review of recent publications on use of natural composites
in infrastructure. Composites Part A Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2012.
[4] Beg, M.D.H., Pickering, K.L.: Accelerated weathering of unbleached and bleached kraft wood fibre
reinforced polypropylene composites. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2008
[5] STN EN ISO 4892-3: Plastics. Methods of exposure to laboratory light sources. Part 3: Fluorescent UV
lamps (ISO 4892-3: 2016).
29
EVALUATION OF THERMAL COMFORT IN MODERN SMALL UNIVERSITY
LECTURE HALL IN RELATION TO AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Mária Budiaková1
1
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Architecture, Nám. slobody 19, 812 45
Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: budiakova@fa.stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The paper is focused on the evaluation of thermal comfort in modern small university lecture hall in relation
to air conditioning system. Providing the optimal parameters of the thermal comfort in the interiors of a
university is immensely important for the students. Meeting these parameters is inevitable not only from
physiological point of view but also to achieve the desirable students' performance. Parameters of the
thermal comfort are also influenced by air conditioning system in small university lecture hall. Correct
design of air conditioning system parameters is very important. Experimental measurements of thermal
comfort were carried out in the winter season in the small lecture hall of Vienna University of Economics
and Business. The device Testo 480 was used for the measurements. Gained values of air temperature, air
relative humidity, air velocity, globe temperature, indexes PMV and PPD are presented in the charts. Modern
air conditioning system of the small university lecture hall was evaluated on the basis of thermal comfort
parameters. Conclusion of this paper states the principles of how to design modern air conditioning systems
in the small new university lecture halls.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern world universities have also air conditioning system or mechanical ventilation system in small
university lecture halls. In Slovakia, small university lecture halls have neither air conditioning system nor
mechanical ventilation system. New universities as well as existing old universities in Slovakia have small
university lecture halls only with natural ventilation. Missing air conditioning system or mechanical
ventilation system is a disadvantage of small university lecture halls regarding thermal comfort and CO2
concentration. Therefore, it is important to equip small university lecture halls in the new modern
universities with air conditioning system or mechanical ventilation system. When planning reconstruction of
an existing old small university lecture hall, air conditioning system or mechanical ventilation system should
be considered.
Ensuring thermal comfort in the small university lecture hall is very important because students spend the
majority of their time in university buildings in the small university lecture halls. Thermal comfort in the
small university lecture hall is defined as the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding
environment. The fundamental quantities for the evaluation of the thermal comfort are internal air
temperature, operative temperature, globe temperature, air relative humidity and air velocity [1]. Then the
thermal comfort is evaluated with index PMV (Predicted mean vote) and index PPD (Predicted percentage
dissatisfied) [2], [3]. Not fulfilling the parameters of the thermal comfort in the small university lecture hall
contributes to dissatisfaction and the high sickness rate of students, especially in the winter [4], [5]. There is
no teaching process happening during summer season and thus the focus of the research was on the winter
season [6], [7].
©2020 M. Budiakova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-006 30
Mária Budiaková, Evaluation of Thermal Comfort in Modern Small University
7 November 2019, Bratislava, Slovakia Lecture Hall in Relation to Air Conditioning System
Thermal comfort in small university lecture halls with air conditioning system or mechanical ventilation
system is influenced by the position of supply air and extract air, direction of airflow and air velocity [8]. Big
disruption of the thermal comfort and formation of local thermal discomfort is induced by incorrectly
designed position of supply air and extract air or excessive air velocity [9].
When the parameters and air elements of air conditioning system or mechanical ventilation system are
incorrectly designed then the local thermal discomfort emerges. The incorrect operation of ventilation system
might also contribute to its creation. Local thermal discomfort (the thermal dissatisfaction) can also be
caused by unwanted cooling or heating of one particular part of the body [10]. The most common cause of
the local thermal discomfort is the draught but local discomfort can also be caused by an abnormally high
vertical temperature difference between head and ankles, by too warm or too cool floor, or by too high
radiant temperature asymmetry. People are most sensitive to radiant asymmetry caused by a warm ceiling, a
cool wall (windows, glazed facade), a cool ceiling or by a warm wall. Incorrect position, incorrect distance
of supply air and extract air from the floor, and the incorrect velocity of the air flow usually causes also the
feeling of draught which is one of the most serious cause of the emergence of local thermal discomfort.
2. ANALYSIS OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM IN MODERN SMALL UNIVERSITY

LECTURE HALL
Modern prestigious universities put a big emphasis on the quality of indoor climate not only in large
university lecture halls but also in small university lecture halls; even in the smallest lecture rooms. Large
and small university lecture halls use high-quality air conditioning system and the smallest lecture rooms use
mechanical ventilation system. Thus, they do not rely on natural ventilation in any space for students.
From the thermal comfort perspective, the quality of air conditioning system in small university lecture halls
also depends on the correct air distribution system [10]. Students have to feel thermal comfort; pleasantly
warm without the feeling of draught. Therefore, besides the air temperature and air velocity in air vents, the
position of supply air and extract air in small university lecture hall is very important [11]. The most modern
and suitable solution is the air distribution from the bottom towards the top, which must be considered
already in architectural design of the interior of small university lecture hall. It is necessary to design interior
in such a way that air conditioning system can work effectively. During air distribution, air velocity in vents
for supply air can be very low and thus a sitting student does not have a feeling of draught. In small
university lecture halls, the following air distributions are unsuitable: from the top towards the bottom and
from the front to the back wall. These unsuitable air distributions in small university lecture halls cause a
high air velocity in the parts of students’ seating which causes the feeling of draught, dissatisfaction and
worse concentration during the lecture.
Modern new small university lecture halls were chosen for scientific analysis. Air distribution systems were
analyzed in detail. Existing modern new small university lecture halls were closely analyzed in terms of
placement of vents for supply air. The most used system was air distribution from the bottom to the top;
therefore, this type of air distribution was analyzed. Often, the vents for supply air were placed directly into
the floor but the most progressive solution is the one where the vents for supply air are located in the stepped
floor which is built because of stepped seating.
From all of the analyzed modern new small university lecture halls, the one at Vienna University of
Economics and Business was chosen for the research of thermal comfort in relation to air conditioning
system, Figure 1. Floor shape of small university lecture hall is stepped. Architectural solution sticks to the
simple and clear outline which is contrasted by bright orange color of seating for students, Figure 2. The
position of rectangular continuous vents for supply air in the stepped floor in small university lecture hall is
shown in Figure 3. Architectural design of small university lecture hall is harmonized with shape, position
and location of vents for supply air. Neat and simple shape of the small hall is in accordance with simple
shape of vents for supply air in stepped floor. Unobtrusive and modern vents for supply air does not disturb
31
architectonic appearance of the interior. Suppressed design of vents for supply air contrasts with bold orange
color of seats. Vents for extract air are placed in ceiling.
Figure 1. Researched small university lecture hall in Vienna University of Economics and Business
Figure 2. Vents for supply air in the stepped floor of researched small university lecture hall
3. METHODOLOGY OF EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS IN MODERN SMALL

UNIVERSITY LECTURE HALL
Experimental measurements were carried out in the small university lecture hall – Figure 1, Figure 2 at the
Vienna University of Economics and Business in the end of March. The aim of the measurements was to
record the parameters of the thermal comfort: air temperature, air relative humidity, air velocity, index PMV
and index PPD.
The measurements were carried out in the small university lecture hall in four standpoints – A, B, C, D in the
height of 1.1 m above the floor level, and in two standpoints – E, F in the height of 0.1 m above the floor
level, Figure 3. Standpoint A was in the next-to-last row of students’ seating on the right side (next to indoor
wall) in the height of 1.1 m above the floor level, Figure 4a. Standpoint B was in the fifth row of students’
seating on the right side (next to indoor wall) in the height of 1.1 m above the floor level, Figure 4b.
Standpoint C was in the fifth row of students’ seating on the left side (next to external wall) in the height of
1.1 m above the floor level, Figure 4c. Standpoint D was in the next-to-last row of students’ seating on the
left side (next to external wall) in the height of 1.1 m above the floor level, Figure 5a. Standpoint E was in
the next-to-last row of students’ seating on the right side (next to indoor wall) in the height of 0.1 m above
the floor level, Figure 5b. This means that standpoint E is on the same place as standpoint A; only the height
above the floor level is different. Standpoint F was in the next-to-last row of students’ seating on the left side
32
(next to external wall) in the height of 0.1 m above the floor level, Figure 5c. This also means that standpoint
F is on the same place as standpoint D; only the height above the floor level is different. All of the
measurements took place during the lectures with full capacity of small university lecture hall; therefore, it
was not possible to do the measurements in the center of the hall.
Figure 3. Ground-plan of small university lecture hall with standpoints
Figure 4. Measurements in standpoint A, B and C in the height of 1.1 m above the floor level
Figure 5. Measurements in standpoint D in the height of 1.1 m above the floor level, in standpoint E and F in
the height of 0.1 m above the floor level
33
The parameters of the thermal comfort were recorded with the device Testo 480. Input data in measurements
were metabolic rate 1,0 met and clothing insulate 1,0 clo. Twenty measurements with time delay (one by
one) were carried out in each standpoint. Statistical mean was calculated from measured values.
Measurements were carried out one by one in individual standpoints. Outdoor air temperature and air relative
humidity were measured and recorded by the separate device. Outdoor air temperature increased from value
21.3 °C to value 21.9 °C. Outdoor air relative humidity decreased from the value 43.1 % to the value 43.9 %.
4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6 shows the values of air temperature in the height of 1.1 m and 0.1 m above the floor level in all
standpoints. In all standpoints, the air temperature was optimal. Among the standpoints A, B, C, D was
minimal difference. The biggest air temperature was in standpoint B which is located in the room center near
indoor wall. In standpoints A, B, air temperature was just slightly bigger than in standpoints C, D. External
wall has northeast orientation and is very well insulated. Area of good quality windows is optimized. Values
of air temperature in standpoints E, F were slightly smaller compared to others which means that also values
in the height of 0.1 m above the floor level are satisfactory. These results definitely showed optimal
provision of thermal comfort, usage suitability of air conditioning system, correct air distribution system and
correct placement position of vents for supply air in the stepped floor.
Figure 6. Values of air temperature in all standpoints
The values of air velocity in the height of 1.1 m and 0.1 m above the floor level in all standpoints were in
range of values 0.00 and 0.02 m.s-1, which means satisfactory values. It confirms the suitability of air
conditioning system with vents for supply air in the stepped floor.
Figure 7 shows the values of air relative humidity in the height of 1.1 m and 0.1 m above the floor level in all
standpoints. The values of air relative humidity were acceptable; to achieve optimal values, it would be
needed to slightly moisture the air.
Figure 7. Values of air relative humidity in all standpoints
34
Figure 8 shows the values of index PMV in the height of 1.1 m and 0.1 m above the floor level in all
standpoints. In all standpoints, the value of index PMV was optimal and balanced. Values in standpoints C,
D, F were only slightly lower but the index PMV was still reaching optimal values. Values of index PPD
reached maximal value of 6.3 which is optimal. Results showed the suitability of use of air conditioning
system and the correct location of the placement of vents for supply air in the stepped floor.
Figure 8. Values of index PMV in all standpoints
5. CONCLUSIONS
The evaluation of thermal comfort in modern small university lecture hall definitely showed the need and
correctness of application of air conditioning system. For students’ well-being, it is very important to ensure
optimal values of thermal comfort parameters in the height of 1.1 m and 0.1 m above the floor level.
Furthermore, the experiments confirmed the suitability of air distribution system from the bottom towards
the top. Both the scientific analysis and the measurement results showed that it is the most suitable to use
vents for supply air in the stepped floor. Airflow from these vents for supply air is uniform and can ensure
optimal thermal comfort parameters. Hot, pleasant air with low velocity flows around the students’ legs and
thus unpleasant feelings and local thermal discomfort do not arise. Researched modern new small university
lecture hall at Vienna University of Economics and Business is a suitable example of good cooperation
between HVAC designer and architect.
REFERENCES
[1] Awbi, H. B. (1991). Ventilation of Buildings, E & FN Spon, London
[2] Santamouris, M. (2006). Ventilation for Comfort and Cooling, Earthscan, London
[3] Seppänen, O. (2003). The Effect of Ventilation on Health, Earthscan, London
[4] Bánhidi, L., Kajtár L. (2000). Komfortelmélet (Comfort Theory), Muegyetemi kiadó, Budapest
[5] STN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment - Analytical determination and interpretation
of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria,
Slovak Office of Standards, Metrology and Testing, Bratislava, 2006.
[6] STN EN ISO 7726 Ergonomics of the thermal environment. Instruments for measuring physical
quantities, Slovak Office of Standards, Metrology and Testing, Bratislava, 2003.
[7] Jokl, M. (2002). Zdravé obytné a pracovní prostředí (Healthy Living and Working Environment),
Academia, Praha
[8] Etheridge, D. (2011). Natural Ventilation of Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester
[9] Heiselberg, P. (2006). Hybrid Ventilation in Non-Residential Buildings, Earthscan, London
[10] STN EN 15251 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy
performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics,
Slovak Office of Standards, Metrology and Testing, Bratislava, 2008.
[11] Witthauer, J., Horn, H., Bischof, W. (1993). Raumluftqualität, Verlag Mueller, Karlsruhe
35
SOLAR IRRADIANCE AVAILABILITY BASED ON BRATISLAVA
MEASUREMENTS
Stanislav Darula1, Branislav Schnierer2, Marta Malikova3
1
Institute of Construction and Architecture Slovak Academy of Sciences, 9 Dubravska Road, SK-845 03
Bratislava 45, Slovakia, Email: usarsdar@savba.sk
2
Solargis Ltd., Milana Marecka 3, 841 07 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: branislav.schnierer@solargis.com
3
Institute of Construction and Architecture Slovak Academy of Sciences, 9 Dubravska Road, SK-845 03
Bratislava 45, Slovakia, Email: malikova.marta@savba.sk
ABSTRACT
Climate changes can be observed in last decades evidently. Generally, temperature and sunshine are rising also
in countries located in higher geographical latitudes. These facts have impact on the design building
constructions and indoor environment. Sun with its direct radiation is basic source of energy on the Earth and
has important influence on visual task performance and application of shading devices in building apertures to
avoid overheating and glare phenomena. The precise measurements of global, direct and diffuse irradiances
are carried out in Bratislava at the Institute of Construction and Architecture Slovak Academy of Sciences with
cooperation of Solargis Ltd. Bratislava. These data, after quality control processing, are the basis of the
irradiance availability research. Applied methods for data evaluation and determination of for solar irradiance
availability are based on the statistical procedures.
Paper presents results of experimental solar irradiance measurements provided in Bratislava, determination of
direct solar irradiance availability and discusses importance of solar irradiance availability in point of view of
the building environmental quality and building design.
INTRODUCTION
Sun radiation is significant climate component influencing not only indoor environment but also energy
performance of buildings in the annual scale [1, 2]. Its availability in the locality is needed to more effective
utilize sun radiation during a year.
Buildings should be constructed to respect climate conditions of the locality. This postulate was formulated by
Vitruvius one century B.C. [3]. History show us that requirements for access to sun are valid also today. In the
antique period climate was more stable as is in present time. Climate changes can be observed last decades
more evidently, the temperature is rising, more sunny situations occur and buildings are exposed to more
frequent extreme weather situations. Sun radiation is important variable because significantly influences the
quality of the indoor environment [4,5]. Sun radiation has positive health effects mainly for children growth
and generally is preferred during colder months. On the other hand sun radiation is unacceptable in interiors
during warm summer days and in work places because of overheating and glare occurrence [6].
Building interiors are illuminated through vertical, slope or horizontal apertures. To control sun radiation in
buildings, the information about its annual occurrence is needed [7]. There are available databases of measured
irradiances generally stored as monthly, daily sums or hourly averages at meteorological stations [8].
©2020 S. Darula. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-007 36
Darula et al, Solar irradiance availability based on Bratislava measurements
Walkenhorst found that data taken from one minute measurements are sufficient for study of the dynamic
irradiance changes [9].
DESCRIPTION OF MEASUREMENTS
There are many meteorological stations equipped by pyranometers offering irradiance data of various quality.
Generally, available hourly data cannot represent occurrence of very high irradiance values which are
important for design of window shading systems. Several CIE IDMP stations are in operation over the world
measuring illuminance and irradiance. One of such station is still active in Bratislava since 1994 [10]. This
station is located on the platform at the roof of the Institute of Construction and Architecture Slovak Academy
of Sciences. Geographical coordinates of the site are: geographical latitude  = 48° 10' 10", geographical
longitude  = 17° 04' 17" E while elevation is approximately 185 m above sea level (roof of the building).
Solar radiation data used in this study is collected within a collaboration of the Institute of Construction and
Architecture, Slovak Academy of Sciences, and Solargis Company.
Global horizontal irradiances Ee,g are measured in 1 minute step by the pyranometer Kipp and Zonen CMP 10,
Class A, as well as global Ee,g and diffuse horizontal irradiances Ee,d by the pyranometer Reichert GmbH RSP
4G RSP, Class B, equipped by the rotating shadow band and Li-200 sensor, see Figure 1. Direct normal
irradiance was calculated as difference between Eeg a Eed measured by RSP 4G, i.e. Ees = Eeg - Eed. In Table 1
there are documented fluency and measurement outflow of measured parameters.
Cupola and diffusor of measurement instruments are regularly cleaned 2 – 3 times per week or more frequently
in the case of snowy situations or occurring dirt and per two-week there are common inspections and quarterly
there are detailed inspections of the measuring system. All data are recorded in the GMT +1 h time.
Table 1. Database of the measured irradiance at the Institute of Construction and Architecture in Bratislava.
2016 2017 2018 2019
Parameter Pyranometer
IX -XII I-XI XII I-III IV-XII I-VI
Ee,g Kipp & Zonen CMP 10
Ee,g Missing data due
Ee,d RSP - Rotation
to calibration of
shadowband pyranometer
Ee,s the RSP in Spain
Data included in the database
Note Ee,g - global horizontal irradiance, Ee,s – direct normal irradiance, Ee,d – diffuse
horizontal irradiance
Figure 1. View on the pyranometers at the platform.
QUALITY CONTROL OF MEASURED DATA

The quality control (QC) was performed before the study and analysis of measured data. There are several
methods with specific tests to eliminate occurrence of data with extraordinary values and mistakes during
measurements. QC tests can cover various tests in dependence on purposes. The recommendations published
37
in document [11] are applied for data processing at the CIE IDMP stations (International Daylight
Measurement Programme).
The Quality Control applied in this study is based on the method defined in SERI QC procedures, [12,13].
This QC is generally implemented in the irradiance research. The SERI QC processing consists of two steps:
A. First, the automatic tests are run to identify the obvious issues. Automatic quality control includes:
 Identification of missing values,
 Correction of time shifts,
 Evaluation of measurements against sun position,
 Comparison of data with possible minimum and maximum irradiance limits,
 Evaluation of consistency of Ee,g, Ee,d and Ee,s by comparing the redundant measurements.
B. Second, inconsistencies are identified by the visual inspection and marked. Visual quality control aims to
identify and mark the following erroneous patterns:
 Shading from nearby objects (near shading) or mountains (far shading),
 Regular data error patterns,
 Irregular anomalies,
 Comparison of data from multiple sensors (if available).
Data which are not passing one or more QC tests were marked and excluded from database for next analysis.
METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

New EN 17037 published in December 2018, introduces also criteria for evaluation of daylight and glare in
building interiors. The energy performance of buildings is evaluated after standard [1] by a method considering
also annual effects of the sun radiation. The direct sun radiation is applied in both standards but more precise
in building design data are missing.
Locality in Bratislava represents central European climate with four specific seasons: winter, spring, summer
and autumn. The sun radiation penetrated into rooms can improve thermal indoor comfort and energy balances
during spring or autumn seasons but higher levels are risky because of overheating and glare occurrence. This
was reason for study also monthly statistics of direct irradiance availability.
There are several possibilities for determination of sun radiation availability in a locality. Monthly, daily or
hourly averages of sun irradiance are often inputs into energy simulation of the energy consumption in
buildings. Instantaneous data allows to study dynamic changes of sun radiation and limits of occurred values.
New standard [6] introduces for daylight evaluation in building interiors a climatic statistical parameter based
on the annual availability of the diffuse illuminance. Because interiors are exposed also by sun radiation during
significant time in a day one can expect that similar concept will be used for determination of availability of
solar irradiance.
This study is based on the one minute regular measurements carried out in the Bratislava. Data obtained from
the period 2016 – 2019 were processed against Data Quality Control tests [12,13] to collect high quality
database. Only sunny situations are considered. Because buildings are generally occupied by users more than
40 % of the performance time, the percentiles representing more than 40 % occurrence of Ees were searched.
Sun radiation conditions change day to day and month to month in dependence on weather conditions and
seasonal significance can be observed. Direct normal irradiance availability was also studied in annual period
(January to December) and in winter (December, January and February), spring (March, April, May), summer
(June, July, August) and autumn (September, October, November) seasons. Parameter percentile reflects also
importance of exposition building envelope by sun radiation of various intensity during a year. The probability
in % when Ees is exceeded in winter time is plotted in Figure 2. Obtained percentiles are documented for winter
season in Table 2. The effect of sunshine can be tested by the condition when Ees is at least 120 W/m2 [11]. It
can be concluded from Table 1 that such situations occur for more than 70 % sunny winter time.
Also, high differences between Ees statistics of individual years can be observed. For example, percentile
K(70)2016-2017 = 222,5 W/m2 is 2,1 times higher than K(70)2018-2019 = 105,0 W/m2. The later winter is characterized
38
by less sunshine because Ees = 105,0 W/m2 is lower than 120 W/m2. The risk of glare was noticed only for
duration of 60% of sunny situations in winter 2018 - 2019.
Figure 2. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in winter season.
Table 2. Percentiles of Ees, winter season.

Percentile, [W/m2]
Period
40 50 60 70 80
2016-2017 641.6 541.5 401.3 222.5 76.1
2018-2019 580.6 449.0 275.0 105.0 24.3
Winters in 2016-2019 614.5 499.3 346.5 161.5 42.4
The percentiles for spring season were determined by the similar way. Achieved results are documented in
Table 3 and plotted in Figure 3. The effect of higher sun positions during spring is evident in higher Ees levels.
Duration of spring sunshine is longer up to 80% of the time of sunny situations.
Figure 3. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in spring season.
Table 3. Percentiles of Ees, spring season.

Percentile, [W/m2]
Period
40 50 60 70 80
2017 736.3 653.4 526.2 358.3 159.6
2018 678.7 613.3 528.6 415.5 262.4
2019 685.5 593.8 465.4 275.2 90.3
Springs in 2017-2019 702.0 620.4 508.5 351.9 157.0
39
The highest values of Ees was found in summer season. Glare in interiors can occur for more than 80 % sunny
summer situations, Table 4 and Figure 4. Interesting results conclude from comparison spring and autumn
seasons, Table 3 and Table 5. The Ees values when are exceeded are plotted in Figure 5.
As higher Ees values were investigated the lower differences between seasons were found, see Table 2 - Table
5. Values of 40th percentile r(40)winter = 614,5 W/m2, r(40)spring = 702,0 W/m2, r(40)summer = 694,8 W/m2 and r(40)autumn
= 650,2 W/m2 differ from average 2,3 % - 7,6 %.
Figure 4. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in summer season.
Table 4. Percentiles of Ees, summer season.

Percentile, [W/m2]
Period
40 50 60 70 80
2017 731.7 661.2 565.8 444.0 267.0
2018 667.6 593.0 489.9 363.2 218.6
Summers in 2017-2018 694.8 622.9 523.0 396.5 236.6
Figure 5. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in autumn season.
Table 5. Percentiles of Ees, autumn season.

Percentile, [W/m2]
Season
40 50 60 70 80
2016 622.2 534.1 405.5 247.7 104.6
2017 653.2 564.2 458.7 323.1 148.9
2018 665.3 593.2 508.0 387.5 217.3
Autumns in 2016-2018 650.2 570.2 467.3 331.6 157.6
40
Figure 6. Occurrence of annual direct horizontal irradiance.
Table 6. Percentiles of the annual direct horizontal irradiance Ees.

Percentile, [W/m2]
Period
40 50 60 70 80
2016 622.7 534.2 409.4 258.3 112.7
2017 710.7 629.2 517.1 368.4 176.0
2018 666.1 592.4 495.6 370.1 210.8
2019 677.9 585.1 458.5 280.1 93.4
Years 2016-2019 680.4 598.9 491.1 258.3 166.3
Annual difference between
88 95 86.2 111.8 117.4
maximum and minimum
Evaluation of annual occurrence Ees values shows decreasing trend of differences with increasing Ees value,
Table 6. Variation of Ees within percentile follows the same trend. The closest seasonal percentile values to
annual were found in autumns r(80) = 157.6 W/m2, r(70) = 331.6 W/m2, r(60) = 331.6 W/m2, in summer median
r(50) = 622.9 W/m2 and r(40| = 694.8 W/m2, see Table 7.
Table 7. Comparison of seasonal and annual percentiles direct horizontal irradiance Ees.
Percentile, [W/m2]
Period
40 50 60 70 80
Winters in 2016 - 2019 614.5 499.3 346.5 161.5 42.4
Springs in 2017 - 2019 702.0 620.4 508.5 351.9 157.0
Summers in 2017 - 2018 694.8 622.9 523.0 396.5 236.6
Autumns in 2016 - 2018 650.2 570.2 467.3 331.6 157.6
Years 2016 - 2019 680.4 598.9 491.1 258.3 166.3
VARIABILITY OF DIRECT HORIZONTAL IRRADIANCE

The direct irradiance variability was investigated by the statistic IQR - Interquartile Range (1), [14]. If IQR
value is high, then also variability of measured data is high while two parameters H1 and H2 were tested. If
value H1 is lower than Ees = 0 or H2 is higher than maximum Ees then the occurrence of the direct normal
irradiance is characterized by high variability. General formula for IQR calculation is:
IQR = Q3 - Q1 (1)
in the case of inversion Ees distribution is valid
IQR = Q1(75) - Q3(25) (2)
41
and parameters H1 and H2 can be calculated as

H1 = Q1(75) – 1.5 IQR and H2 = Q3(25) + 1.5 IQR (3)
In Table 7 are documented results of the variability evaluation separately for winter, spring, summer and
autumn seasons as well as for annual periods. The high variability of Ees is noticed for all seasons with different
H2 – H1 range. The simple indicator of variability rate VR (4) was proposed to study dynamic conditions of
sunny situations. The highest variability was found in winter 2018 - 2019 (VR = 0.357) while the lowest
variability was calculated for summer 2017 (VR = 0.580).
VR = max Ees/(H2 – H1) (4)
Table 7. Evaluation of annual and seasonal Ees variability.

Percentile,
IQR H1 H2 Maximum
Period [W/m2]- Evaluation
25 75 [W/m2] [W/m2] [W/m2] [W/m2]
Winter
2016 - 2017 738.1 141.1 597.0 -754.4 1633.7 1011.2
High
2018 - 2019 732.4 52.8 679.6 -966.5 1751.8 971.6
variability
Winters 2016 - 2019 736.4 92.2 644.1 -874.0 1702.6 1011.2
Spring
2017 827.3 254.4 572.8 -604.9 1686.5 1013.7
2018 760.9 345.5 415.4 -277.6 1384.1 957.1 High
2019 790.7 169.5 621.2 -762.3 1722.4 1186.2 variability
Springs 2017 - 2019 775.5 226.8 548.7 -596.4 1598.6 1186.2
Summer
2017 805.8 361.7 444.1 -304.5 1471.9 1030.8
High
2018 746.1 293.6 452.5 -385.1 1424.8 1020.3
variability
Summers 2017 – 2018 772.8 319.7 453.1 -360.0 1452.4 1030.8
Autumn
2016 726.8 175.9 550.9 -650.5 1553.2 976.9
2017 755.3 235.0 520.3 -545.5 1535.8 968.2 High
2018 746.7 311.2 435.5 -342.1 1400.0 993.9 variability
Autumns 2016 - 2018 744.5 245.6 498.9 -502.7 1492.8 993.9
Annual
2016 727.1 183.1 543.9 -632.8 1543.0 976.9
2017 797.0 274.1 522.9 -510.3 1581.4 1030.8
High
2018 748.3 295.3 452.9 -384.1 1427.7 1020.3 variability
2019 783.3 177.0 606.2 -732.3 1692.6 1186.2
Years 2016 - 2019 770.9 258.8 512.2 -509.5 1539.2 1186.2
Table 8. Summary of the variability rate VR.

Winter Spring Summer Autumn Annual
Period VR Period VR Period VR Period VR Period VR
2016 0.443 2016 0.449
2016 - 2017 0.423 2017 0.442 2017 0.580 2017 0.465 2017 0.493
2018 0.576 2018 0.564 2018 0.570 2018 0.563
2018 - 2019 0.357 2019 0.477 2019 0.489
Winters 0.392 Springs 0.540 Summers 0.569 Autumns 0.498 Years 0.579
42
CONCLUSIONS
Levels of sun radiation on the ground continually change since sunrise to sunset due to various sun position
on the sky, cloudiness and turbidity of atmosphere. This facts significantly influences availability of direct
normal irradiance levels. To design effective utilization of workplaces in building interiors during a year, it is
important to have information also about occurrence sun radiation which can cause overheating and glare. In
accordance to [11] presence of sunshine can be registered when Ees > 120 W/m2. Such situations with risk of
glare occurrence were found out in 80% of sunny cases in the investigated period, Table 7. Findings also give
information that also during winter season cases with glare risk can occur during 70 % of sunny situations.
The standard [6] applies expected high illuminance on the eye for evaluation of glare. Value of this critical
values is not determined. Presented study offers not only seasonal but also annual Ees levels occurring
percentage time in a year.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Research Agency of The Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of
the Slovak Republic research grant VEGA 02/0042/17 and IEA SHC Task 61.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 15193. (2017): Energy performance of buildings - Energy requirements for Lighting. Brussels:
CEN, October 2017.
[2] M. Knoop (Ed.) (2016): Daylighting and Electric Lighting Retrofit solutions. A source book of IEA
SHC Task50 ‘Advanced lighting for retrofit buildings‘. Berlin: Universitatsverlag der TU Berlin.
[3] M.P. Vitruvius (1960), The Ten Books on Architecture. (English translation by Morgan, M.H.), New
York: Dover Public., 1914, 1960.
[4] P. Hykš, J. Hraška (1990), Slnečné žiarenie a budovy. Bratislava: ALFA.
[5] T. Muneer (2004), Solar Radiation and Daylight Models: For the Energy Efficient Design of Buildings.
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
[6] EN 17037. (2018): Daylight in Buildings. Brussels: CEN, December 2018.
[7] Ch. Chauliaguet, P. Baratsabal, J.P. Batellier (1977), Solar energy in buildings. Chichester: Jonn Wiley
 Sons Ltd.
[8] V. Badescu (Ed.). (2008): Modeling solar radiation at the Earth surface. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
[9] Walkenhorst, O., Luther, J., Reinhart, Ch., Timmer, J. (2004): Dynamic annual daylight simulations
based on one-hour and one- minute means of irradiance data. Solar Energy 72, 5/2004, pg.385-395.
[10] IEA-SHCP-17E-2. (1994): Broad-band visible radiation data acquisition and analysis. A technical report
of task 17: Measuring and modelling spectral radiation affecting solar systems and buildings. Vol. 2:
Satellite Report No. 1 World Network of Daylight Measuring Stations (IDMP), ASRC Albany, N.Y.,
August 1994.
[11] CIE 108:1994. (1994): Guide to recommended practice of daylight measurement. Technical Report.
Vienna: CIE Central Bureau.
[12] NREL (1993): User’s Manual for SERI_QC Software-Assessing the Quality of Solar Radiation Data.
NREL/TP-463-5608. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
[13] Younes, S., Claywell, R., Muneer, T. (2005): Quality control of solar radiation data: Present status and
proposed new approaches. Solar Energy 30, 9/2005, pg.1533-1549.
[14] L. Sachs (1982), Applied statistics. A handbook of techniques. New York: Springer - Verlag.
43
THE REFURBISHMENT OF TOP LIGHTING AND ITS IMPACT ON
THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL HALL : A
CASE STUDY
Erika Dolnikova1, Dusan Katunsky2,
1
Department of Building Physics, TU Košice, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Vysokoškolská 4, 042 00
Košice, Slovakia, Email: erika.dolnikova@tuke.sk
2
Department of Architecture and Building Structures, TU Košice, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Vysokoškolská 4, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia, Email:dusan.katunsky@tuke.sk
ABSTRACT
Natural daylight is a vital element in our daily life. Providing natural daylight into the working environment is
of fundamental importance for the comfort, efficiency and safety for the people in that environment. This paper
deals with visual comfort evaluation in selected hall. The aim of this study was to evaluate existing and
reconstructed industrial hall lighting by measuring daylight. The measurement was carried out in the hall with
two types of skylights and with the refurbishment of the side lighting.
INTRODUCTION
About one – third of the electricity in most buildings is used for lighting. Daylighting is the use of natural
sunlight or daylight for illumination in order to reduce or eliminate electric lighting [1].
One of the most important applications of lighting technology is undoubtedly the lighting of workplaces.
Lighting quality has a major impact on quality of work output, productivity and efficiency. However, the
quality of lighting is not only expressed by measurable parameters of lighting, it is also determined by hygienic,
energetic or even aesthetic aspects [2]. In addition to increasing the interior light source and providing
increased energy savings, daylighting solution also boosted employee morale in the manufacturing plant. The
advantages and benefits of daylighting, including health improvement, cost and energy saving, should be
verified by a number of previous studies [3], [4].
Top lighting is daylight that comes onto a room from above. Since skylights are located in the summer when
the sun angle is high in the sky and can result in heat gain. Top lighting does not have the depth limitation that
side lighting has. A building can be wide and still receive daylight, it does not provide a connection to the
outdoors that has been shown to be important to human well-being [5], [6]. Top lighting is a daylight strategy
to provide uniform distribution of daylight to the entire top floor plan through roof openings. It is often applied
in large single story buildings and the top floor of multi-story buildings. Dynamically adjusted lighting levels
help employees with their regular visual tasks. Active light helps reduce error rates and increase worker safety
[7], [8].
Daylight factor (DF) is the ratio which represents the amount of illuminance available indoors relative to the
illuminance present outdoors at the same time under overcast sky. DF is given as a percentage, and can be
expressed as the following equation [9], [10]:
= ∗ 100 % % , (1)
©2020 E. Dolnikova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-008 44
where
the illuminance at a point in the room
the illuminance of a horizontal surface outside under the overcast sky
Illuminance uniformity (U0) is defined as the quotient of minimum and average illuminance in the visual task
area, keeping in mind that this minimum value must not be undercut at any time [10]:
= , (2)
Figure 1 shows a diagram that shows the factors that affect the appropriate lighting [11].
Figure 1 Factors affecting the appropriate lighting [11]
EXPERIMENTAL SETTING
Measurements were performed in a single storey hall in Kosice, Slovakia. The hall is designed for work related
to metal working and forming, production of semi–finished products from sheet metal and similar products.
The interior dimensions of the hall are 15 m × 60 m × 8.5 m (see Figure 2).
The hall is oriented longitudinally in the east – west direction. Production machines, tables and cabinets are
deployed throughout the hall (Figure 3). A permanent supplementary artificial lighting system is designed in
the lobby. The side lighting system consists windows with width of 5.6 m and height 1.8 m on the north and
south perimeter walls in case original hall. In the case of a reconstructed hall, the windows on the north side
are obscured. Windows with dimensions 3 × 1.8 m are orientated on the east and west sides. The top lighting
system is a straddle skylight with a steel frame and a steel flange of 2.4 m × 48 m × 1.1 m (see Figure 4a). In
case of original glazing the glazed elements consist of single – pane glazed walls reinforced with wires. In case
of reconstructed hall the glazed elements consist of double plastic glass (side windows) and single – pane
skylight transparent plastic sheets of poly (methyl-methacrylate) reinforced with wires (see Figure 4b). For
calculations, the following coefficients of reflections were considered, see Table 1. The working plane was
0.75 m high. The neighboring objects at a distance did not shade the room.
Measurement of daylighting was carried out according to STN 360020. The instruments were two Data Logger
“ALMEMO 2690 – 10A, and illuminance Sensor ALMEMO FLA 623 VL with production number 15061543,
accuracy of 5%, and reflection of 0.847. Luminance meter LS – 110 was used to measure the luminance with
45
an accuracy of 2%. On the selected days, the value of the outside light ranged from 4.500-8000 lx in January
(for original hall) and for reconstructed from 26.000-39.000 lx in March during sunny days.
Table 1. The coefficients of reflections (ρ) of the light

Original Reconstructed
Surface
glazing glazing
Wall 0.7 0.9
Ceiling 0.7 0.8
Floor 0.1 0.4

Light transmission factor-
0.4 0.6
side lighting
Light transmission factor-
0.6 0.5
skylight
Terrain 0.15 0.15
a b
Figure 2 Plan of the hall; (a) – original hall, (b) – reconstructed hall.
a b
Figure 3 Interior view of hall (a) original hall, (b) reconstructed hall.
46
a b
Figure 4 Skylight view (a) straddle skylight, (b) arc skylight.
RESULTS
0.9 1.1
0.8 1
y - Le/Lvz
0.9
y - Le/Lvz
0.7 0.8
0.6 0.7
0.5 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0 20 40 60
0 20 40 60
x - Le
x - Le
E Le/Lvz W Le/Lvz N Le/Lvz S Le/Lvz average
a b
Figure 5 The measured sky conditions rating gradations of sky luminance, x—refers to the
elevation angle, y—refers to the Le/Lvz ratio, Le refers to the external sky luminance, and
Lvz refers to the sky luminance at an angle of Z 15 °and 45°. January – straddle skylight (a)
the beginning; and (b) the end of the measurement x—elevation angle, y—Le/Lvz ratio.
1.2 1.1
1.1
y - Le/Lvz
0.9
1
0.7
0.9
0.8 0.5
0.7 0.3
0.6 0 20 40 60
x - Le
0 10 20 30 40 50
x-Le E Le/Lvz W Le/Lvz N Le/Lvz
S Le/Lvz average
a b
Figure 6 The measured sky conditions rating gradations of sky luminance, x—refers to the
elevation angle, y—refers to the Le/Lvz ratio, Le refers to the external sky luminance, and
Lvz refers to the sky luminance at an angle of Z 15 °and 45°. March – arc skylight (a) the
beginning; and (b) the end of the measurement x—elevation angle, y—Le/Lvz ratio.
47
Table 2. The measured sky conditions rating gradations of sky luminance.

January – original hall – straddle skylight
(a) at the beginning of measurements (b) at the end of measurements
Z Le/Lvz Average value Z Le/Lvz Average value
15 0.42–0.62 0.50 15 0.40–0.66 0.50
45 0.78–0.90 0.85 45 0.88–1.05 0.95
March – reconstructed hall – arc skylight
(a) at the beginning of measurements (b) at the end of measurements
Z Le/Lvz Average value Z Le/Lvz Average value
15 0.62–0.90 0.72 15 0.35–0.69 0.60
45 0.80–0.90 0.95 45 0.51–1.05 0.80
Table 3. Daylight factor
DFmin (%) DFmax (%) DFaverage (%) U0
Straddle skylight 0.44 7.69 4.96 0.06
Arc skylight 1.62 9.57 5.42 0.17
Daylight factor
10
daylight factor (%)
0
Dmin Dmax Dpriem
saddle arched
Figure 7 Daylight factor
a b
Figure 8 The results of the daylight factor (%), (a) straddle skylight, (b) arc skylight
48
CONCLUSIONS
According to the STN 360020, the distribution of the sky brightness at a given elevation height to the sky
brightness at zenith for 15° 0.3-0.6 and for 45° 0.7-0.85 is acceptable. It follows from the above graphs that
the sky brightness values before and after the measurement are almost within the permissible range.
DFmin = 1.5-2%, DFaverage = 5-6%, illuminance uniformity U0 is greater than 0.2-0.3 for a given light technical
class is required for the permanent supplementary artificial lighting system in accordance with the valid STN
standard.
The results show that DFmin is suitable for the reconstructed hall (0.62 ˂ 1.5-2%) and not suitable for the
original hall (0.44 ˂ 1.5-2%). DFaverage is suitable for both halls. Illuminance uniformity U0 is not met even for
one hall. In the case of reconstruction, however, illuminance uniformity is better (U0 = 0.17).
Due to the fact that the measurements were carried out under different external conditions (the reconstruction
took place after several years) it is not possible to adequately compare the results (see Figure 5-6, Table 2).
But it can be stated that light well-being has improved, although the windows in the northern facade have a
considerable impact.
DF values have increased as well as illuminance uniformity is improved. However, there is still a problem of
overheating, especially in places under the skylight (confirmed by the workers in the hall).
Acknowledgement
This study was elaborated with the financial support of the research project VEGA 1/0674/18 of the Scientific
Grant Agency, the Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Sport of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak
Academy of Sciences.
REFERENCES
[1] Bellia, L., Fragliasso F., Stefanizzi E. (2019): Effects of light source spectrum and background colour on
the perception of paintings. Lighting Research and Technology 0/2019, pg.1-28.
[2] Abdelhakim, M., Kandar, M.Z., Lim, Y. W. (2019): Optimum glazing configuration for visual
performance in Algerian classrooms under Mediterranean climate. Journal of Daylighting, 6/2019, pg.
11-22.
[3] Sapia, C. (2013): Daylighting in buildings: Developments of sunlight addressing by optical fiber. Solar
Energy, 89/2013, pg. 113-121.
[4] Katunský, D., Dolníková,E., Dolník B. (2018): Daytime lighting assessment in textile factories using
Connected windows in Slovakia : A case Study. Sustainability 10(3), pg.655.
[5] Mardaljevic, J.: Daylight, Indoor Illumination, and Human Behavior. (2012). Sustainable Built
Environments, New York: Springer, 2019, pg. 69-111.
[6] Baker, N., Steemers K. (2002), Daylight design of buildings. Earthscan/James and James.
[7] Leslie, R.P. (2003): Capturing the daylight dividend in buildings: why and how? Building and
Environment, 38/2003, pg. 381-385.
[8] Krarti, M., Erickson PM., Hillman TC. (2005): A simplified method to estimate energy savings of artificial
lighting use from daylighting. Building ad Environment 40/2005, pg.747-754.
[9] Standards STN 730580. Daylighting in Buildings, Part.–1 Basic Requirements, 1986 Part.–2;
Daylighting of Residential Buildings; Slovak Republic Office of Standards, Metrology and Testing:
Bratislava, Slovakia, 2000.
[10] Standards EN 12464-1:2012. Light and Lighting; Lighting of Work Places-Part. 1: Indoor Work Places;
Slovak Republic Office of Standards, Metrology and Testing: Bratislava, Slovakia, 2012.
[11] Osvetlenie v priemysle. www.siea.sk.
49
The parameters evaluation of the indoor environment of the
office building
Pavol Durica1, Peter Barnak2
1
Department of building engineering and urban planning, University of Žilina, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia, Email: pavol.durica@fstav.uniza.sk
2
Department of building engineering and urban planning, University of Žilina, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia, Email: peter.barnak@fstav.uniza.sk
ABSTRAKT
The contribution will describe the measured parameters of the internal environment in two selected offices of
the Research Center of the University of Žilina (VC UNIZA - building with elements of intelligent control).
The thermal comfort parameters and environmental equipment will be evaluated. On the basis of the
findings, the possibilities of using the heat gains from solar radiation in the cold season of the year and the
elimination of overheating in the warm season of the year will be subsequently varied and quantified. This
allows external blinds to automatically programmable or controlled manual and renewable energy sources,
usable for heating, respectively. cooling, while external climatic influences are permanently recorded by the
weather station. The results will then be compared with the simulation tool outputs.
INTRODUCTION
In this article, we focus on the comparison of the thermal-moisture microclimate of its quality and the factors
that affect it in summer and winter. We chose the room - the office in the building of the VC UNIZA, which
is oriented to the west. Using the available instruments, the physical components of the indoor environment,
the influence of solar radiation through window constructions and the air temperature from the cooling
ceiling were measured. Furthermore, the paper will describe the measurement methods, the instrumentation
used, the calculation of PMV and PPD indices and the resulting partial conclusions for the warm (summer)
climatic period of the year.
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS IN OFFICE BUILDINGS
There is a law in Slovakia to determine the appropriate indoor environment in the office buildings. Act no.
[1] says that the indoor environment of buildings must meet the requirements for thermal-humidity
microclimate, ventilation, heating, lighting, glare and other types of optical radiation. Persons who operate
buildings to the public, whether natural or legal, are required by law to ensure indoor air quality in the
building to avoid the risk of chemical, physical, biological and other health-damaging factors. More specific
requirements for the internal thermal-humidity microclimate are further discussed in Slovakia by Decree of
the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic no. 259/2008 Coll. [2]. Factors that can also affect the internal
microclimate are heat generation by the body, heat production by clothing apparel that people wear.
Administrative work is classified in activity class 1a (see Table 1) and the overall thermal resistance of the
garment was considered for standard clothing Rcl = 1.0 clo
©2020 P. Durica. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-009 50
Durica et al, The parameters evaluation of the indoor environment of the office building…
Table 1 Class of activity according to [2]
Activity Total energy expenditure Example of activities

class qM [W/m2] qM [met]
0 ≤ 65 ≤ 1,2 Relaxing, relaxed ( relac, watching program)
The activity of deputy with minimal physical activity
(administrative work, activity in classrooms); the activity of
1a 68 - 80 1.13 – 1.38 a sitting woman connected with light manual work of hands
and arms ( typing, working with PC, simple sewing, laboratory
work, assembling or sorting small light objects).
Table 2 Optimal and permissible conditions of the thermal-humidity microclimate for the cold season of the
year [2]
Operative temperature Permissible air Permissible

θ0 [⁰C] velocity va relative air
Washing class [m/s] humidity φ [%]
optimal admissible
0 22 - 26 20 - 27 ≤ 0.2
30 - 70
1a 20 - 24 18 - 26 ≤ 0.2
Table 3 Optimal and permissible conditions of the thermal-humidity microclimate for the warm season of the
year [2]
Operative temperature Permissible air Permissible-

θ0 [⁰C] velocity relative air
Washing class va humidity
optimal admissible [m/s] φ [%]
0 25 - 28 20 - 29 ≤ 0.2
30 - 70
1a 23 - 27 20 - 28 ≤ 0.25
.
DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING AND MEASUREMENT ROOM
The building of the Research Center of the University of Žilina in Zilina with its technical, technological as
well as laboratory equipment serves not only for research and administration purposes, but also for
experimental research of building design with the lowest energy consumption.
The overall description of the building and its system solution and technical support can be found [3]. The
room we chose as the measuring point is located on the 2nd floor and is oriented to the west (Figure. 1). The
perimeter wall is made of aerated concrete blocks, insulated with a contact thermal insulation system with
thermal insulation of mineral wool thickness of 200 mm (U = 0.140 W/(m2.K)). Filling constructions in the
perimeter wall are plastic six-chamber profiles with insulating triple glazing and with all-round safety fittings
(Uw = 0.880 W/(m2.K)). The window is installed outdoor blinds, which are connected to the system of
measurement and control of the building. They can be operated either manually or centrally from the
building control system to provide the desired indoor climate in the building. The blinds were pulled out
during the winter and summer measurements. The main source of heating of the building is underfloor
heating with a temperature gradient of 45/35 oC, which was switched on during the winter measurement.
51
Figure 1 Floor plan and section of the room under consideration
DESCRIPTION OF MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTS

The measurement procedures as well as the measuring instruments used are specific to the measurement of
parameters that are characteristic of the quality of the internal microclimate. To measure indoor air
temperature, operating temperature, indoor air relative humidity and indoor air velocity, a ConfortSense with
stationary and flexible probes, placed on a rack in the center of the room at different height levels and on the
windowsill, was used (Figure 2) [4]. At the same time, solar radiation measurements were made just after
glazing using a pyranometer (Figure 3) and thermocouples placed on the window of the internal surface
temperature (Figure 4).
Figure 2 ConfortSence (left) measuring probes flexible and stationary (right)
Figure 3 Pyranometer for measuring the intensity of solar radiation

52
Figure 4 Indoor surface temperature sensor layout on the window
The following sensors with appropriate specifications were used to measure the individual parameters
evaluated:
velocity and temperature probes (fixed and flexible - stand) - speed range 0.05 - 5 m/s, indication up to 10
m/s, temperature range - 20 °C + 80 °C, time constant < 0.1 s, frequency response (90 %) - 2Hz, accuracy 0 -
1 m/s: ± 2%, 1-5 m/s: ± 5 %, 5 - 10 m/s: ± 10 %.
velocity and temperature probes located on the window sill (marking in the graphs Probe 1 left edge, Probe 2
- window center, Probe 3 right edge) - speed range 0.1 - 30 m/s, temperature range - 20 °C + 80 °C, time
constant for speed: 2-3 s, time constant for temperature: 4-5 s, accuracy 0.2-20 m/s: ± 2 %, 20-30 m / s: ±
5 %.
humidity measuring probes - measuring range: 0 - 100% relative humidity, accuracy: 0 - 10 ° C: ± 2% RH,
10 - 30 °C: + 1.5 % RH, 30 - 45 °C: + 2 %.
operating temperature probe - speed range: 0 - 45 °C, accuracy: 0 - 10 °C: ± 0.5 K, 10 - 40 °C: ± 0.2 K, 40 -
45 °C: ± 0.5 K.
All probes were connected to the control panel with a 5-minute time step and then recording the
measurement values into the computer.
We used two pyranometers to measure solar radiation. One was placed on the facade of the weather station
and the other in the office behind the window. During the weekly measurement, we recorded the values and
compared the amount of global sunlight falling on the facade and released through the window into the
interior.
With the help of thermocouples, which were distributed all over the inner surface of the window (Figure 4),
we determined the distribution of surface temperatures and the influence of solar radiation on their course.
The control panel enables data evaluation according to ISO 7730 [5], which has been accepted as a national
standard since 2006 for several countries. The software can evaluate the PMV index - mean predicted
thermal sensation, PPD - predicted percentage of discontent, DR - predicted percentage of people bothered
by drafts. Due to the limited scope of the article, these were not presented.
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
In the article, a one-week period with the highest temperatures in June 2019 in the range of outdoor air
temperature from 12.1 - 45.6 oC (average temperature 25.3 oC) is selected from a two-week measurement
and compared with the measured values in the winter period in February 2019 with temperatures ranging
from -8.3 oC to +20.3 oC (average temperature +1.3 oC). Figure 5 shows, in addition to the outside air
temperature, the indoor air temperature curves, together with the intensity of solar radiation, measured just in
front of the facade in a vertical plane above the window under consideration and behind the window at the
middle of the window sill in horizontal position. The intensity of global solar radiation on a bright sunny day
reached its maximum value in the summer period of 743.9 W/m2 with an average value during measurements
of 140.8 W/m2.In the interior and due to the position of the pyranometer it ranged only from 0 to 94.6 W/m2.
In winter, the intensity of global solar radiation on a bright sunny day was 372.0 W/m2, the average value
during measurements was 43.3 W/m2. In the interior and with respect to the position of the pyranometer, it
ranged only from 0 to 57 W/m2 (Figure 6).
53
50.00 800.00
Intensity of solar radiation

45.00 700.00
40.00
Temperature [ ⁰C ]
600.00
35.00
500.00
[W/m²]
30.00
25.00 400.00
20.00 300.00
15.00 Outdoor temperature
200.00
10.00 Indoor temperature
5.00 100.00
Pyranometer on the facade
0.00 0.00 Pyranometer in laboratory
24.6 25.6 26.6 27.6 28.6 29.6 30.6
Time [day] pyranometer difference
Figure 5 Temperature and intensity of solar radiation in front of the facade and behind the window in
summer
25.00 400.00
Intensity of solar radiation [W/m²]

20.00 350.00
Outdoor temperature
300.00
Temperature [⁰C]

250.00
10.00 Pyranometer on the facade
Pyranometer in laboratory 200.00

5.00
pyranometer difference 150.00
0.00
22.2 23.2 24.2 25.2 26.2 27.2 28.2 100.00
-5.00 50.00
-10.00 0.00
Time [day]
Figure 6 Temperature and intensity of solar radiation in front of the facade and behind the window in winter
Figure 7 shows the intensity of solar radiation and the movement of the sun over the sky in summer and the
recorded temperature behind the window on the probes located on the window sill. Figure 8 it is possible to
see and compare the measured temperatures in winter.
48.00
43.00
Temperature [⁰C]
38.00
Outdoor temperature
33.00
23.00 Probe 1
18.00
Probe 2
13.00
Probe 3
8.00
24.6 25.6 26.6 27.6 28.6 29.6 30.6
Time [day]
Figure 7 Temperature courses in the measured room in summer
54
22.00
21.50

Temperature[⁰C]
20.50 Probe 1
20.00 Probe 2
19.50 Probe 3
19.00
18.50
18.00
17.50
22.2 23.2 24.2 25.2 26.2 27.2 28.2
Time [day]
Figure 8 Temperature courses in the measured room in winter
Figure 9 shows the course of temperatures from sensors placed on the inside of the window structure in
summer. The lowest recorded temperature was recorded from sensor 105 at 19.4 °C and the highest
temperature was measured by sensor 107 at 47.4 °C. In Figure 10 it is possible to compare it with winter
measurements.
48.00
46.00
44.00 Outdoor temperature
42.00
Temperature [⁰C]
38.00
36.00 Sensor 101
34.00
32.00 Sensor 102
30.00
28.00 Sensor 103
26.00
24.00 Sensor 104
22.00 Sensor 105
20.00
18.00 Sensor 106
16.00
14.00 Sensor 107
12.00
24.6 25.6 26.6 27.6 28.6 29.6 30.6 Sensor 109
Time [day]
Figure 9 Course of temperatures on the inner surfaces of the window construction in summer
55
31.50
30.50
29.50 Indoor
28.50 temperature
27.50 Sensor 101
26.50
Temperature [⁰C]
25.50
24.50 Sensor 102
23.50
22.50 Sensor 103
21.50
20.50 Sensor 104
19.50
18.50 Sensor 105
17.50
16.50 Sensor 106
15.50
14.50
13.50 Sensor 107
12.50
11.50 Sensor 109
22.2 23.2 24.2 25.2 26.2 27.2 28.2
Time[day]
Figure 10 Temperatures on the inner surfaces of the window construction in winter
CONCLUSIONS
The building of the VC UNIZA, its construction solution in combination with the environmental technology,
should create optimal microclimatic conditions of the indoor environment. By measuring in winter and
summer we wanted to check the status of this “intelligent” building. These comparisons show us that in
winter there is no significant influence on the indoor environment of the monitored room. Conversely, in
summer, there is a rapid increase in indoor air temperatures, surface temperatures, as well as an increase in
operating temperature. This is because the external blinds were pulled out during the measurements.
Measurements in combination of different position of external blinds are currently being processed and will
be a valuable source of information on the elimination of summer overheating in combination with cooling
ceilings.
REFERENCES
[1]. Act No. 355 of 21 June 2007 on the protection, promotion and development of public health and
amending certain laws.
[2]. Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic no. 259 of 18 June 2008 on the details of the
requirements for the indoor environment of buildings and the minimum requirements for lower-standard
apartments and accommodation.
[3]. Durica, P. - Iringova, A. - Ponechal, R. - Rybarik, J. - Vertaľ, M .: Energy and Environmental Design
and Evaluation of Buildings, EDIS UNIZA, ISBN 978-80-554-1296-2, Žilina, 2017
[4]. ComfortSense (2012): ComfortSense 264. [online] PDF document. Available online:
http://www.dantecdynamics.com/comfortsense
[5]. STN EN ISO 7730: 2006 (83 3563) Ergonomics of thermal environment. Analytical determination and
interpretation of thermal comfort by calculating PMV and PPD indicators and local thermal comfort
criteria.
56
PREVENTION OF OVERHEATING RISK: ASSESSMENT OF A
BUILDING PROJECT WITH LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION IN
AUSTRIA
Sören Eikemeier1, Robert Wimmer2 and Ardeshir Mahdavi3
1
Center for Appropriate Technology, TU Vienna, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10, 1040 Vienna, Austria, Email:
se@grat.at
2
Center for Appropriate Technology, TU Vienna, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10, 1040 Vienna, Austria, Email:
contact@grat.at
3
Department of Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Vienna, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Vienna, Austria,
Email: bpi@tuwien.ac.at
ABSTRACT
This contribution reports on an ongoing research effort within the project Sim4DLG to reduce the energy and
resource use in the building sector via design optimisation of life cycle oriented buildings in Austria. To reduce
the heating demand and overheating risk in the cold and warm seasons, a simulation-supported optimisation
strategy was pursued in addition to the concurrently computed mandatory Austrian energy performance
certificate. This approach is applied to different building types, which are to be constructed within the project
Life Cycle Habitation. Apart from the heating demand of the buildings, the indoor environment in view of the
indoor temperatures was specifically examined to avoid overheating risk and to increase the thermal comfort
for the occupants. Furthermore, the potential for preventing summertime overheating was explored according
to the requirements of the Austrian standards. This includes an evaluation of simplified calculation method
results, computed operative temperature during the course of the day as well as a comparison of the outcome
with the findings of parametric simulations. The results suggest that properly dimensioned building parameters
of residential buildings with lightweight constructions and low U-value building elements can improve the
thermal comfort for the occupants and fulfil the requirements of the Austrian standards for indoor environment
conditions.
INTRODUCTION
The building sector is with 10 % one of the largest perpetrators of CO2 emissions in Austria [1]. To encounter
this the study “Simulationsunterstützte Designoptimierung Lebenszyklus orientierter Gebäude” (Sim4DLG)
aims at reducing the energy consumption through a design optimisation of life cycle-oriented buildings by
using dynamic simulations in addition to the mandatory Austrian energy performance certificate (AEPC) [2].
This part of the study is carried out in the framework of the European Union (EU) Life project “Life Cycle
Habitation” (LCH), which targets the demonstration of innovative building concepts that significantly reduce
CO2 emissions, mitigate climate change and contain a minimum of grey energy over their entire life cycle to
make energy-efficient settlements the standard of tomorrow in line with the EU 2020 objectives [3]. To this
end, a highly resource and energy-efficient building complex is being built in the region of Böheimkirchen,
Lower Austria. The case study project includes six living units and a community area as well as two single-
family houses, which will be realised based on energy-efficient building solutions (passive house components,
improved household appliances, thermal insulation etc.) and on the maximum utilisation of regional renewable
©2020 S. Eikemeier. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-010 57
Eikemeier et al, Prevention of overheating risk
07th November 2019, Bratislava
resources for building materials to reach a lower energy demand. The building compound will be designed as
a two-story lightweight non-load bearing straw bale construction in style of the neighbouring award-winning
S-House (see Figure 1). The low U-value building elements with its comparable low area-related mass capable
of heat storage (exterior wall=0.09 W/(m²K) and 32.12 kg/m²; roof =0.07 W/(m²K) and 35.56 kg/m²;
floor=0.09 W/(m²K) and 24.64 kg/m²; partition wall=0.11 W/(m²K) and 13.22 kg/m²) are combined with triple
layer windows (Ug=0.47 W/(m²K); Uf=0.91 W/(m²K); g-value=0.52).
Figure 1. Design of the buildings (left), floor plan Top 4 GF and Top 6 UF (right).
In a prior project phase, the dimensions of the external fixed shading elements were optimised regarding the
two performance indicators (PI) heating demand and overheating, since the buildings are designed for passive
cooling only and are not planned to have any air conditioning systems. And because these two key PI may
evolve in opposing directions, a parametric optimisation approach with EnergyPlus (EP) was used [4]. For the
concurrently calculated mandatory AEPC the software GEQ by Zehentmayer is used [5]. The simulation
models were defined based on standard assumptions and calibrated according to calculation methods of the
AEPC with a standard heating set point of 20 °C and a fixed air change rate (ACR) of 0.4 h-1. According to the
design of the buildings typical activities varying from sleeping (80 W/person) to housecleaning (300 W/person)
in accordance with the ASHRAE standard were assumed for the occupants. The living units are designed for
up to 4 persons, which are working or employed persons, since professionals are covering with 4.26 of 8.79
million the largest group in Austria in 2017 [6]. With the overall goal of achieving a reference climate heating
demand (HWB_RK) of maximum 15.0 kWh/m2a for the atrium-style buildings and 10.0 0 kWh/m²a for the
building compound according to the AEPC, models with large south-facing windows (for high solar gains)
and large overhangs (to prevent overheating) are proposed in general. Resulting in suggested models with
location climate heating demands (HWB_SK) of 11.7 kWh/m²a for the building compound and values of 17.0
and 16.9 kWh/m²a for atrium-style buildings [7].
This contribution presents an ongoing research effort of the project Sim4DLG addressing the design
optimisation of the buildings regarding the reduction of the energy consumption and an increase of the thermal
comfort in the cold and warm seasons. Therefore, not only possibilities for a low heating demand of the
building were investigated but also prevention of overheating in summertime as well as the approval of the
suggested building models according to the requirements of the Austrian standards.
METHODOLOGY
In the software GEQ for the mandatory AEPC, the calculation methods in accordance with the Austrian
standard ÖNORM B 8110-3 (rel. 2012) [8] to avoid the overheating risk are included. The requirements of
this standard for an overheating prevention in summertime have to be fulfilled according to the prior released
OIB Guideline 6 (2011) [9]. The examination of the suitability of the residential buildings can be done either
by calculation of the operative temperature over the day or due to the simplified verification method. For the
application of both methods the following essential conditions must be met. First, the average daily temperature
of the outdoor environment needs to be not above 23 °C and second, the windows of the investigated area need
to be operable for night-time ventilation.
58
In the first method, the operative temperature is used as assessment parameter, which is defined by the
arithmetic mean value of the indoor air temperature and the average surface temperature dependent on the
outdoor temperature for a repeating period of 24 h. The date used for this calculation is the 15th of July. In case
the operative indoor temperature is not exceeding 27 °C the risk of overheating is considered to be avoided. In
addition, for sleeping environments the minimum value of the daily operative temperature also needs to be
within 25 °C for times between 10 pm and 6 am. In the second method, the simplified calculation method, the
heat storage capacity of the building elements and the minimum required ventilation rate for each room is set
in relation to the exposure surface. The suitability of the room for summertime is approved, if the heat storage
capacity of the exposure surface is above the required threshold-value of the standard.
In the updated OIB Guideline 6 (2015) [10] it is even stated that the simplified calculation method is sufficient
for residential buildings in Austria and as a consequence, applied to the majority of buildings to approve the
prevention of overheating in summertime. Nonetheless, an absolute planning certainty is not given for this
simplified calculation approach [11]. The latest version of the OIB Guideline 6 (2019) [12] therefore quotes
in contrary, without any direct reference to the ÖNORM B 8110-3 standard, that overheating in summertime
for residential building is avoided, if the operative temperature in the examined spaces is not exceeding the
location depending daily mean value of the standard outside temperature (TNAT,13) for a periodically repeating
outdoor climate by 1/3*TNAT,13+21.8 °C. While the latest version of the Austrian standard ÖNORM B 8110-3
(rel. 2018) [13] includes only the simulation method for the calculation of the operative temperature over the
day for approval of the suitability regarding prevention of overheating in summertime.
Both methods are applied to the prototype buildings and compared regarding the computed results with EP,
but the focus for comparison is therefore on the simulation of the operative temperature and not on the
simplified method because of the adaptions in the recently released guidelines. Three living units are selected
for a further assessment in specific. These are Top 2, Top 4 and Top 6, covering the town house style unit as
well as one apartment in the ground floor (GF) and one in the upper floor (UF). Top 2 has a total net living
area of 106.7 m² on both floors and 8 thermal zones (see Figure 2). These are an entrance hall (EH), a living-
kitchen area (LK) and a cloakroom (WC) in the GF as well as a hallway (HW), three bedrooms (Bed1, Bed2,
Bed3), and a bathroom (Bath) in the UF, while the smaller living units Top 4 and 6 consist of an EH, a storage
room (SR), a bathroom, a LK and a bedroom with a net living area of 55 m2 each (see Figure 1).
Figure 2. South view of the building compound (left), floor plan Top 2 GF and Top 2 UF (right).
Relevant for the approval regarding prevention of overheating in summertime according to the AEPC are all
thermal zones containing transparent surfaces. For these spaces the minimum required settings, in specific time
controlled exterior shades for the individual windows, are applied in a first step for the building model in GEQ
necessary for approval of the simulation method. These settings are then applied to the suggested EP building
model and compared with the findings of GEQ including an assessment of the outdoor air temperatures. The
results are displayed in the following section.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSSION

To fulfil the requirements of the Austrian standards for the suggested building models additional measures are
necessary for individual thermal zones. The approval can be achieved by use of time controlled external
59
shading devices. An overview for the areas to be examined, the individual windows and the required operation
time is provided in the following Table 1. The results show that especially for the south-oriented windows an
additional shading is needed to achieve an adequate thermal comfort in summertime for the occupants. Also
the east-oriented windows of Top 4 and 6 are showing some differences, while the windows in the UF are
shaded by the extended roof, an additional mechanical shading is required for the ones in the GF.
Table 1. Minimum required approval settings in GEQ for prevention of overheating in summertime.
Building Compound Top 2
Thermal zone TZ9 LK TZ11 EH TZ12 Bed1 TZ13 Bed2 TZ14 Bed3 TZ15 Bath
GF GF GF GF GF GF UF UF UF UF UF UF
Window N3 S5 S6 S7 S8 N4 S5 S6 S7 S8 N4 N5
Orientation N S S S S N S S S S N N
Exterior shades 11- 11- 11- 11- 11- 11- 11- 11-
[time] - 15 15 15 15 - 16 16 16 16 - -
Thermal zone TZ29 Bed TZ30 LK TZ31 SR TZ33 Bath
GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF
Window S16 S17 N12 E1 E2 S18 S19 S20 N10 N11
Orientation S S N E E S S S N N
Exterior shades 11- 11- 08- 08- 09- 09- 09-
[time] 15 15 - 16 16 17 17 17 - -
Thermal zone TZ34 Bed TZ35 LK TZ36 SR TZ38 Bath
UF UF UF UF UF UF UF UF UF UF
Window S16 S17 N14 E1 E2 S18 S19 S20 N10 N11
Orientation S S N E E S S S N N
Exterior shades 11- 11- 10- 10- 10-
[time] 16 16 - - - 16 16 16 - -
In the next step the climate conditions of the different software, in specific the outdoor air temperatures, are
examined for a unified comparison. In contrary to the AEPC for which the repeating outdoor air temperature
of the 15th of July is used for the simulation, the climate data used for the location of Böheimkirchen with EP
is showing in comparable cold day with low temperatures and therefore not representative. Instead, the average
hourly temperatures for July are considered (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Comparison of the outdoor air temperatures.
For the assessment of the results in EP, the required external shades and operation times (see Table 1) are
applied to the building model together with a natural ventilation during night. According to the Austrian
standards, the windows have to be kept open, if the outdoor air temperature is below the indoor temperatures
between 22 pm an 6 am. This is applicable for all examined spaces. During all other times a specific hygienic
air flow volume of 1.411 m³/m²h is applied.
60
The results are displayed in Figure 4 for Top 2, in Figure 5 for Top 4 and in Figure 6 for Top 6. Same like for
the outdoor air temperatures also the hourly average indoor temperatures of the individual thermal zones for
July in EP are considered for comparison with the results of GEQ.
Figure 4. Indoor temperatures of Top 2 for GEQ and EP.
All computed results show similar tendencies. Corresponding to the larger variation between day and night
time outdoor temperatures of the location, which are caused by the used repeating temperature of the 15th of
July, also the operative temperatures of the individual thermal zones show for GEQ a wider variation,
61
especially the spaces with large building openings, compared to temperatures of EP. The results with EP
therefore are less effected by the varying day and night time temperature differences and show more constant
values throughout the day. It is also important to mention that the operating temperatures of the indoor
environments of both software are in average on the same temperature level, considering that the outdoor peak
temperatures during the hottest period of the day, which are used for GEQ in accordance with Austrian
standards, are up to 5 °C above the ones used for the calculation with EP. Furthermore, the simulation with EP
was done for the period of the entire year, even if for the assessment for prevention of overheating in summer
only the findings of July are used, to include the influence of warmer or cooler prior outdoor conditions and
their effect on the indoor environment, which is not considered for GEQ. Due to the use of lightweight
construction building elements the deviation in this case is in average 0.1 °C only. While in contrary also the
occupants´ behaviour in EP e.g. in case of the bathroom show bigger impacts on the indoor temperatures.
CONCLUSIONS
The presented study showed that an accurate design of shading elements can reduce indoor air temperatures,
while maintaining a low heating demand. Furthermore, the requirements regarding prevention of overheating
in summer according to the Austrian standards can be fulfilled for this lightweight building by accurate design
of external fixed shading elements in combination with exterior mechanical shades and proper use of windows
for passive cooling. The results of GEQ are in general confirmed by the findings of EP, if identical parameters
for shading and ventilation are applied. Nevertheless, some deviations have to be considered for example that
the indoor temperatures are less effected by the varying outdoor day and night time temperatures for EP.
In the next step, this assessment will be reapplied to the buildings' final design and data of the selected building
products and elements. After the construction, a comprehensive building monitoring will be conducted during
the initial occupancy phase to validate the simulated results.
REFERENCES
[1] Environment Agency Austria (2016): Climate protection report REP-0582, Vienna, Austria.
[2] Sim4DLG (2019): Information website, https://www.ffg.at/dissertationen/ausschreibung2015, FFG
853842, project is funded by the FFG and FTE.
[3] LCH (2019): Project homepage, www.lch.grat.at, LIFE13 ENV/AT/000741, project is realised with the
contribution of the LIFE financial instrument of the European Union.
[4] EnergyPlus, U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE), https://energyplus.net/.
[5] GEQ Zehentmayer Software GmbH, https://www.geq.at/.
[6] Statistik Austria (2018): Erwerbstätige in Österreich bis 2017, Study 217682, Statista, Austria
[7] S. Eikemeier, R. Wimmer and A. Mahdavi (2018): Simulation-Supported Design Optimization of Atrium
Buildings with Passive Cooling in Austria, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 131, pg.21-31.
[8] ON (2012): ÖNORM B 8110-3 - Thermal protection in building construction - Part 3: Prevention of
summerly Overheating, release 2012-03-15, Austrian Standards, Austria.
[9] OIB (2011): OIB Guideline 6 - Energy saving and heat insulation, OIB-330.6-094/11, Austrian Institute
of Construction Engineering, Austria.
[11] J. Nackler (2017): Sommerlicher Wärmeschutz – Vergleich von berechnungsansätzen und Entwicklung
eines Planungsinstrumentes für Entwurfsfindung und Nachweis, Dissertation, TU Vienna, Austria.
[13] ON (2018): ÖNORM B 8110-3 - Thermal protection in building construction - Part 3: Determination of
the operating temperature in summer (Prevention of summerly overheating), release 2018-09-01, Austrian
Standards, Austria.
62
PERFORMANCE-BASED RETROFIT CONSIDERATIONS FOR
PREFABRICATED BUILDINGS: A CASE STUDY OF ZAGREB, CROATIA
Matea Flegar1, Ulrich Pont2, and Ardeshir Mahdavi2

1
Department of Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zagreb, Croatia, Email:
mflegar@grad.hr
2
Department of Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria, Email
{ulrich.pont|amahdavi}tuwien.ac.at
ABSTRACT
The stakeholders in the AEC (Architecture-Engineering-Construction) community generally agree that the
existing building stock plays a crucial role in the building-related energy consumption and emissions. In this
context, prefabricated buildings (especially those constructed in the time-period between 1950 and 1980 in a
number of East and Central European countries) require careful attention. In this context, the following
observations are of relevance: (i) Prefabrication was utilized to industrially build a large number of widely
identical buildings, and a major part of these buildings still exist with little to no modifications; (ii) In most
cases, these buildings do not meets today's thermal and energy performance standards. As such, appropriate
retrofit schemes could be applied several times, or in other words, retrofit planning efforts for this building
typology can significantly reduce energy use and environmental emissions; (ii) Due to the prefabrication
character, the complexity of these buildings' envelope details regularly is readily manageable. Thus, retrofit
solutions for prefabricated buildings can be prefabricated as well; (iii) In many European cities, such
buildings form a large fraction of available (social) housing units, and thus are an important resource, given
the ongoing growth of the cities of the 21st century. Demolishing and replacing entire blocks of such
buildings does not appear to be neither simple nor efficient, given the associated implications regarding cost
and environmental impact. As a consequence, retrofitting seems as a more viable and logical choice for the
future of 20th century prefabricated building stock.
In this contribution, we present method and results of a research effort pertaining to performance-based
retrofit options of a prefabricated building typology from former Yugoslavia, which can be found not only in
Zagreb, but also in other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. The effort involves the systematic deployment of
parametric simulation runs toward the comprehensive investigation of the impact of different retrofit options.
Thereby, multiple scales were taken into consideration, including both building components (i.e., thermal
bridging effects of construction joints) and whole-building thermal performance..
INTRODUCTION
It is considered as general knowledge that buildings contribute to both worldwide CHG (green-house-gas)
emissions and energy consumption. To change that, the building planning of new buildings regularly targets
low- to zero emissions. However, due to low new building rates, the building stock has to be addressed as
well. In many European countries an extensive stock of Pre-Wende (fall of the Soviet Union) built
prefabricated buildings can be found. Such buildings are of particular interest for large scale retrofit
measures, due to two reasons: On the one hand, the majority of these buildings were constructed by using a
limited number of industrially mass produced building components (e.g. ceiling slabs, interior- and exterior
walls). Such elements were combined in a limited number of variations, resulting in many similar buildings.
©2020 M. Flegar. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-011 63
Flegar et al, Performance-based retrofit considerations for prefabricated buildings
7 November 2019, Bratislava
Analogically, retrofit measures for such buildings can be conducted in a feasible and easy-to-applicate large-
scale fashion, once the specific elements and constructions variants have been subjected to an extensive
retrofit planning. On the other hand, prefabricated buildings often represent the backbone of large residential
communities in many countries. A replacement with new buildings would require extensive large-scale
construction work, encompass a large environmental impact compared to a retrofit, due to demolishing and
new construction of buildings, and result in a lack of residential units until the new buildings have been
finished. Moreover, many cities are growing, thus a redirection of construction efforts into to replacement of
existing buildings would presumably aggravate the situation on the real estate market. Given the poor
thermal quality of many of the older prefabricated buildings and the large extent of built volume of such
construction, retrofit measures would be beneficial to a large number of inhabitants and show a significant
impact on the absolute energy consumption of cities that encompass many prefabs.
A recently concluded master thesis [1] focused on retrofit methodologies for specific types of prefabricated
houses that can be found in the former Yugoslavian countries, namely the Jugomont building type JU-61.
Apartment blocks of this building type consist of modular spacial units (floor plan size 3.60 m x 4.80 m). To
integrate the access openings into the residential units, connection walls could be shifted by one third of the
length or width of the system. This allows for different unit sizes and a certain variation in construction.
Figure 1 depicts a typical principal plan layout, while Figure 2 illustrates the building construction of JU-61
buildings in Novi-Zagreb in 1961. In a past study [2] the necessity of renovation of the JU-61 buildings was
highlighted. Thereby, the repair of the metal cladding of the walls (these metal claddings resulted in the
nickname “Tin Cans” for the buildings), the substitution of the windows, and the renewal of HVAC-systems
have been mentioned as potential retrofit measures. An impact assessment of these measures, however, has
not yet been conducted. The key objective of the recently concluded master thesis (and thus of this paper)
was to further develop and present detailed retrofit options for the JU-61 building typology that improve the
performance of the buildings without totally neglecting the appearance of the buildings, as they represent an
important phase of the 20th century building history in the former YU-countries. These retrofit options are
explored via utilization of state-of-the-art simulation tools on scales overall building simulation and numeric
thermal bridge simulation.
Figure 1. Typical plan layout of a JU-61 Figure 2. Construction site of JU-61 buildings in
prefabricated, residential building Remetinački Gaj, Novi-Zagreb [Private archive of
architect Bogdan Budimirov]
METHODOLOGY
To explore the impact of different retrofit variations, building performance simulation has been deployed. To
assess the impact of different retrofit options, overall building performance simulation with EnergyPlus [3]
has been utilized (via OpenStudio [4], while the impact of thermal bridges has been evaluated with the
numeric thermal bridge simulation tool AnTherm [5].
Sample building and key simulation input data. A sample building from the JU-61 buildings of the
settlement Remetinački Gaj was chosen as virtual case study building. Figure 3 to 5 illustrate this building’s
current shape (and some of the damages that can be found). The specific building features 5 floors and a total
64
height of 16.8 m. The building houses 35 residential units (net area 1814 m²) and has a total gross building
area of 2675 m². The major facades are oriented to West and East. The vertical bearing structure of the
building is constituted by a system of reinforced concrete columns (2.6m x 0.12m x 0.12 m) and panels (1.2
m x 2.6 m x 0,12 m). Horizontal load bearing elements are 12 cm strong concrete panels of 3.6 x 1.2 m. The
panels, which form the exterior walls and room-partitioning elements, feature thicknesses of 20, 16, or 5 cm.
Figure 6 and 7 illustrate the non-loadbearing façade panel and a load bearing façade panel construction of the
building, as originally illustrated in the prefab-concrete handbook published by Duro Peulic [5]. Table 1
illustrates the thermal properties of key elements of the building.
Figure 3. Typical plan layout of a Figure 4. Typical plan layout of Figure 5. Typical plan layout of a
JU-61 prefabricated, residential a JU-61 prefabricated, JU-61 prefabricated, residential
building residential building building
Figure 6. non-load bearing exterior wall of the JU- Figure 7. load bearing exterior wall of the JU-61
61 building type. building type.
Table 1. Thermal properties of the case study building’s constitutive elements
Min. req. U-
Thickness U-Value Heat flow value(Croatian
Building construction
[mm] [W.m-2.K-1] direction legislation)
[W.m-2.K-1]
Groundfloor exterior Wall 150 3.46 (unheated) -
Ground floor 420 2.15 (unheated) -
Parapett 150 0.76 Horizontal 0.3
Exterior Façade 150 0.69 Horizontal 0.3
Exterior Façade (Sides) 200 0.98 Horizontal 0.3
Groundfloor Slab 190 0.72 Downward 0.4
Floor Slab 150 2.49 (heated/heated) 0.6
Interior Wall (to unheated) 130 2.83 Horizontal 0.4
Window glazing 3 5.9 Horizontal 1.1
Window Frame – wood 7 2.2 Horizontal -
Window Frame – Aluminium 7 3.2 Horizontal -
Steel Doors 80 5.97 Horizontal 2
Flat Roof 270 1.4 upward 0.25
65
Simulation-evaluated improvement scenarios on overall building level

A model of the building as it is was generated and subjected to simulation. Subsequently, different
improvement scenarios (IS) were envisioned and simulated as well. Note that IS_01 scenarios reach the same
U-Value, but use different materials/constructions. Table 2 provides an overview about the evaluated
scenarios. Figure 8 and 9 show the SketchUp/OpenStudio model used for the simulation.
Table 2. Basic table style.
Abbreviation Scenario Description & used input data
 Thermal properties see Table 1.
Basecase Building as it is.
 Exterior Façade: 10 cm PUR foam panels and 5 cm of mineral wall

implemented in the exterior wall (Unew= 0.157 W.m-2.K-1)
 Exterior Façade, Side: 15cm Mineralwool (Unew= 0.224 W.m-2.K-1
 Window & Door exchange: (apartment windows: Uwind = 1.06 W.m-
IS_01_a Improved façade type A 2
.K-1, unh.corridor windows: Uwind = 1.546 W.m-2.K-1, Exterior doors:
Uwind = 1.275 W.m-2.K-1
 Ground floor walls insulated (UGFwall = 0.222 W.m-2.K-1
 Change of ventilation rate to 0.5 h-1
 Renewal of front façade with aereted concrete blocks (Unew= 0.157

W.m-2.K-1)
 Exterior Façade, Side: 15cm ETICS system (Unew= 0.224 W.m-2.K-1
 Window & Door exchange: (apartment windows: Uwind = 1.06 W.m-
IS_01_b Improved façade type B 2
.K-1, unh.corridor windows: Uwind = 1.546 W.m-2.K-1, Exterior doors:
Uwind = 1.275 W.m-2.K-1
 Ground floor walls insulated (UGFwall = 0.222 W.m-2.K-1
 New roof construction (Uroof= 0.221 W.m-2.K-1)

 New floor constructions (Ufloor2 unheated= 0.246 W.m-2.K-1, Appartment
IS_02 Improved Roof and Basement Ceiling floors: Uapartment= 0.562 W.m-2.K-1, )
IS_03_a IS_01_a + IS_02 Combination of measures of IS_01_a and IS_02

IS_03_b IS_01_b+IS_02 Combination of measures of IS_01_b and IS_02
Figure 8. SketchUp/Open-Studio model Figure 9. SketchUp/Open-Studio model

Numeric thermal bridge simulation
Based on the improvement scenarios for the overall building, major construction joints have been subjected
to numeric thermal bridge simulation with the tool AnTherm. This has been done to see, if the retrofit efforts
would potentially cause any unwanted thermal bridge effects. Figure 10 and 11 show the simulation models
of the upper window/wall connection with both used wall systems (IS_01_a and IS_01_b). Input data
parameters, if not known, have been assumed with typical values for the corresponding materials.
Cost efficiency analysis.
In addition to the simulation efforts, a cost efficiency analysis has been conducted.
66
Figure 10. Wall/Window connection detail of Figure 11. Wall/Window connection detail of
system A (IS_01_a) and simulation result system B (IS_01_b)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Overall building’s performance assessment.
Table 3 provides an overview about the results of the simulation efforts regarding heating and cooling
demand.
Table 3. Results overview about the overall building
Heating Cooling
Heating load Cooling load
Scenario Demand Demand
reduction [%] reduction [%]
[kWh.m-2.a-1] [kWh.m-2.a-1]
Basecase 136.28 21.92 - -

IS_01_a 74.93 15.97 45% 27%
IS_01_b 76.03 15.72 44% 28%
IS_02 113.32 20.72 17% 5%
IS_03_a 57.39 15.33 58% 30%
IS_03_b 58.44 14.68 57% 33%
The results indicate that in absolute numbers there is little difference between the scenarios IS_01_a and
IS_01_b. The minor differences derivate from different heat storage capacity of the used materials (the
operational regimes regarding ventilation and shading deployment were identical). However, both of these
scenarios already offer a significant reduction of both the heating and cooling demand (up to 45% for the
heating demand and up to 28% for the cooling demand). The scenario IS_02, which leaves the walls
untouched, but focuses on horizontal elements, does not perform as good as the wall-affecting scenarios. The
combination of the wall-affecting scenarios with the roof- and slab-retrofit shows by far the best
performances: Up to 58% reduction for the heating demand and up to 33% for the cooling demand.
Thermal bridge assessment.
In general it can be said that the assessed details all can be constructively optimized so that the minimum
criteria for condensation avoidance can be fulfilled. In case of the two construction joints shown above (Fig
10. & 11.), fRsi-values of 0.73 (System A; Fig 10) and 0.77 (System B; Fig 11) could be reached. The
minimum thresholds for these fRsi-values are defined by around 0.70 and 0.71 in corresponding standards
[6][7].
Cost benefit analysis.
The five retrofit scenarios have been in detail assessed regarding the required cost and work effort, and their
potential savings in operating the buildings. Thereby, IS_02 turned out to be the retrofit scenario with the
lowest investment and cost return period. However, as indicated in the results of the overall building’s
performance assessment, this retrofit concept provides only little reduction of heating and cooling loads. The
net present value (NPV) of this scenario is the only non-negative NPV, which means that this retrofit
measure is the only one that is feasible from a money-only perspective. However, that might be subject to
67
change, if energy prices and interest rates will change in future. Table 4 provides an overview about the cost,
savings, and return period.
Table 4. Results overview about the overall building
Investment Cost Annual savings Return period Net present value

Scenario
per m² [€.m-2] [€.m-2.a-1] (a) [€]
Basecase - - - -
IS_01_a 113.8 6.7 17 -21.8
IS_01_b 105.6 6.6 16 -15.3
IS_02 29.6 2.5 12 4.2
IS_03_a 143.3 8.6 17 -25.5
IS_03_b 135.2 8.5 16 -18.9
CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE RESEARCH

The present contribution illustrated potential retrofit measures for the “tin can” Jugomont JU-61 buildings,
which can be commonly found in post-Yugoslavia countries. Given the shear amount of these buildings, it
seems reasonable to think about thermal retrofit of such buildings. While the economic analysis showed
some challenges regarding return-of-investement / net present value, the energy and thermal bridge analysis
showed that such retrofit could be feasible. The present analysis did not include social aspects of retrofit or
improved indoor comfort in the buildings, but it can be expected that these domains benefit from a retrofit as
well. A detailed analysis of these aspects should become a top aim of future research efforts. The research
presented in this paper can be fully accessed via [1].
REFERENCES
[1] M. Flegar (2018): Performance-based optimization potential of a widely used prefabricated building
type: A case study of Zagreb. Master Thesis. TU Wien, Vienna, Austria. Supervised by A. Mahdavi &
U. Pont
[2] I. Mlinar, L. Petrović Krajnik, and T. Marić.: Renewal of Jugomont Prefabricated Residential Building
JU-61. In: Places and Technologies 2015 – Keeping up with technologies to make healthy places –
PT2015 Book of conference proceedings; p.582 – 587.
[3] Department of Energy: Energy Plus. Available via https://www.energyplus.net/
[4] Openstudio; available via https://www.openstudio.net/
[5] Antherm: www.antherm.eu
[6] DIN 4108-3 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings – Part 3: Protection against moisture
subject to climate conditions – Requirements, calculation methods and directions for planning and
construction; October 2018; Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.
[7] ÖNORM B 8110-2 (Entwurf) Thermal insulation in building construction — Part 2: Water vapour
diffusion, convection and protection against condensation; 01-09-2018, Austrian Standards
International.
68
EXTERNAL PRESSURES DISTRIBUTION ON TENSIONED
MEMBRANE ROOFS
Michal Franek1, Jana Lendelová2, Marek Macák3 and Oľga Hubová4
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering STU in Bratislava, Department of Building Structures, Radlinského 11,
Bratislava 810 05, Slovakia, Email: michal.franek@stuba.sk
2
Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of building equipment and technology safety, Tr. A.
Hlinku 2, Nitra 949 76, Slovakia, Email: jlendelovauniag@gmail.com
3
Faculty of Civil Engineering STU in Bratislava, Department of Mathematics and Constructive Geometry,
Radlinského 11, Bratislava 810 05, Slovakia, Email: marek.macak@stuba.sk
4
Faculty of Civil Engineering STU in Bratislava, Department of Structural Mechanics, Radlinského 11,
Bratislava 810 05, Slovakia, Email: olga.hubova@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The tensioned membrane roofs have wide areas of applications. One of them is agricultural structure. It can
be used for intensive and extensive animal production structures or plant production. One of the most
important parameters in these objects with animal production is thermal comfort. It is necessary to ensure the
efficient ventilation, in the best case the natural. Optimal shape of building and roof has strong impact on
ventilation parameter. The first stage of the article is a preliminary investigation of the optimal shape of the
duopitch roof from the point of view of wind loading. Duopitch roofs were investigated experimentally in a
wind tunnel at the scaled rigid models. Experiments are carried out in the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel in
Bratislava. Wind conditions as the intensity of turbulence, wind speed and direction of wind are crucial for
overall wind loads and effectiveness of natural ventilation. The aim of our article is a wind analysis of
various shapes of duopitch boundary tensioned membranes with various pitch angles and wind directions.
The purpose of this work is to quantify the external pressure coefficient. The results of wind tunnel
measurements are analyzed in pressure coefficient maps. They can be used for more efficient design of
agricultural structures.
INTRODUCTION
Cover large areas with unobstructed space is a challenge in design of long span roofs. It results to lighter
construction, higher flexibility, lower natural frequency and smaller damping of structure. These structures
become more sensitive to wind induced loading than traditional massive structures. Tensioned membrane
roofs are used normally for low rise buildings where they are exposed to strong gusty wind with high
turbulence intensity [Chen et al., 2016].
The Eurocode with National Annex [STN EN 1991-1-4, 2007] gives recommended of conservative values
for external pressure coefficient cpe on duopitch roofs. Maximum values of the cpe depend on the pitch angle
and wind directions. Roof is divided into the zones with recommended value of cpe. Eurocode is very
conservative and it is based on wind tunnel tests, which are performed on an isolated rigid model in open
exposure. Recommendation of Eurocode is useable for simple shape of structure. Details of the roof are not
taken into account.
©2020 M. Franek. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-012 69
Franek et al, External pressures distribution on tensioned membrane roofs
CHARACTERIZATION OF MODEL
The four type of structures were designed in this study with duopitch roof. Shape and dimension correspond
to custom dairy barn. Plan view of dairy barn is 63 m × 36 m. In Fig. 1 it is illustrated the cross section
dimension of barns in full scale. Pitch angle of roofs was proposed from point of view of thermal comfort. It
was considered the natural and mechanical ventilation of dairy barns. Variant 1 is designed as housing with
mechanical ventilation, variant 2 and 3 as variant with natural ventilated and variant 4 is combination of the
variant 2 and 3 and there can be used hybrid ventilation system. Variant 4 has the advantage of sun and wind
driven rain protection with using the shutters.
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 1. Cross section of models a) 1. variant, b) 2. variant, c) 3. variant, d) 4. variant.
WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENT

For simulation the real Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) and effects on structure, it was used Boundary
Layer Wind Tunnel (BLWT) of Faculty of Civil Engineering STU in Bratislava. Measurements were
characterized as a series of pressure measurements with pressure transducers, which works on piezoresistive
principle. It was used 42 pressure sensors on the roof area. External pressure coefficients in BLWT in
Bratislava were evaluated on rigid body model. It means that it could be not adequate to describe the
aerodynamic behavior of tension structures which are flexible. According to Rizzo et al. [2011], the
flexibility of the tension structure is not so relevant as to affect negatively the coefficients obtained on a rigid
body. If the structure has an optimal preliminary design, the fluctuations of shape are not so important as to
change its aerodynamic response.
Pressure measurements were recorded by three pressure transducers, type Scanivalve DSA3217 with 16
temperature compensated piezoresistive pressure sensors with a pneumatic calibration valve. Transducer
recorded differential pressure between measuring point and the reference point from Prandtl tube.
METHODOLOGY OF AN EXPERIMENT
At first, it was evaluated the properties of ABL. The wind velocity profile, turbulence intensity profile and
non-dimensional power spectral density were measured. Mean longitudinal wind speed follows the
logarithmic law. Non-dimensional power spectral density agreed well with von Kármán spectrum. Geometric
scale according to properties and scaling of ABL was 1/350 which is same with model scaling. Velocity
scale was selected 1/2.8. It means that velocity during measurement was 2.5 lower than fundamental value of
the basic wind velocity according to Eurocode [2007]. Conditions during pressure experiment were as
follows: recording time for each test was 30 s, which means 500 frames per scan for all taps. It means that
for each tap the sampling frequency was 31.25 Hz. Reference velocity was measured with miniCTA before
the model at the top of the roof. From pressure measurement it was calculated in this case only mean external
pressure coefficient cpe, mean for purpose of the evaluation of optimal shape of roof.
cpe, mean is defined by Eq. 1.
70
, (1)
where cpe, mean is mean external pressure coefficient [–], p is local mean surface pressure in tap in Pa, ps is free
stream static pressure in Pa, ρ is the physical density of air in kg/m3, U2ref is the free stream reference velocity
at the top of the model in m/s.
Four variants of models were modeled from polylactic acid (PLA). For accuracy of dimension of dairy barn
it was used 3D printer. For each testing model, there were 42 pressure taps on the roof. Pressure
measurement were taken for 7 wind directions (from 0° to 90° with a step of 15°) as illustrated in Fig. 2.
a) b)
Figure 2. Model of dairy barn a) in wind tunnel with wind directions and layout of pressure taps on roof,
b) 2D sketch of model with position of pressure taps.

Wind force that acts to the surface is defined in results as pressure, force from surface as suction. Because of
a limitation of pages, it was plotted only case with maximal negative values of cpe, mean, hereinafter called the
maximal suction, which is in terms of wind loads the worst case. Then the second case shows minimal
suction or minimal pressure, which is the best case. Figures 3 – 6 show the distribution of cpe, mean on the roof
for each variant of the model.
The interest observation from analysis was that the maximal suction values of pressure occurs near the ridge
of the roof. If we want to ensure the efficient natural ventilation of dairy barns, it is recommended to obtain
maximal suction in roof ridge zone where the gap is, but not to disturb the load carrying capacity of
construction. In Variant 4 it was obtained the maximal suction in gap region. Suction on this region and
optimal outlet openings can cause the better efficiency of natural ventilation. But from this point of view it is
hard find optimal relation between wind loads and ventilation of diary barns. Therefore it is recommended
for clear statement to do detailed study the internal space of diary barns and openings.
71
Figure 3. cpe, mean for variant 1 a) maximal suction values 45°,

b) minimal pressure values 60°.
Figure 4. cpe, mean for variant 2 a) maximal suction values 45°,

b) maximal negative or minimal positive values 75°.
72
Figure 5. cpe, mean for variant 3 a) minimal negative values 45°,

Figure 6. cpe, mean for variant 4 a) minimal negative values 45°,

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS

The purpose of this article was the study of external pressure distribution of agricultural tension duopitch
roofs. In order to reach the mention goal, wind tunnel tests in BLWT in Bratislava have been done. Four
different pitch angles of duopitch roofs have been chosen. The results show that the optimal pitch angle of
roof from the point of view of wind loads depends on the wind direction. The great impact has the negative
73
cpe, mean. In general, to take into account variation of wind from angle of 0° to 90° the best variant is the
variant 1 with maximal suction value of cpe, mean equal to -1.32. According to mentioned the wind loads and
various wind directions, the worst case is the variant 4 with maximal suction value of cpe, mean equal to -1.97.
Optimal wind direction for these type of roofs was obtained in angle around 60° and 75°. Critical direction
was obtained around 45°.
Our article was focused only on the distribution of external pressure on rigid model. In future works we will
analyze issue of ventilation of dairy barns on models with openings and use experimental measurement with
a combination of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for better understand of this phenomenon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract
No. APVV-16-0126 and by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and
Sport of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences in the project VEGA 1/0113/19.
REFERENCES
[1] Chen B., Wu T., Yang Y., Yang Q., Li Q., and Kareem A. (2016): Wind effects on a cable-suspended
roof: Full-scale measurements and wind tunnel based predictions. In: J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerod. vol. 155,
pp. 159–173, available on: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2016.06.006.
[2] STN EN 1991-1-4 (2007): Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 1-4: General actions. Wind actions.
[3] Rizzo F., D’Asdia P., Lazzari M., and Procino L. (2011): Wind action evaluation on tension roofs of
hyperbolic paraboloid shape. In: Engineering Structures, vol. 33, pp. 445–461, available on:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2010.11.001.
74
TESTING OF THE SOLAR HEAT GAIN COEFFICIENT OF FENESTRATION
PRODUCT
Ivan Chmúrny1, Daniel Szabó2

1
05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: ivan.chmurny@stuba.sk
2
05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: daniel.szabó@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The terms solar heat gain coefficient, total solar energy transmittance or g-value are used to describe the
same quantity of glazing. This paper describes testing this quantity for the centre of glazing in laboratory.
Testing procedure involves two stages. The first stage is to measure the density of heat flow rate through
glazing with solar radiance. So density of heat flow involves solar heat gain and thermal transmission. The
second stage is to measure the density of heat flow rate through glazing without solar radiance. Only thermal
transmittance is assumed. The solar heat gain coefficient measuring apparatus in this paper includes solar
simulator, climatic chambers (hot-box) and metering box.
INTRODUCTION
Calculation of total solar energy transmittance (or solar factor) is defined in EN 410, 1998. This quantity is
defined as the sum of the solar radiant heat energy entering by direct transmittance and the
proportion of the energy absorbed and re-emitted by the glazing to the interior space. This standard
assumes the following points:
 solar spectrum is defined in standards,
 internal and external temperatures are equal,
 heat transfer coefficient on glazing surface to be 23 and 8 W.m-2.K-1.
The normative definition of the total solar energy transmittance g, as described in EN 410, is
not useful in context of measuring this quantity, as it cannot be traced back to the physical
quantities measured in a calorimetric experiment. The definition has to be generalized on the
basis of physics in order to make the discussion of the calorimetric test procedure understandable
and fruitful Platzer, 2000. There are two main driving forces for the net energy flow through a
glazing separating inside and outside environment: the temperature difference between inside
and outside and the solar irradiation. The total solar energy transmittance g, quantifies the effect
of solar irradiance, the U-value quantifies the effect of temperature difference. Because of
convection and thermal radiation transport the interaction between these two driving forces is
non-linear, hence a simple linear superposition is not possible. There are two main driving
forces for the net energy flow through a glazing separating inside and outside environment: the
temperature difference between inside and outside and the solar irradiation.
©2020 I. Chmurny. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-013 75
Chmúrny, I., Szabó, D. Testing of the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient…
DEFINITION OF TOTAL SOLAR ENERGY TRANSMITTANCE FOR MEASURING

The first step is to define a well defined physical quantity, which is valid for a set of arbitrary boundary
conditions:
 the total solar energy transmittance or g-value of a window system or component is defined as
the difference between:
 the total net energy flow per unit of area into the internal environment, due to incident solar
radiation on the system and heat loss by transmission through the system, and:
 the total net energy flow per unit of area into the internal environment, due to heat loss by
transmission through the system with the same temperature and wind boundary conditions i.e. the
difference between the total net heat flow of the irradiated and the dark state:
qin  qin I  0 
g
I net (1)
where
Inet is the net radiant flux of incident solar radiation in W.m-2,
qin is the net density of heat flow rate through the test specimen in the centre of glazing with
solar radiance in W.m-2,
qin(I = 0) is the net density of heat flow rate through the test specimen in the centre of glazing in
W.m-2 due to thermal transmission without solar radiance when the temperature difference
between internal and external side is defined.
Measurements shall be performed in each case with and without irradiance.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The metering box simulates the internal side and is constructed as a guarded hot box according Figure 1. To
control climatic steady-state conditions in the metering box, the transmitted energy is absorbed or removed
by a heating and cooling system.
qin
qin(I = 0)
Figure 1. Guarded hot box with solar simulator used at Slovak Technical University in Bratislava. A – Cold
box, B – Guard box, C – Metering box, D – Frame with specimen, E – Solar simulator
Environmental conditions for measurements were:

Internal temperature (winter) i = 20 oC,
External temperature (winter) e = 0 oC,
Density of incident solar radiation in case normal incidence I = 300 – 500 W.m-2. This value depends on
number of lamps, distance of lamps from test specimen and alignment of lamps relative to the sample.
76
The tolerance for air temperatures during measurements were 2 oC.

The cooling device is installed opposite the test specimen in the metering box in order to remove the solar
heat gain and the thermal transmission that has entered the metering box. The steady-state solar simulator
with four metal halide lamps is used to create a uniform irradiance on the test specimen (Figure 2). Spectral
intensity of solar radiation and radiation of solar simulator is on Figure 3. Spectral match of irradiance is
compared with global reference solar spectral irradiance and four lamps. The luminous flux of the radiation
is directed with parabolic reflectors.
Figure 2. Solar simulator

UV Light IR
1200
Solar radiation
Spectral intensity (W.m . m )
-1
1000
-2
800
600
1
400
2
200
0
0,38 - 0,78
0 1 2 3 4 5
Wavelenght (mm)
Figure 3. Spectral intensity. 1 – Solar radiation 2 – Solar simulator
TEST SPECIMEN – WOOD-ALUMINIUM WINDOW WITH VACUUM GLAZING

The wood-aluminium window has a dimension of 800 x 1.200 mm, the surface of the window Asp = 0.96 m2
(Figure 4). The frame construction of the wood-aluminium window is based on the wooden profile IV88,
77
which was designed for a pre-assembled window. The vacuum glazing measurement in the hot box
corresponds to a frame construction without thermal insulation materials and to Uf = 1.286 W.m-2.K-1 4.
The vacuum glazing consists of two glass panes separated by a vacuum layer which is 0.2 mm wide. The
glass sheets are separated by small circular metal pillars with diameter of about 0.25 mm and spaced 40 mm
apart (Figure 5). There is a low-emission layer on the inner part of the glazing, which reduces heat loss by
radiation.
Figure 4. Window with vacuum glazing - section Figure 5. Support pillar field - view
Vacuum glazing has a dimension of 978 mm x 578 mm and has composition (Figure 6):
T5 + V + TL5
where T is tempered or heat strengthened glass of 5 mm thickness,
V is a vacuum layer of thickness of 0.15 to 0.2 mm;
TL tempered or heat strengthened low-E glass of 5 mm thickness.
The edge of the vacuum glazing has the width of 10 to 12 mm;
Number of pillars (supporting profiles) 13 x 24 = 312 for a vacuum glazing area of 0.565 m2;
Edge seal
Vacuum layer Pillar Getter
0,150,2
5
5
10-12 40 40
Low-E coating Cover wafer
Figure 6. Vacuum glazing – section not to scale
RESULTS
Thermal performance of wood-aluminium window with the vacuum glazing is verified by a
guarded hot-box method.
Heat transfer resistances on the surface in the guarded and cold boxes:
Rsi = 0.17 m2.K.W-1 in the guarded box and
Rse = 0.06 m2.K.W-1 in the cold box and therefore overall is Rst = 0.23 m2.K.W-1.
The density of the heat flow value, qsp, through the window sample during the measurement is
calculated based on the formula:
78
 in   sur   edge 25.98  3.94  3.6

qin ( I  0)    19.208 W.m-2, (2)
Asp 0.96
where in is the heat input into the metering box corrected for the heat flow through the box
walls and the flanking loss, in W
sur is the heat flow rate through the surrounding panel in W
edge is the heat flow rate for the edge zone in W;
Asp is the projected area of the test specimen in m2.
The overall thermal transmittance, Um, expressed in W.m-2.K-1, of the test specimen is calculated
using the formula:
qin 19.208
Um    0.95 W.m-2.K-1 , (3)
 n 22.12  1.92
where Δθn is the difference between the environmental temperatures on the each side of the system
during the test.
The measured thermal transmittance of the specimen, Um, is corrected for the effect of q on the total
surface resistance, Rs,t, to reach the standardized thermal transmittance, Ust, in W.m-2.K-1, using
standardized surface heat transfer resistances Rsi = 0.13 m2.K.W-1 and Rse = 0.04 m2.K.W-1, and so
for R(s,t),st = 0,17 m2.K.W-1:
1
 1

U st  1 / U m  R st  R( s ,t ), st 
1
0 . 23  0 . 17
 1.00 W.m-2.K-1, (3)
0.95
The net density of heat flow rate through the test specimen with radiance qin is calculated using equation (4)
 C   B sur   F   H 292  14  3.6  1.5  7.2

qin    276.8 W.m-2, (4)
Asp 0.96
where
C is heat flow rate removed by the cooling device with irradiance in W
B is the heat flow rate through planes of peripheral wall of the metering box with irradiance in W
sur is the heat flow rate through the surrounding panel with irradiance in W
F is the heat flow rate supplied by internal fans with irradiance in W
H is the heat flow rate supplied by heating device with irradiance in W.
The solar heat gain coefficient according equation (1) is based on mean incident solar radiation, which was
measured from locations around center of glazing with value
Inet = 419.7 W.m-2,
Solar heat gain coefficient, total solar energy transmittance or g-value defined by (1) is estimated by means
values in equation (5)
276.8  19.2
g  0.61 (5)
419.7
CONCLUSIONS
The hot-box method was used to test the solar heat gain coefficient of window with vacuum glazing. The
vacuum glazing consists of two glass panes with 5 mm thickness separated by a vacuum layer which is 0.2
mm wide. The glass sheets are separated by small circular metal pillars with diameter of about 0.25 mm and
79
spaced 40 mm apart. This array of support pillars has surprisingly small effect on distribution of solar
radiation. The solar heat gain coefficient is about 0.61 and this value is comparable with conventional double
low emissivity glazing, which has the solar heat gain coefficient about 0.60 – 0.63. These are typical values
for double glazing for a building where heating dominates.
The developed method to determine the total solar energy transmittance is well suited to measure the g-value
at the laboratory. Precise measurement of indoor and outdoor conditions together with heating and cooling
load is necessary to get correct results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express thanks to Ministry of Education SR for financial support of the projects APVV-16-0126
and VEGA 1/0113/19.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 410: 1998 Glass in building. Determination of luminous and solar characteristics of glazing
[2 Platzer W. J. (2000): The Altset project: Measurements of angular properties for complex glazings.
Proceedings of the 3rd Int. ISES Europe Solar Congress, Copenhagen, 2000
[3] ISO/CD 19467-2: 2018 Thermal performance of windows and doors — Determination of solar heat
gain coefficient using solar simulator — Part 2: Centre of glazing
[4] Protocol 2016 From measurement according to STN EN 12 412-2 No. 062/16 Frame of wooden-
aluminium window Mintal Classic and Mintal Classic CF, CSI Zlin.
[5] Chmúrny I., Szabó D.(2019): Thermal Performance of Window with Vacuum Glazing. Case Study. IOP
Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 290 (2019) 012076, doi: 10.1088/1788-
1315/290/1/012076
80
OBTAINING THE SHORT-WAVE RADIATION ABSORPTIVITY BASED ON
THE SURFACE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND HAM SIMULATION
Peter Juras1
1
Department of Building Engineering and Urban Planning, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of
Zilina, Univerzitna 8215/1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia, Email: peter.juras@fstav.uniza.sk
ABSTRACT
Measurement of the outdoor climate is very important for the possibility of using HAM simulation tools. These
tools are depending on the boundary conditions, material properties and also on the surface transfer
coefficients, which are influencing the calculation. One of them is short-wave radiation absorptivity. This is
basically depending on the color of the surface and influences the surface temperatures, which subsequently
influence the HAM transport within the wall.
In this paper, measurement of surface temperatures of experimental wall helps to calculate the short-wave
absorptivity of coating with use of measured solar radiation and HAM simulation in WUFI Pro simulation
tool.
INTRODUCTION
Measured outdoor climate serves as the important boundary condition for the Heat-Air-Moisture (HAM)
simulations. Other important factors are the detailed material properties [Vertal 2009 and 2018]. As it was
stated in other works [Juras 2018 and 2019], by dealing with HAM simulation in WUFI, the diffuse solar
radiation component is needed. Ratio between direct and diffuse radiation is changing during the day and it
influences the calculated and measured surface temperatures. If the diffuse component is not available, many
estimation models were developed and evaluated [Cekon 2015, Dervishi 2012, Slavik 2019]. By comparing
the results of HAM simulation and measured surface temperatures, it is also important to have accurate surface
temperatures measured.
Short-wave radiation absorptivity influences the temperatures on the surface and thus influence the speed of
the moisture transport within the wall. This absorptivity is based on the color, some basic values are stated in
Figure 1. Exact value can be measured by the spectrophotometer, which is often not available for the
measurement. In this case, the principle described in this paper can be used.
EXPERIMENTAL WOODEN WALL AND OUTDOOR CLIMATE MEASUREMENT

For purpose of this paper, measured values from departments experimental walls, which are oriented towards
east and south, were used (Figure 2). These walls consist of different wall sections, two of them are identical
with different orientation. For the simulation following sections were used: one with the bright coating with
both orientations and another with the dark coating with east orientation. More detailed material properties and
compositions can be found in [Staffenova, 2019].
Within the sections thermistors and capacity relative humidity sensors are used. In this measurement, the
thermocouple on the outer surface of the coating was added to compare the measured temperatures.
©2020 P. Juras. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-014 81
Juras, Obtaining the short-wave radiation absorptivity based on the surface temperatures measurement and HAM
simulation
Outdoor climate is recorded since 2014 by the weather station. Several comparisons with the differences
between campus location and national weather forecast institute were made [Staffenova 2014, Jurasova, 2018],
which confirmed the differences within the urban area and airport location. Since 2017 the department has a
new weather station (WS) with additional possibility to measure the diffuse part of solar radiation and long-
wave solar radiation by the pyrgeometer [Juras 2018]. For obtaining the measured global solar radiation on
vertical surface façade meteorological stations (FAMS) were also used [Juras 2017]. WUFI can use this
measured radiation to avoid estimation depending on the orientation and inclination of the wall. Two FAMS
were used, one with the southward and another with the eastward orientation.
Figure 1. Example of short-wave radiation absorptivity based on different sources, left WUFI PRO software
[12], right software Trane Trace 700 [13].
Figure 2. View at experimental walls with selected sections for simulation: left south orientation, right east.
Figure 3. Composition of the wall sections used for simulation. Left: section with the bright (light beige)
coating, right: section with the darker coating (light brown).
82
simulation
SELECTED TIME PERIOD FOR SIMULATION

For purpose of this paper selected four days, from 3th to 6th September 2019, were used. Two days were sunny
and two sunny with passing clouds to show the differences between various data obtained by direct measuring
and averaging periods. Comparison of the one-minute values, hourly values and hourly averages (based on the
one-minute recording interval) for the 3th of September for temperatures (air and surface) and global solar
radiation is shown in Figure 4. As mentioned before, on the south-oriented section, for temperature
measurement two types of sensors: thermistor and thermocouple were used. Comparison is in Figure 5 and it
shows that the differences are usual up to 1.6 °C, with maximum difference up to 5 °C which is very high
uncertainty. This can be caused by the sensor accuracy and also with the measuring time period of the
thermistor, which is 15 minutes. For thermocouple are stated values either for 15 minutes averages (recording
interval was one minute) or 15 minutes time period. Difference is calculated from the averaged thermocouple
values.
Figure 4. Temperature and global solar radiation courses for 3rd of September with different method of
obtaining values.
Figure 5. Measured surface temperatures on the south section of the experiment wall with different sensors.
NON-STEADY HAM SIMULATION IN WUFI PRO

Software used in this paper is WUFI Pro in version 6.3 [12]. WUFI is a software which allows a realistic
calculation of the transient coupled one dimensional heat and moisture transport in multi-layer building
components exposed to the real climate conditions. Data measured by the WS enter the software as outdoor
83
simulation
boundary conditions. Material properties of the wall tested in simulation were taken from the software library
and in some cases slightly modified according the manufacturers datasheets [Staffenova, 2019]. In this case,
where the simulation was performed to obtain only the outdoor surface temperatures, exact hygric parameters
do not influence the results much. Compositions of two simulated wall sections (Figure 3) are described in
Table 1.
Table 1. Used wall sections composition.
Light grey - Bright coating Thickness Light brown - Darker coating Thickness
(south and east orientation) [mm] (east orientation only) [mm]
External acrylic coating 4 External acrylic coating 4
Mineral insulation board 20 Woodfiber MDF Board 40
Grey EPS polystyrene 80 Isover Vario KM Duplex membrane
Blown in glass fibre insulation 220 Mineral wool insulation 220
PUR insulation board 40 Woodfiber MDF Board 100
Isover Vario KM Duplex membrane
OSB board 12
To use the outdoor climate measured by the weather station, façade weather stations and pyranometers fixed
on the southern façade itself were combined in several combinations, which are shown in Table 2. These
combinations were used in WUFI as outdoor climate with the assistance of scripted CreateClimateFile Excel
file.
Table 2. Simulated outdoor climate variants.

Variant Global solar radiation Diffuse solar radiation Long-wave
atmospheric radiation
WS pyranometer with
1 Weather station (WS) pyranometer WS pyrgeometer
shading ring
Façade meteorological station (FAMS), WS pyranometer with
2 WS pyrgeometer
vertical orientation (south or east) shading ring
WS pyranometer with
3 FAMS (south or east) FAMS, (south or east)
shading ring
4 FAMS, (south or east) - FAMS (south or east)
5 FAMS (south or east) - -

Based on the simulation results, variant 1 was different and the four others have same results (variant 2 – 5).
Therefore in the Figure 6 it comparison only between variant 1 and 2. By calculating more absorptivity, best
match was find with the value 0.38 for variant 1. But for the variant 2, the calculated temperatures are much
lower than the measured ones. Best match is with value 0.65. Differences at night, or during time without the
direct solar radiation were tried to solve with advance calculation possibilities in WUFI, such as wind-
dependent heat resistance and explicit radiation balance which should take into account also the night radiative
cooling effect. Results with these settings are shown in Figure 7.
Graph in Figure 7 shows the influence of the advanced settings: outdoor air temperature shift to -1 or -2 °C
caused decrease of temperature during the night, wind dependent (WD) heat resistance on exterior surface
increases maximum temperatures during the days but do not influences temperatures during the night. Explicit
radiation balance (ERB) decreases the temperatures too much, even below zero. Combination of WD and ERB
causes another decrease of the temperatures during the night.
84
simulation
Figure 6. South-oriented bright coating section: comparison of different variants for sunny and cloudy days.
Figure 7. Southward bright coating section: comparison of advanced settings and their influence on the courses.
Figure 8. East-oriented sections with bright and darker coating and comparison with obtained absorptivity.
85
simulation
The ERB incorporates not only the long-wave radiation but also the cloud index, ground emissivity, reflexivity
etc. This requires further investigation and also in the winter period.
Simulation results for east-oriented sections with different coating colors are presented in Figure 8. The same
section as with south orientation has similar results, so the obtained absorptivity values are good for both
orientations. For the darker coating – dark grey, best match was obtained with the absorptivity 0.43.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper short-wave absorptivity of two coatings based on the match of simulated course of surface
temperatures with measured ones was obtained. For the light beige coating (bright) was obtained the
absorptivity 0.38, which has a good match for both orientations. For the light brown (darker) surface was
obtained absorptivity 0.43. For both sections and orientations, if used directly measured global solar radiation
on the vertical wall, higher absorptivity has to be used to match the courses. Further investigation will be
conducted in the future for winter period and measurement of the absorptivity with the spectrophotometer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research was done with the support of a grant project VEGA no. 1/0945/16 and KEGA 032ŽU-4/2018.
REFERENCES
[1] Cekon, M. (2015): Accuracy analysis of longwave sky radiation models in the MZELWE module of the
ESP-r program, J. EnBuild, vol. 103, pp. 147-158.
[2] Dervishi, S., Mahdavi, A. (2012): Computing diffuse fraction of global horizontal solar radiation: A
model comparison, J Solar Energy, vol. 86, pp. 1796-1802.
[3] Jurasova, D. (2018): Analysis of long-term measured exterior air temperature in Zilina, J. CEE vol. 14
pp.124-131.
[4] Juras, P. et al. (2017): Full scale climate measurement around the building façade, ABS conference, Bern.
[5] Juras, P., Jurasova, D. (2018): Influence analysis of climate data time-step on the accuracy of HAM
simulation. In: MATEC Web of Conferences, 196 pp. 1 – 8.
[6] Juras, P. (2019): Impact of diffuse solar radiation on HAM simulation accuracy, CESBP, Prague (in print).
[7] Slavik, R., Cekon, M. (2019): Monitoring the Effective Ambient and Sky Temperature Based on Infrared
Sensor for Advanced Thermal Calculations, J. Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol. 887, pp. 613-621.
[8] Staffenova, D. et al. (2014): Climate Data Processing for Needs of Energy Analysis. J. Advanced
Materials Research: enviBUILD, vol. 1041, pp. 129-134.
[9] Staffenova, D. et al. (2019): Evaluative Case Study in Lightweight Wooden Wall Research, J. Applied
Mechanics and Materials, vol. 887, pp. 56-63.
[10] Vertal, M., Durica, P. (2009): Bestimmung von feuchtetechnischen Material - parametern
ausgewählter Baumaterialien für die rechnerische Bewertung von Baukonstruktionen unter den
Bedingungen in der Slowakei, J. Bauphysik, vol. 31, pp. 386-392.
[11] Vertal, M. et al. (2018): Hygrothermal initial condition for simulation process of green building
construction, J. Energy and Building, vol. 167, pp. 166-176.
[12] WUFI Pro 6.3, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics, site: www.wufi.de
[13] site: <https://irtranecds.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/192/~/model-a-colored-roof>
86
ANALYSIS OF HYGROTHERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
SELECTED LIGHT-WEIGHT WOODEN ENVELOPE
Veronika Kabátová1, Daniela Michálková2, and Pavol Ďurica3
1
Department of Building Engineering and Urban Planning, University of Žilina, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Univerzitná 1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia, Email: veronika.kabatova@fstav.uniza.sk
2
Engineering, Univerzitná 1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia, Email: daniela.michalkova@fstav.uniza.sk
3
Engineering, Univerzitná 1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia, Email: pavol.durica@fstav.uniza.sk
ABSTRACT
High-performance buildings became necessary in terms of the environment and energy consumption. The
wooden houses report high efficiency in this regard. This paper contains an analysis of selected light-weight
wooden envelope structure designed in the nearly zero-energy demand for heating standard. Evaluated will
be the energy and hygrothermal performance of the selected structure. These will be based on results of
pavilion measurements (constant interior conditions and real external boundary conditions) and results of
measurements in climate chambers during various boundary conditions. Afterwards, the results of numerical
simulations will be presented, configured according to experimental measurements.
INTRODUCTION
This article deals with selected envelope wall segments of timber-based buildings placed within pavilion
research of University of Žilina further explained in literature [Ďurica, 2017]. The research consists of long-
term measurements and evaluation of two wall constructions with different orientation placed in separate and
highly insulated rooms. One of them is oriented to the east (Figure 1), the other to the south (Figure 2). Both
are divided into 5 segments with various materials in a different order.
Figure 1. Selected structure of the wall assembly oriented to the east.
©2020 V. Kabatova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-015 87
Kabátová et al, Analysis of Hygrothermal Performance of Selected Light-weight Wooden Envelope
Figure 2. Selected structure of the wall assembly oriented to the south.
This contribution aims to compare 2 segments highlighted in Figure 1 and Figure 2. They are equivalent,
only their orientation is different. They are diffusion-closed structures with smart climate membrane from
both sides. According to the manufacturer, the membrane should be able to regulate humidity regime in the
constructions due to the inconstant equivalent air layer thickness Sd. The thermal insulations are mineral
fibre-based. The external insulation is basalt wool and within the studs is glass wool applied. The
accumulation layer is oriented strand board. The ventilated air cavity should contribute to beneficial water
regime.
SELECTED STRUCTURE IN CLIMATE TEST CHAMBERS

Climate chambers were used to examine the structure V4/J5 according to current legislation [STN EN 1934,
2000; STN EN ISO 8990, 2000; STN EN 1946-1-4, 2001]. Figure 3 shows the sample made for this
experiment with the placement of the sensors. The sample was 1210mm wide and 1460mm tall [Kabátová,
2019]. The perimeter was made of oriented strand board of 25mm thickness. Each layer had sensors for
temperature and relative humidity - miniature-multi-sensor modules from the Ahlborn company. The
temperature scale is -40 to 85 °C with the accuracy of ± 0,7°C. The relative humidity scale is from 5 to 98%
with the accuracy of ± 4%.
Figure 3. Selected wall structure (V4 and J5) with sensors placement.
The dynamic testing regime was applied to the sample. It was based on real climate conditions measured at
the laboratory roof. Figure 4 and Figure 5 shows the evolution of temperature and relative humidity of the
sample. The stabile inner climate was achieved.
The outer layers - cladding, air cavity, and smart membrane show the largest temperature differences.
Similar surface temperatures of wooden cladding and oriented strand board to the pavilion research were
obtained. Figure 5 demonstrates the evolution of the relative humidity.
The maximal value was measured on the climate membrane Isover Vario placed near to the exterior. Under
the oriented strand board is the relative humidity of 5%, while between the thermal insulation Isover
Multimax oscillates around 55 %. However, this curve has a similar shape to the curve between Isover TF
Profi and Isover Multimax 030. In this case, oscillates the relative humidity around 60 %.
88
exterior
24
Temperature [°C]
wooden cladding
19 air cavity
14 Isover Vario
between Isover TF Profi and
9 Isover Multimax 030
between Isover Multimax 030
under OSB
Time [h]
Figure 4. The temperature of the sample in climate chambers.
exterior
Relative humidity [%]
90
air cavity
70
Isover Vario
50
between Isover TF Profi and
30 Isover Multimax 030
between Isover Multimax 030
0:00
4:20
8:40
13:00
17:20
21:38
1:58
6:18
10:38
14:58
19:18
23:38
3:58
8:18
12:38
16:58
21:18
under OSB
Time [h]
Figure 5. Relative humidity of the sample in climate chambers.
Figures 6 and 7 show the temperature and relative humidity around the wooden stud. Between Isover
Multimax 030 (probe 419) is the temperature above 17°C. The curve is almost flat at the front of the stud,
while in the middle of the wall structure are the temperature differences greater. The same phenomenon
occurs by the relative humidity.
25 100
Temperature [°C]
20 80 exterior
exterior
15 418 60 418
419 419
10 40
420 420
5 20 interior
interior
0:00
6:00
12:00
18:00
23:58
5:58
11:58
17:58
23:58
0:00
7:00
14:00
20:58
3:58
10:58
17:58
0:58
7:58
14:58
21:58
Time [h] Time [h]
Figure 6. The temperature of the sample in the Figure 7. Relative humidity of the sample in the
climate chamber by the stud. climate chamber by the stud.
THE MEASUREMENTS WITHIN THE PAVILION RESEARCH

Collected data from the wall assemblies served to compare the different orientations thereby different
external conditions. Observed were the first two weeks of March of 2018. Climatic data are based on
meteorological station measurements in the research locality. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show temperatures
89
within the structures V4 and J5 during the selected period. The maximal temperature in the eastern wall
assembly was 36,1 °C. The minimal temperature was -18,2 °C. The wall oriented to the south had the
maximal temperature 41,5 °C, the minimal -17,9 °C.
At the interface of the insulation Isover TF Profi and Isover Multimax 030 were the temperatures in the
eastern wall from -5,1 °C to 16,2 °C. In the case of J5 was the temperature range -4,4 to 21,5 °C. The
following material is Isover Multimax 030 which consists of two layers of thickness 100 mm and 120 mm.
Between the two layers was the measured temperature for V4 from 5,0 °C to 18,1 °C. As in the previous
case, the temperature in J5 was higher - from 6,7 °C to 19,2 °C.
exterior
20
Temperature [°C]
T14 210 - air cavity

10
T14 220 - Isover Vario
0
T14 230 - between Isover TF
-10 Profi and Isover Multimax 030
T14 240 - between Isover
-20 Multimax 030
T14 270 - under OSB
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
interior
Time [h]
Figure 8. The measured temperature of V4.
exterior
40
Temperature [°C]
30 T21 000 - external surface

20
10 T21 240 - between Isover TF
Profi and Isover Multimax 030
0
T21 250 - between Isover
-10 Multimax 030
-20 T21 270 - under OSB
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
06:00
00:00
18:00
12:00
interior
Time [h]
Figure 9. The measured temperature of J5.
exterior
95
85 H14 210 - air cavity

75
65 H14 220 - Isover Vario
55
45 H14 230 - between Isover TF
35 Profi and Isover Multimax 030
25 H14 240 - between Isover
15 Multimax 030
00:00
16:30
08:45
01:00
17:15
09:30
01:45
18:00
10:15
02:30
18:45
11:00
03:15
19:30
11:45
04:00
20:15
12:30
04:45
21:00
H14 270 - under OSB
interior
Time [h]
Figure 10. Measured relative humidity of V4.
90
Figure 10 and Figure 11 describe the relative humidity of selected wall assemblies. The relative humidity in
V4 within the air cavity is higher than the relative humidity of exterior air. The relative humidity in the
internal layers is rather low because of the problems with the air conditioning. The relative humidity in the
interior should be constant at 50 %. In this case, we can observe a temporary disorder.
90 exterior
80
70
60 H21 240 - between Isover TF
50 Profi and Isover Multimax 030
40 H21 250 - between Isover
30 Multimax 030
20
H21 270 - under OSB
10
00:00
16:30
08:45
01:00
17:15
09:30
01:45
18:00
10:15
02:30
18:45
11:00
03:15
19:30
11:45
04:00
20:15
12:30
04:45
21:00
interior
Time [h]
Figure 11. The measured relative humidity of J5.
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The simulation of coupled heat and moisture transfer was accomplished in the software Wufi Pro based on
the finite volume method [Kalamees, 2002]. This software enables a one-dimensional thermal field analysis
of multilayered constructions [Karagiozis et al., 2001].
We simulated the same period as evaluated from the real measurements using real external boundary
conditions. The influence of ventilated air cavity was modeled as an additional air-change source. Figure 12
and Figure 13 show the simulated temperatures in V4 and J5. The results are very similar to the
measurements. Some discrepancies follow from the need of using mean hourly data for the simulation.
T14 210 - air cavity
25
Temperature [°C]
15 T14 220 - Isover Vario

5
-5 Profi and Isover Multimax 030
-15 T14 240 - between Isover
Multimax 030
T14 270 - under OSB
Time [h]
Figure 12. The simulated temperature of V4.
60 T21 000 - external surface

Temperature [°C]
40
20 Profi and Isover Multimax
030
0 T21 250 - between Isover
Multimax 030
-20 T21 270 - under OSB
Figure 13. The simulated temperature of J5.

91
The relative humidity is not comparable due to the limitations of the software. It can investigate the humidity
at any place of the material. The real sensors are placed between the materials and are surrounded rather by
the air. Therefore are the results different in both cases.
CONCLUSIONS
The apparatus and software capability of the department enabled to accomplish climate chambers
measurements, pavilion measurements, and to compare them to the numerical simulation. Based on the
results, we can claim the expected differences in the temperatures of selected structures.
The performance of both segments is quite similar. There is only a minor difference in the minimum
temperatures. The maximal temperatures, on the other side, are affected by the orientation. The southern
orientation is, in this case, higher throughout the whole construction. The greatest temperature contrast is
apparent behind the first thermal insulation from the exterior – Isover TF Profi. On the first day of
monitoring the construction V4 showed a temperature of 2 °C, whereas the structure J5 showed almost 9 °C.
The days with lower solar radiation intensity did not cause serious discrepancies. In the case of night, the
temperatures are in the structure V4 is still lower, after a sunny day it reaches -3,2 °C, while in the J5 -1,9
°C. The interface of the thermal insulation Isover Multimax 030 shows the maximal differences 4 °C during
the day and 2 °C during the night.
The development of the relative humidity of both structures was also similar. The southern oriented segment
showed lower values almost through the whole measurement, which is caused by the orientation difference.
The small differences between the structures narrowed towards the interior. The greatest discrepancies are
apparent at the interface of Isover TF Profi and Isover Multimax 03. In the case of the structure J5, is the
curve of greater amplitude as by V4. In the maximal point, the humidity reaches during day 4 % more than
V4, during night 6 % less than V4. However, generally has the construction J5 lower relative humidity than
the structure V4.
The numerical simulation granted extensive agreement in terms of temperature and demonstrated its
applicability for further examination. In the future, we look forward to analyzing more of the mentioned
constructions and also simulate their behavior in the climate chambers. The results could provide the ground
for the design of a new assembly with the desired performance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research mentioned in this paper was created with the support from the grant project VEGA Nr.
1/0945/16.
REFERENCES
[1] Ďurica P., et al. (2017): Energetické a environmentálne navrhovanie a hodnotenie budov. Edis, 2017.
[2] STN EN 1934. Thermal performance of buildings. Determination of thermal resistance by hot box
method using heat flow meter. 2000.
[3] STN EN ISO 8990. Thermal insulation. Determination of steady-state thermal transmission properties.
Calibrated and guarded hot box. 2000.
[4] STN EN 1946-1-4. Thermal performance of building products and components. Specific criteria for the
assessment of laboratories measuring heat transfer properties. 2001.
[5] Kabátová V. (2019): Analýza transportu tepla a vody vybranými sendvičovými stenami drevostavieb.
Dizertačná práca. Žilina, 2019.
[6] Kalamees, T., Vinha, J. (2002): Hygrothermal calculations and laboratory tests on timber-framed wall
structures. Building and Environment 38, 2002.
[7] Karagiozis, A. et. al. (2001): WUFI-ORNL/IBP – Hygrothermal Model (P-01-111509). The United
States, 2001.
92
REGIONAL AND LOCAL IDENTITY IN BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND MATERIAL
CULTURE AS IMPORTANT PART OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
SUSTAINABILITY AND WELLBEING
Veronika Kotradyová1, Michala Lipková2, Wanda Borysko3

1
Institute of Interior and Exhibition Design, STU Bratislava, Faculty of Architecture, Námestie Slobody 19,
812 45 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: kotradyova@fa.stuba.sk
2
Institute of Industrial Design, STU Bratislava, Faculty of Architecture, Námestie Slobody 19, 812 45
Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: kotradyova@fa.stuba.sk, Email: wanda.borysko@gmai.com
3
Institute of Interior and Exhibition Design, STU Bratislava, Faculty of Architecture, Námestie Slobody 19,
812 45 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: michala.lipkova@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
Paper deals regional identity as crucial part of as part of environmental assessment within social and cultural
sustainability. In the contemporary era of globalisation and unification in material culture, it is very important
to maintain and apply elements and concepts that are special and unique for single localities and regions.
Cultural identity and tradition are inseparable parts of every society and can influence the character of local
built-environment and its elements. This “DNA” of society indirectly affects the typology/morphology and
semiotics of crafted products and architecture, and it creates the basics of the design language of a country or
region. Local identity can be understood as the essence of a cultural heritage and genius loci and plays a very
important part in self-identification. This is unfortunately very often misinterpreted in the design of
contemporary building or products. Although there exist many research studies in field of ethnography, cultural
anthropology, history and archaeology, they are very rarely available and understandable for architects,
designers, investors, producers and services providers directly in the regions.
Maintaining the social and cultural sustainability through maintaining and creating local identity in the built
environment and in the life style - this means to bring back local materials, principles, concepts, stories into
material culture – architecture, housing, habits, performance in daily life, connected with using of products.
Preserving local identity is a big challenge also for local industry and can be massively supported by new
forms of responsible and sustainable tourism, thus it has to be experienced, explored and shared, to be alive.
Here we can speak about potential of agroturism, eco-tourism, etnoturism that need also infrastructure with its
built environment and its elements – products to use during the experience or to bring home for reminding and
to display, connected also with attachment to some objects.
Paper shows examples how to preserve the regional and local identity, transform, interpret it and to refer to it
on the first results of project IDENTITY SK - common platform of design, architecture and the social sciences,
in form of regional concepts for products and services, coming from interdisciplinary literature and field
research and storytelling. First of all it is necessary to research about it, respect it, having a lot of respect and
empathy by adding something new, use it with the context and telling stories, not to embed in misinterpretation
and be stranded in many form of kitsch.
©2020 V. Kotradyova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-016 93
Kotradyová et al, Kotradyová et al, Regional and local identity in built environment and material culture as
important part of social and cultural sustainability and wellbeing
INTRODUCTION-SOCIO-CULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

In this study we deal with the topic of role local identity reflected in built environment and overall material
culture for maintaining socio-cultural sustainability and regional development.
To meet the basic human needs, natural materials such as wood and stone to build shelters have already been
used for thousands of years. Textiles, clothing, and fashion, such as with kimono, have been used as traditional
garments worn by men, women, and children, for protection as well as a form of cultural expression. In modern
times, our daily life is so much immersed with artefacts made out of diverse materials that even the term
“material culture” has been coined in the early twentieth century referring to the intensive relationship between
artefacts and social relations, while current discourses about material culture often refer to consumerism and
throw-away culture [1].
According to Hawkes (2001) knowing where we have come from helps us to discover where we want to go.
Our social memory and our repositories of insight and understanding are essential elements to our sense of
belonging. Without a sense of our past, we are adrift in an endless present. The role of the museum and the
protection of built heritage are obvious aspects of this area (both benefit from creative initiatives concerning
their current use, for example, outreach programs, active community interaction). But there is much more that
can be done. Perhaps most important is the acknowledgement of the extraordinary diversity upon which our
present is founded [2] .
What we do in the breaks between the struggle to survive is profoundly important to our wellbeing, to our
sense of belonging and connectedness, to our understanding of ourselves and our relationships – to our culture.
Tradition and regional- local identity can be seen as something that is special for a place, or was spread in the
region and has been transferred, used and popularized through many generations. At the same time, it is a
socio-cultural and socio-economical process.
The search for tradition and coming back to roots leads very often to “folk kitsch” a misinterpretation of
tradition. To find solutions that satisfy this need for continuity is interrupted in post-communist societies but
also in other strongly modern - postmodern societies, where human beings need to be surrounded by something
stable and known as a reaction to the constantly changing forces in society. This contemporary strong “thirst”
of the market for traditional and regional solutions is clearly based on the rupture of cultural continuity that
feels the need to be healed by something traditional and stable, something that we can rely on. It is also an
obvious reaction to strong social transformations in late modernity societies.
Regional development is a official priority of every progressive democratic government, especially building
of infrastructure, civil facilities and public spaces, and some support for SME´s, but this top-dowm approach
is missing efficiency. Centrally planned industrialization of Slovakia has massively collapsed after the regime
change in 1989 and many workers had to change their occupancy and way of life. Phenomena of workers
abroad having families at homes and high unemployment are changing social atmosphere in regions that are
distant from capitol and from cities with strong economy. They are suffering with bad infrastructure,
skepticism, equalitarianism and demotivation. But there is in the same time very strong potential and challenge
to attract the curious visitors and new inhabitants that are searching for fascinating, interesting and authentic
place to visit or to live.
The bottom-up approach visible on local improvements done by different stakeholders, activists or NGO´s are
a real contribution for regional development even when in less planned and more organic way. It is usually
good mark that the vivid human energy is there and it is also very useful to respect these initiatives also some
changes on a strategic governmental or municipal level.
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THE NOTION OF IDENTITY

National identity tends to be described as a phenomenon covering nation’s area, common language, customs
and culture. With many approaches to approaching this phenomenon, all of them agree on its fluidity. An
identity of a particular cultural and socio-historical environment as a vivid, a historic and evolving
phenomenon.
Global society challenges all areas of our life, let alone regional understanding of self or belonging. How can
we not lose our roots in the era of unification and monopoly? In the context of the globalisation several
theoreticians agree on the importance of identity: french sociologist Michel Maffesoli presents the term
dynamic rootedness (in French „enracinement dynamique“): the bond to the past is the bond to the future -
past supplies present with the vitality [3]. Believing that we are bringing innovations according to Maffesoli
we are only subconsciously bringing up previous inspirations.
Are “the roots” and “the customs” the only guarantee of future collective and individual continuation in the
era of technological clutter. In his book on self-sufficiency of cities the chief architect of Barcelona Vicente
Guallart claims, similarly to Maffesoli, that the best way to preserve the heritage is to augment it. Every object
has its material history and shape genealogy [4] - therefore he sees the continuation of regional identities as a
strong tool of sustainable development of communities. Similarly, in his book We-think Charles Leadbeater
refers to “mass innovation” taking over “mass production” [5].
Cultural identity is an integral part of every society and has fundamental impact on (not only) society’s material
culture. This “DNA” directly or indirectly influences the morphology and semantics of country’s craft
products, it shapes local architecture and becomes the base of regional design language. We can perceive
identity as the essence of a country's cultural heritage. Several states are able to get most of their regional
specifics and have turned their country’s cultural heritage and identity into competitive advantage
[Scandinavian product and furniture design, Dutch typography, German automotive design etc.]. In the case
of Scandinavian countries we can track the roots of the design culture in the activities of local state institutions.
For example the credit in spreading and establishing the well-known “democratic design” links to the national
Swedish Society of Industrial Design, that was proactively promoting the concept of the “beautiful, but
affordable” products already since the 60s and before.
Identity of the Central European material and building culture is as complex as the character of the region
itself. Twentieth century of changing regimes has repeatedly redrawn borders of local states and regions - and
this experience significantly influences local identity up till now. We can find several examples of projects
focused on integrating or discussing the identity of the CEE region - the following text will present a selection
based on socio-historical background comparable with the context of Slovakia.
One of the project, which ambition was to map the common identity of the CEE region was collective
exhibition project Common Roots: Design Map of Central Europe, initiated by the Design museum Holon in
Israel. The main topic of the project (based on the hypothesis that contemporary designers of the CEE region
are impossible to sort by nationality) was to create a map of individual designers and uncover connections
caused by the common socio-historic experience and cultural belonging to the CEE region as a whole [6]. The
project proved remarkable similarities, parallel developments and search for the answers for the same
questions.
Similar attempt to map the common cultural heritage and roots can be recognized by exhibition project Central
Values – Common Heritage in Contemporary Central European Design. However the aim of the project,
organized by Hungarian Intellectual Property Agency, was to spread the awareness of design as a factor of
competitiveness - and therefore the project brought series of practical workshops and conferences.
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A great example of a project that attempts to go beyond the ordinary borders of practical use of research
outcomes is Polish innovation platform Design Silesia - the organisation actively promotes the
transformational power of design in the specific south-polish region of Silesia. The platform has a wide
portfolio of activities from field research (f.e. the mapping of past iconic products manufactured in the region
- Design Icons of Silesian Voivodeship), publication activities to organising exhibitions, conferences, training
courses and popularization events.
Interesting point of view on regional overlaps was brought by the project Wool Design. Carpathians, led by
Polish organisation Zamek Cieszyn Design Center. The project focused on creating a platform for knowledge
exchange in the field of traditional processing of wool - focusing on the Carpathian region witch rich (both
economic and cultural) tradition of pastoral farming. The project was again an attempt to bring the practical
transformation by design. After the very first step of establishing a new wool processing workshop in
Jaworzynka, group of designers participated in a hands on workshop and learned the principles of the
traditional craft. Following product development integrated the essence of the traditional craft in a
contemporary way, creating innovative ready-to-market product solutions.
When mentioning Poland we can’t skip the projects developed by the Ethnographic Museum in Krakow.
Focusing on the concept of Open Source and knowledge publicly shared on the internet, the museum has
produced several projects that serve as great example of merging innovation and tradition, such as the “Release
project” (which created an online database with open source products inspired by traditional pieces), “Craft
2.0” (that created a networking platform for designers, architects and consumers, in search for custom
production possibilities) and last but not least the project “Ethnographic pattern book” (online pattern book
with more than 800 regional motifs accessible to wide public).
EXPLORATION OF IDENTITY IN CEE REGION

Slovakia has diverse identity that dynamically develops in time. Slovak creative ecosystem has - in spite of
common roots with V4 countries - its own specifics. According to the president of Slovak Creative Industry
Forum Zora Jaurová [7] it is evident, that the fastest growing element of local economics are businesses based
on individual creativity. According to the latest research of local entrepreneurship ecosystem [8] the Slovak
business sector is dominated by micro companies (49 440), followed by small enterprises (10 831) and medium
enterprises (2 296) - and exactly these businesses, active on regional markets, are important actors in preserving
local identity through their production program.
Based on the recently realized quality research in the frame of the Made in CEE project [9], whose objective
was investigation of the conditions of local production in V4 countries, we can list the following statements:
“Lot of creativity and little business”
“Start-up boom excludes product design and the success depends on expanding abroad”
“The promotion of Slovak design depends on independent initiatives, lacking state support”
“The awareness of intellectual property regulations is low”
During the soviet era, innovation was considered a unique case, or rather an exception - not a fundamental part
of the process of creation. As well from this reason our country shows evidence of the same symptoms of
creative industry in post-socialistic countries defined by John Hartley [9] as inability of including creative
industries into the complex of all industry segments, the inability to identify of the creative industry by itself
or the inability to form coordinated industry associations [10]. The importance of small and medium enterprises
is still a subject of reconsidering, while active communication between designers and producers or advancing
creativity in entrepreneurship is still not a common practice.
In spite of the fact that there were several attempts to study regional material and building identity in Slovakia
before, this topic was never before addressed with the right priority and application focus. Recently running
or presented projects engaged with similar topic (f.e. the project VEGA No. 1/0655/15 at the Institute of Social
Studies and Ethnology at FF UMB in Banská Bystrica titled Cultural Heritage as an Identity Phenomenon or
96
recent conference Creative Heritage: Identity, Continuity, Tradition, Innovation, Memory that took place at
the Slovak National Gallery in June 2016) had always theoretical focus - our project would like to use the
outcomes of their research and pass them to practice through applied research.
Only manuscripts in the English language will be accepted. The technical program committee reserves the
right to reject any manuscript based on the final submission, even if the abstract was previously accepted.
MATERIAL CULTURE AND NEW FORMS OF TOURISM
Material culture is in general as the extension of society, community and individual Self. Considering this it is
interesting phenomena not only in Slovakia how much misunderstanding, misinterpretation and folk kitsch is
presented in material culture – in built environment. In the post-communistic countries there exists the
phenomenon of big housing projects constructed during the later communist era and considered to be cultural
equalization.
Sixty years ago there were enough traditional vernacultural objects that were used for their original purposes.
Now these are mostly objects in institutional care and under protection, but still there are “gatherings” of
traditional objects – usually in more remote previously poor regions where, being in the lower part of social
stratification, being attached to tradition and local identity was a matter of survival. Now these localities have
become interesting for new forms of tourism and are often already protected like preserved memorial zones.
Regional or local identity can also be massively supported by new forms of responsible and sustainable
tourism, thus the local identity has to be experienced, explored and shared, to be alive. Here we can speak
about the potential of agro-tourism, eco-tourism, ethno-tourism that need also infrastructures with built
environments and their elements – products to be used during the experience or brought home as reminders or
displays connected with an attachment to certain objects.
It is not possible to describe local identity without respecting the geomorphology together with the climate of
the place, which essentially is a main creator of everything that ever happened to human beings. Only a
connection with the nature and cultural signs and marks can bring a complex overview about a locality or
region.
LOCAL IDENTITY AND WELLBEING
To explore the problematics of regional/local identity as part of socio-cultural sustainability and complex
comfort - well-being, there was created research project IDENTITY SK - common platform of design,
architecture and the social sciences, where in interdisciplinary team we try to find recommendations how to
preserve the regional and local identity, transform, interpret it and to refer to it in form of regional concepts
for products and services, coming from interdisciplinary research team, literature and field research and
storytelling.
The issue of wellbeing is also part of the social sustainability agenda and is related to the sustaining of local
identity. After evaluation of the relation between regional identity and wellbeing, we set four main issues for
dealing with local identity as reflected in a material culture that contributes to the well-being of users during
all kind of interactions with built environment - these include:
- attachment to place –building an identity for the self and the social group
- comfort from interaction with “the known” – shared cultural values and signs, archetypes, and
stereotypes
- authentic experience
- wellbeing from own hands-on experience and from interaction with professionally crafted objects
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These are the main issues of local identity that are related to the well-being phenomena and, together with a
phenomena of local identity self, need to be explored further.
The main idea of the interrelation between local identity and well-being or socio-cultural comfort is the
awareness of one’s own origin, roots and own role in it. Being surrounded by the marks of local identity creates
support for this process – the process of coming back to the roots and the “Self”.
In describing the phenomena of “coming back to roots” or back to the “Self” we can build upon the theory of
individuation coming from the father of psychoanalysis – Carl Jung. In the broadest possible way,
individuation can be defined as the achievement of self-actualization through a process of integrating the
conscious and the unconscious.
The tradition and the culture, as shared knowledge and preferences, is a part of both the conscious and the
unconscious. The process of coming back to the “Self” is a main part of building one’s own personal identity
and integrity.
FIELD RESEARCH ABROAD

Important for the project was to see positive examples of presentation of authentic regional culture and
transformation of characteristic marks of local identity into modern design, architecture and services in
developed countries with continuous cultural development. There as in Scandinavia, Austria and Japan
reflected in material culture, built-environment and services connected to local businesses and tourism. It is
created at many places in a very sensitive and tasteful way (Fig. 1,2).
Figure. 1 Prsentation of traditional north Sweden housing culture in direct expositions on sites, above farm
Myckelgensjo origination from 18 century, below is room from year 1905 for workers from Sandslåns
flottningsmuseum (museum of timber floating), photo: Veronika Kotradyova
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Figure 2. Housing culture in Japan – (left) stage for sleep on futon with inbuilt storage space made
from Japan spruce, Kyoto, dining room- traditional and contemporary in the same time, last one is an
interior from 50-ties in modern wood stracture situated in the Architecture museum in Tokyo, photo:
Veronika Kotradyova
Figure 3. Positive example of transformation of regional elements into modern architecture and design,
documentation during field research left barn converted inot housing with inlayed passive modern building
in Veličná- region Orava designed by architect Eliška Turanská, right is a iron wire pad done by tinkering in
gift shop in Čičmany, photo: V. Kotradyová, .
FIELD RESEARCH- CASE STUDIES IN SEVERAL REGIONS IN SLOVAKIA

We decided to choose a different - comprehensive research and development methodology. This resulted in
the series of experimental workshops entitled "Regional Product".
The methodology consists in combining literary research, ethnographic field research (observation, mapping,
interviews, case studies, oral history collections, content analyses) with local stakeholders - representatives of
different groups of citizens involved in regional development, participatory design and development and
prototyping regional products or products inspired by the region.
The combination of research and "in situ" creation was, in line with the project's ambition, to bring inspirational
and exemplary solutions for consumer products, gift items, souvenirs, furniture, entire interiors, and building
constructions, referring to folk material culture.
99
Therefore, the project includes experimental workshops combined with field research in the regions. The first
was a workshop in Pohorela, with the topic: “Regional product of Horehronie” with the participation of
professionals and students from the field of ethnography, architecture and design.
During field research, products and services were designed within the philosophy of research by design, and
conceived with the aim of developing the potential to develop regional micro-businesses linked to eco-agro
and ecotourism, with the possibility of production in the region and distribution to and from local tourist
information centers. The concepts were further developed after returning from the workshop. Figure 6 shows
the prototypes of products inspired by the Horehronie traditional culture in conjunction
During field research, products and services have been designed within philosophy research by design, and
conceived with the aim of developing the potential to develop regional micro-businesses linked to eco-agro
and ecotourism, with the possibility of production in the region and distribution to and from local tourist
information centers. The concepts were further developed after returning from the workshop. Figure 6 shows
the prototypes of products inspired by the Horehronie traditional culture in conjunction with modern design.
A second workshop was placed in southcentral Slovakia, in the Hont region, with a
Base camp in the village of Hrušov. This had a very different climate and geomophology from Horehronie and
thus very different available materials.
While in Horehrenie is prevailing the use of soft wood, of sheep breeding with milk products and wooden
objects used for their processing and home textiles production, in Hont there is a dominance of stone works,
hardwood processing, and basketry, fruit and wine culture. This difference was also reflected in the products
that were developed. A third workshop was established in Northeast Slovakia, in a region of north Šariš and
Zemplín, with a basecamp in the small UNESCO protected town of Bardejov. The region was special due to
its multi-ethnicity, where Slovaks, Jews and several tribes of Ruthenians have lived side by side for hundreds
of years. The culture has been influenced by a strong history of wars in the region, many heavy battles during
the First and Second World Wars. A specialty of this region are also the wooden churches of the eastern rite.
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Figure 4. Outputs of workshop organized within the project IDENTITY SK, phto: Noro Knap and
chitecture and design, documentation during
Further workshop was placed in region Orava in village Zuberec, where is situated one of the most unique
open air museum, built directly as a compact village on the meadow in the mountains West Tatras, where we
have also designed and prototyped together with students wooden products inspired by the regional crafts.
The most recent one was executed in region Liptov including High Tatras – region with the most developed
commercial tourism within Slovakia. There is visible direct impact of strong investors that reshape landscape
with all kind of recreation and leisure objects. Still there is an effort to do this with marks of regional identity
, which are strongly misinterpreted and market is covered with huge amount of regional products with different
level of quality and authenticity. Within this trip we have visited also phenomena in material culture- Čičmany,
where the characteristic white decoration painting on the wooden traditional market begin to be part of pop
folk culture – they are used everywhere, including cloths of Slovak delegation on winter Olympic in Sochi in
2014. We can state in Čičmany, which is very distant village deep in mountains - the potential of being
exclusive, interesting is being broadly used and developed and is in further progress thanks to local activists
and businessmen. The next one field trip and workshop is planned in region Gemer in October 2019.
For the effectiveness of such a workshop, it turned out to be very important to have right from the early
beginning a link to local activists in order to maintain regional / local identity and to promote regional
development. Meeting local stakeholders and bringing them together around one table to discuss and be
involved in the creative process also played a crucial role. All results of workshops and field research plus
results of literature and database research are being processed into interactive database that will be working on
website www.projektidentia.sk soon and it will serve as an inspirational source for designers and investors by
an effort to create products and services with regional identity, plus for support of the new ways of tourism
(Fig. 3,4).
DISCUSSION and RESULTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Why there is so much kitsch in art, design and architecture that wants to interpret folk culture?
Discontinuity in the cultural development, misusing of folk art and culture for political purposes – for
propaganda first by Slovak state (1938-1945) and later by communistic regime since 1948-1989
We can formulate strategies of socio-cultural sustainability based on field research in rural settings as:
- connectedness to nature, be prepared for its changes, living in symbiosis with natural settings and its climate
- using of local materials and traditional methods of their processing
- more homogeneous local communities – building local community, belonging, maintaining tradition and
method of survival, but being different can cause an exclusion from community
In urban development:
- diversity of people living in a special collaborative model - different nations, religions and occupancy were
living in symbiosis, having benefits from each other
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- social advantages and cultural innovations are implemented in a rapid way
Successful contemporary regional development works in ability to transform tradition with modern
technologies and social media, being opened but in the same time to maintain integrity. Directly in the authentic
regions there is less understanding and support of modern design and architecture and the local inhabitants are
more suspicious to the modern design issues.
In regions distant from capitals and cities with strong economy “the principle of survival” is providing
traditional or new forms of tourism and creating small businesses based on traditional manufacturing of
providing services, with the aim to maintain authenticity of the place.
Crafts are in general in a big tool for maintaining local identity and can support regional development,
but they are transformed into commercial issues with aesthetical and technical quality. Institution
ULUV (in Eng. Center for Folk Art Production) makes a lot of effort to maintain high aesthetical level
of traditional Slovak craftsmanship, but the craftsmen that are under their guidance are in a minority
and the majority is adopted to the market taste and as low price as possible.
Master crafts, especially in interaction and transition with modern design can hardly compete with
cheap products made with high rate of automatization or massively lowered quality.
To change this attitude it is necessary to make enlightenment, further education about authenticity
connected with high quality and healthy local patriotism.
CONCLUSIONS
Maintaining the social and cultural sustainability through maintaining and creating local identity in the built
environment and in the life style - this means to bring back local materials, principles, concepts, stories into
material culture – architecture, housing, habits, performance in daily life, connected with using of products.
Preserving local identity is a big challenge also for local industry and can be massively supported by new
forms of responsible and sustainable tourism, thus it has to be experienced, explored and shared, to be alive.
Here we can speak about potential of agroturism, eco-tourism, etnoturism that need also infrastructure with its
built environment and its elements – products to use during the experience or to bring home for reminding and
to display, connected also with attachment to some objects.
Even when we starst from knowing that local identity is a construct that is in eternal evolution, the most
important part of our research is questioning the ways of working with the local identity in Slovakia, with “the
known”. How to preserve it, transform, interpret it, copy, refer to it? First of all it research about it, respect it,
having a lot of respect and empathy by adding something new, use it with the context and telling stories, Not
to embed in misinterpretation and be stranded in many form of kitsch.
How to define good taste and appropriate way of working with regional motives and features, how deal with
it and not to copy literary? We can interpret it, refer to it, transform it and to question the process constantly
and its result from the point of view of social sustainability and wellbeing.
For further research we are setting hypothesis that facing the elements having marks of regional identity create
positive reaction by users - measurable with objective physiological parameters, observations and mapping
and subjectively through interviews and questionnaires. The objects that are being developed in the workshop
will be further explored and tested regarding the preferences of respondents. The measure of decorativeness
or simplicity is one of crucial issue. Also the topic of physiological reactions with EEG sensors of respondents
while facing elements with local identity and built environment that has marks of local identity through
environmental simulations is being now further explored.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was supported by project APVV 16-0567 IDENTITY SK- common platform for design,
architecture and social sciences.
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NUMERICAL AND MEASUREMENT INVESTIGATION OF THE
THERMAL BRIDGE CAUSED BY THE PIPE PASSING
THROUGH THE INSULATED WALL
Jaroslav Leštach1, Radoslav Ponechal1, Ján Rybárik1
1
Department of Building Engineering and Urban Planning, University of Zilina, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Univerzitna 8215/1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia, Email: radoslav.ponechal@fstav.uniza.sk
ABSTRACT
The local thermal bridges cause problems on buildings. The aim of the analysis presented in the paper is to
study the passage of pipes through a well-insulated exterior wall. Two possible pipe location in thermal
insulation have been investigated: just below the exterior surface and fully embedded in the insulation.
Numerical 3D calculations using the finite element method showed possible critical areas in this detail with
increased relative humidity. Due to the limitations of numerical calculations, similar measurements on a
sample with real dimensions were made in climatic chambers. By taking a detailed reading of the temperature
and the relative humidity around the pipe in the wall, the results of the numerical calculations have thus been
refined.
INTRODUCTION
The issue of carrying out installations and wiring in energy-efficient buildings interferes slightly with their
thermal protection, particularly in the area of building envelope (external walls, roofs and often foundation
structures) and causing thermal bridges. According to Halahyja [1], the thermal bridge is a structural element
with a different thermal conductivity than the other normal section of the structure. At that place, there is
usually a higher thermal conductivity and lower internal surface temperature. One of main thermal protection
objectives is to reduce fuels needs for the building operation and also to help create healthy and hygienic
conditions for people. The thermal bridges in the structure have already been dealt with eg. Sternova [2] and
other authors [3], [4], [5], [6], but they have been dealt with construction part of the buildings only, not of the
pipeline passage through the structures.
THE SOLUTIONS BY TYPE OF PIPELINE

The passage of water and sewage piping into the building is always carried out in a frost-free depth, either into
the underground floor space or through the foundations into the first floor. Due to the restriction of the passage
due to freezing, it is also not possible to run the pipe in the thermal insulation on the façade. For rainfall from
the roof, the Slovak standard states: “In areas with frequent frosts where ice could clog inlets and cause water
to enter the building, additional heating should be considered [7]. For more frequent problematic technical
details, such as rain gully, ready-made design solutions and products that eliminate thermal bridges are
designed. [6] Power lines, sockets, lamps and other electrical elements can be installed both indoors and
outdoors. For the installation of elements of electrical equipment on a façade in thermal insulation, in addition
to the installation requirements, thermal breaks and universality of use are also required [9,10]. The gas piping
must be routed in a way that no explosive concentration occurs [11]. One way to prevent the formation of
explosive concentrations is to trace the pipes through the exterior - in the facade of the building, respectively.
It is necessary to ensure constant ventilation of the cavity in which is the pipe stored.
©2020 J. Lestach. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-017 104
Leštach et al, Numerical and Measurement Investigation of the Thermal Bridge Caused by the Pipe
Figure 1. Infrared image from the thermal imaging camera - the passage of the pipe through the wall into the
interior.
THE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

The purpose of this study is to show an exemplary investigation on the passage of gas pipeline through an
external wall. More details of this can be found in Tab. 1 and in the dissertation [12]. We used porous concrete
block, because it is the best-selling brick in Slovakia for a long time. With 100 mm polystyrene layer it meets
the requirement of thermal resistance for external walls. First, the course of temperature and humidity in the
structure is solved, than some variants of possible solution are proposed in order to choose the most suitable
alternative. The calculation software Cube 3D was used to assess 3D spatial details - a three-dimensional
steady-state heat and water vapor flux [13]. The program works with prism material objects. For the indoor
environment was chosen climate with an air temperature θi = 20 ° C and a slightly increased relative humidity
φi = 60%. The outside temperature was θe = -15 ° C, relative humidity was φe = 84%, which is typical for the
Zilina region. The medium (fuel gas - natural gas) has properties corresponding to its conduction in the outdoor
environment, ie natural gas after regulation from medium pressure in the winter period: -15 °C. This is the
most common and unfavorable option with regard to the transition to medium pressure pipelines.
Figure 2. Variants of gas pipe routing in a thermal insulation system with different location of the pipe
routing cavity (the thermal insulation is shown in blue).
105
Table 1. Description of construction and material solution of the wall

Num. Material d [m] λ [W/mK] ρ [kg/m3] c [J/kgK] δ .109[s]
1 Weber internal wall plaster 0.01 0.860 2000 840 0.01
2 Porous concrete block Ytong P2-400 0.30 0.108 400 1000 0.0377
3 Polystyrene Isover EPS 70F 0.10 0.039 20 1270 0.0027
4 Reinforcement grid + plater 0.01 0.8 1500 790 0.005
These are approximate values, varying according to ambient temperature, bearing depth, cable length, sunlight
exposure, operating time, etc. The lowest temperature occur at the time of heating peak by the lowest outdoor
temperatures. The advantage of the computational investigation is the possibility to observe interesting
quantities in a greater numbers of points than by measuring, respectively. The aim of the measurement in
climatic chambers was to clarify the course of temperatures and humidity in the structure in selected critical
points and that way to confirm the calculation. As before a different locations of the gas pipeline in the thermal
insulation on the facade are chosen: A) - the pipeline is on the inside of the façade thermal insulation, B) - the
pipeline is on the outside of the façade thermal insulation (Fig. 2).
THE RESULT OF CALCULATION

When we compared result of calculation for two variants of solution (Fig. 3), the most unfavorable course of
temperatures and humidity in the structure for variant A) is evident. In both cases, the surface temperature in
the interior is higher than the critical surface temperature for the formation of molds, so there is no
condensation risk on the inner surface. The temperature at the contact between masonry and insulation
decreased (compared to the case without gas pipeline in insulation θ = + 4 ° C) to the temperature in case A)
θ = -14 ° C, in case B θ = -1 ° C. At these temperatures, water vapor should be iced inside the structure in the
air cavity for the gas pipeline. The basic anticorrosive protection of the steel pipe is the primer and the top
coat. Flush-mounted pipes should have increased corrosion protection. Condensation was also calculated under
the outer plaster layer at the gas pipeline. The calculation was carried out under stationary and unfavorable
conditions. In fact, it is a state that lasts several tens of minutes, and there is no need for a critical temperature
reduction. The course of temperatures in the structure is significantly deformed along the entire length of the
pipeline (Fig.3).
A) B)
Figure 3. Results from the 3D finite element calculation variant A) and variant B).
106
A low temperature also occurred at the inlet of the duct to the interior room, by significantly cooling below
the dew point temperature (according to the resulting simulation program protocols): var. A) + 4.22 ° C; var.
B) + 8.69 ° C. In the layer of lightweight concrete masonry near the pipeline a condensation zone is created
inside the structure and the thermal insulation properties of the masonry can deteriorate.
THE MEASUREMENT RESULTS

It is not possible to make an accurate and stable adjustment of the external relative humidity at temperatures
below freezing point in the climatic chamber; in experimental measurements it varied between 84% to 93%
for variant A and 70% to 80% for variant B.
Figure 4. The temperature recordings from measurement in climate chambers for variant A.
Figure 5. The humidity recordings from measurement in climate chambers for both variants.
107
The flow of medium at -15 ° C through the pipe was performed in the experiment by a slight overpressure of
air in the external climate chamber. Temperature and humidity values on sensors outside the line of contact
with the masonry are more favorable (temperature higher by approx. 2 to 4.5 ° C) for variant B.
Temperatures for experimental measurements under the most unfavorable conditions (temperature -15 ° C,
approx. measurement) approximates the values according to computer simulation. On the experimental wall,
the surface temperature did not decrease below the dew point temperature - for variant A) + 15.5 ° C, humidity
65%, for variant B) + 17 ° C, humidity 63%.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSION

The passage of the pipe through the external wall forms a thermal bridge. It is necessary to consider and
evaluate these details systematically, similarly to other thermal bridges. This work suggests how it could looks
like. For a particular selected pipe passage, in which the medium flows through the wall, it is concluded that
for use in practice and from a thermo-physical point of view, the variant B) where the pipeline is on the outside
of the façade thermal insulation is recommend. This is for the following reasons:
1) Temperature and humidity is more favorable for variant B) for routing the pipe in the thermal insulation
groove. The area of potential water vapor condensation at the thermal insulation and masonry contact is smaller
over the entire length of the conduit in the contact thermal insulation system.
2) The temperature of the pipe and the wall near the pipe is higher for variant B), which presents a reduced
risk of water vapor condensation on the inner wall surface.
3) Pipe routing in the thermal insulation system allows ventilation of the cavity in order to comply with the
gas pipeline routing requirements in confined spaces [11].
4) No changes are necessary to allow the pipe to pass through the load-bearing masonry. Filling and sealing
the hole in the masonry around the pipe by spraying polyurethane foam positively affects the temperature
inside the masonry near the gas pipeline passage
5) The realization of pipeline routing in the contact thermal insulation system will at least increase the time
and cost of the implementation.
Although the pipeline construction is more complicated in this way, it only minimally increases the costs.
However, the heat and moisture conditions in the adjacent building structure will be significantly improved. It
is necessary to adapt to the fact that the metal pipeline is joined by welding at high temperatures, which makes
it impossible to work in the vicinity of the thermal insulation. The pipe may be welded elsewhere and inserted
into the wall and fastened through the insulation. It seems to be another problem that all pipes have to be
already introduced into the building at the beginning of façade insulation process. But the small part of an
insulation can be easily inserted under the pipe before.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been funded by the grant project VEGA No. 1/0945/16 and KEGA No. 032ŽU-4/2018.
REFERENCES
[1] Halahyja et al .: Building Thermal Technology, Acoustics and Lighting. Alfa, SNTL, Bratislava, 1985.
[2] Sternová et al .: Thermal Bridge Atlas. JAGA group. Bratislava 2006.
[3] Subrt R., Zvánovcová, Škopka: Catalog of thermal bridges. Grada 2008.
[4] Subrt R. et al. : Catalog of thermal bonds III. Isover. 2016
[5] Martin, K. & Erkoreka, A. & Flores-Abascal, Ivan & Odriozola-Maritorena, Moises & Sala, J.M.:
Problems in the calculation of thermal bridges in dynamic conditions. Energy and Buildings 43 (2011).
p. 529-535.
108
[6] Björn Berggren, Maria Wall: Calculation of thermal bridges in (Nordic) building envelopes – Risk of
performance failure due to inconsistent use of methodology. Energy and Buildings 65 (2013). p. 331-339.
[7] STN EN 12056-3 Internal sewerage. Gravity systems. Part 3: Rainwater drainage from roofs. Design and
calculation.
[8] http://www.hutterer-lechner.com/sk
[9] www.fischer-sk.sk/sk-sk
[10] Tywoniak, J. et al .: Low-energy houses 3. Zero, passive and others. Prague, Grada Publishing 2012.
[11] TPP 704 01: 2009 Gas offtake equipment for natural gas in buildings
[12] Leštach J .: Technological Principles of Transitions and Conduction Realization of Installations in Low-
Energy Buildings. Dissertation, University of Zilina, 2019
[13] Cube 3D Software Manual, http://kcad.cz/cz/stavebni-fyzika/tepelna-technika-pro-specialisty/
109
SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THE
TRANSIENT THERMAL BEHAVIOR OF THE HEATING RADIANT SLAB
Abdelatif Merabtine1, Abdelhamid Kheiri2, and Salim Mokraoui3

1
EPF School of Engineering, 2 rue Fernand Sastre, 10430, Rosières-Prés-Troyes, France, Email:
abdelatif.merabtine@epf.fr
2
LEMTA, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France, Email: abdelhamid.kheiri@univ-lorraine.fr
3College of Engineering, King Saud University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Email: smokraoui@ksa.edu.sa
ABSTRACT
Radiant floor heating systems (FHS) are considered as reliable heating systems since they ensure maintaining
inside air temperature and reduce its fluctuations more efficiently than conventional heating systems. The
presented study investigates the dynamic thermal response of an experimental FHS equipped with an anhydrite
radiant slab. A new simplified model based on an analytical correlation is proposed to evaluate the heating
radiant slab surface temperature and examine its thermal behavior under dynamic conditions. In order the
validate the developed analytical model, an experimental scenario, under transient conditions, was performed
in a monitored full-scale test cell. 2D and 3D numerical models were also developed to evaluate the accuracy
of the analytical model. The method of Design of Experiments (DoE) was used to both derive meta-models,
to analytically estimate the surface temperature, and perform a sensitivity study.
INTRODUCTION
Optimizing the building sector energy consumption has become a matter of extreme priority ensured through
several types of enhancement measures who must consider thermal comfort conditions inside the building.
Furthermore, for commercial buildings, inside thermal comfort conditions are maintained basically through
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems, where their energy consumption account for
more than 60% of the total consumption. Therefore, this high dependency on such system in order to maintain
thermal comfort conditions inside a building has drawn the attention of countless research studies aiming at
maximizing the efficiency of such systems while lowering the rate of electricity consumption.
In this context, floor heating systems (FHS) has been the subject of several studies focusing on analyzing their
effect on inside comfort conditions [Olesen, 2002], determining the factors that are influencing their
performance [Wang, 2018] as well as predicting their dynamic performance under different conditions in order
to adapt a more efficient functioning mode of such systems [Merabtine, 2013]. The main advantage of the FHS
is their ability to maintain comfortable inside air temperature degree varying between 22-26°C for the summer
season and 21-24°C for the winter season regardless of the internal loads and external climates [Werner-
Juszczuk, 2018]. Furthermore, for the case of radiant heating floors it is essential to keep the floor surface
temperature within a range of 27°C to 29°C in order to not reach overheating conditions [Zhang, 2013].
The FHS thermal behavior modeling has been an ongoing research topic for a number of years [Kollmar, 1957;
Athientis, 1997; Merabtine, 2018; Shin, 2015; Tahersima, 2018; Thomas, 2011;]. Analytical, numerical, and
simplified-model approaches have been used for this purpose. Analytical models [De Monte, 2000;
©2020 A. Merabtine. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-018 110
Merabtine et al, Title of the paper…
Holopainen 2007; Jin, 2010; Koschenz, 2000] use a detailed mathematical description of the heat transfer
process. The purpose is to derive the critical parameters, such as the surface temperature and the heat flow
rate. However, the analytical approach is less used because of the complexity of solving two-dimensional (2D)
and three-dimensional (3D) heat transfer problems under transient conditions. However, simplified semi-
analytical models, that used a hybrid numerical-analytical method, appear more favorable than analytical or
numerical approaches as they allow for a quicker evaluation of the thermal behavior of the FHS, which can
help to establish optimal design parameters in the early stages of the heating system design.
The aim of this work is to fill the gap sensed in the existing state of the art through providing a valid and
simplified calculation model of the heating anhydrite slab thermal behavior considering all primary design
parameters. The design of experiments (DoE) method is used in conjunction with the experimental data
obtained for the floor heating surface temperature and a 2D finite difference model is developed and validated.
The overall objective is to help designers to a better conception and optimization of such systems.
FULL-SCALE EXPERIMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION

As shown in Figure 1, the test cell facility is composed of two climatic chambers with an overall area of 11 m²
and a height of 2.1 m. The left chamber, called inside zone, is equipped with a floor heating system comprising
51 m of embedded cross-linked polyethylene tube placed under an anhydrite screed slab of 5 cm of thickness,
and above 6 cm of an insulation layer essentially made from wood fibers. The main purpose of this climatic
chamber is to reproduce conditions of a warm heated inside environment by means of the radiant heating floor
usage.
On the other side, the chamber in the right side, called outside zone, is equipped with a powerful cooler capable
of reproducing cold weather conditions. It must be noted that both cells of the test facility are equipped with
different HVAC systems and the majority of this system are located in the heated cell where we find radiators
and a convective radiator installed along with the radiant slab. All the HVAC systems attached to the test
facility are presented in Figure 1b. The test-cell facility is monitored by a number of sensors that are depicted
in table 1.
Data collection from measurement was performed each five minutes thanks to the acquisition system and could
be visualized over extended periods. Measurements concern namely average indoor air temperature (Ta) and
its relative humidity (RH), mean radiant temperature ( ), inlet and outlet water temperatures (Tin and
Tout), respectively, average surface temperatures (Ts) with regards to the local surface temperatures and the
total heat flux rate (ϕ) emitted by the radiant slab.
(a)
111
(b)
Figure 1. Experimental set up. (a) outside view; (b) Overall view.
Table 1. Measured parameters, sensors and equipment characteristics.

Measured parameter Number Range
outdoor RH and air temperature 1 [-50,50] °C
sensor [0,100] %
Indoor RH and air temperature 1 [-50,50] °C

Surface temperature sensor 2 [-20,100] °C
Depth temperature 2 [-20,100] °C
Mean radiant temperature 1 [-30,75] °C
Inlet and outlet water temperature 2 [-20,80]°C
Infrared thermal camera 1 [-20,150] °C
Surface heat flux meter 2 [-260, 260] mV,
Indoor RH and ambient air 1 [-50,50] °C
TRANSIENT SIMPLIFIED SEMI-ANALYTICAL MODELLING

As a heat exchanger, the FHS is considered as a water-based system that emits heat from water to ambient air
and the surroundings with a quasi-logarithmic thermal response. Therefore, its transient thermal behaviour
may be expresses using Pierson and Padet approach [Pierson, 1988], as follows:
,
(1)
, , ,
where , is the initial condition of average surface temperature; , is the average surface temperature at
the equilibrium ; τ is the time constant; and is the delay time. The values of and will be determined
using the DoE method based on the validated 2D FDM numerical model.
If we can consider the entire heat exchange between the hot water and the ambient air in the inside zone. T ,
can be calculated based on the heat energy balance as follows:
112
####
!" !$
, =% - +
$ &%'()*_" &%, &%'()
(2)
and the heat flux rate between the hot water and the cold environment can be estimated using the logarithmic
mean temperature difference:
!",( !$,( !",. !$,.
ϕ=U 1",( 1$ =234 56,4 4,7 4,8 (3)
/0
1",. 1$
:
where 9 ∑) %)
is the total heat transfer coefficient (from the hot water to the ambient air); 4,7 and 4,8 are
the inlet and the outlet hot water temperatures, respectively; ,7 and ,8 are the ambient air temperatures at
< 0 and >, respectively, both assumed equal to because of the high air volume; 234 is the water mass
flowrate; and 56,4 is the water specific heat.
From the last equation, the outlet temperature of the hot water is the following:
?@
A3" B,,"
4,8= + 4,7 - ) (4)
The temperature C of the water at position x of the pipe is given by:
?D @D
A3" B,,"
C= + 4,7 - ) (5)
where 9C and Sx are the overall heat transfer coefficient and heat exchange surface at position x of the pipe.
As a final point, integration of C over the total length of the tube > yields the average temperature of the hot
water###4#:
###4#= : FE : G
E C dx= + 4,7 - ( H
) (6)
JK
where I 3 " L,,"
.
Design of experiments (DoE) is a systematic and rigorous approach to engineering problem-solving that
applies principles and techniques, at the data collection stage, so as to ensure the generation of valid, defensible,
and supportable engineering conclusions. The benefit of using the DoE method is the provision of polynomial
statistical meta-models with correlation factors and factor interactions for all responses [Khanna, 2016]. In the
present case study, the response factors are time constant and the delay time , and the test will be conducted
using a validated 2D FDM numerical model. In previous studies [Merabtine, 2018], both 2D FDM and 3D
FVM models were developed and experimentally validated regarding the given experimental scenario to
estimate the radiant floor surface temperature and the heat flowrate under transient conditions. The FDM model
will be used hereafter to derive meta-models.
Numerous factors influencing and need to be considered: those related to the ambient air properties; the
anhydrite slab thermo-physical properties; the thermo-physical properties of the hot water; and the geometric
parameters. To simplify the process, a number of assumptions have been made as mentioned in [Merabtine,
2018]. The ambient air temperature was set between 16 °C and 28 °C. We assumed that all thermo-physical
properties remain essentially constant in this temperature range and, as a result, the heat transfer coefficients
are kept constant. Similarly, the hot water temperature was set between 27.5 °C and 31.5 °C for the given
experimental scenarios. Table 2 presents the range variation of the remaining parameters based on the
recommendations of the French standard union AFNOR as recognized by the Centre of Scientific and
Technical Building Studies.
Table 2. Variations of FHS factors influencing and

Factors influencing M and NO Labels Levels
min (-1) max (+1)
Slab thickness, e (m) A 0.04 0.06
113
Thermal conductivity of the slab, P (W.m-1.K-1) B 1.2 2.6

Slab density, Q (kg.m-3) C 1500 2500
Specific heat of the slab, RS (J.kg-1.K-1) D 1000 2000
Volume flow rate, T3 (L.s-1) E 0.02 0.06
Tube inner diameter, UV (m) F 0.012 0.02
A full factorial metamodeling plan was used to provide all the required data from the DoE. As a result, 2X
64 simulations, including all interactions between the six parameters listed in table 2, were performed. The
meta-models of and obtained by the full factorial plan are as follow:
τ 22.16 98 1.34 d 0.00006 e 0.0016 5f 23.3 g3 1257 jk 0.37 e 0.47 5f

15465 jk 0.000008 e5f 0.76 ejk 1.02 5fjk l (7)
1532 6586 342 d 0.0745 e – 0.0543 5f 3109 g3 5390 jk 6936 d 5.14 e
8.88 5f 7533 djk 9.02 5fjk 366133 g3 jk (8)
The comparison between the measured and the calculated response factors are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Calculated and measured time constant and delay time.

Parameter Measurements (s) Meta-model (s) Relative deviation (%)
Time constant M 9353 9188 1.76 %
Delay time NO 503 527 4.77 %
In Figure 2, analytical transient average surface temperature is compared to the numerical and experimental
ones. One can see the good agreement with the experimental data, as the maximum error is 1.1 °C (4%). Such
deviation is mainly due to assumption of logarithmic profile. However, given the simplicity of the model,
which represents a significant advantage when looking for fast and reliable results, it can be considered as a
useful tool for the estimation and analysis of the thermal behaviour of a radiant slab.
32
30
28
Temperature (°C)
26 Experimental
Numerical 2D
24 Numerical 3D
Semi-analytical
22
20
18
16
14
0 250 500 750 1000
Time (min)
Figure 2. Experimental, numerical and analytical average surface temperature.
114
CONCLUSION
In this study, a new simplified semi-analytical model, based on a numerical-analytical approach with a constant
and delay times is developed and validated to investigate the transient thermal behavior of an experimental
floor heating system. The simplified semi-analytical model showed a good accordance with experimental data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Grand-Est Region, Troyes Champagne Métropole, European Regional
Development Fund, and EPF Foundation.
REFERENCES
[1] Olesen, B.W., (2002): Radiant floor heating in theory and practice, ASHRAE J. 44, pg.19-24.
[2] Wang, Z., Song, M., Wang, F., Ma, Z., Lin Q., (2018): Experimental investigation and seasonal
performance assessment of a frost-free ASHP system with radiant floor heating, Energy and Buildings,
179 pg. 200–212.
[3] Merabtine, A., Benelmir, R., El Ganaoui, M., (2013): Peseudo-bond graph model for the analysis of the
thermal behaviour of buildings, Thermal Science 17, pg. 723–732.
[4] Werner-Juszczuk, A.J., (2018): Experimental and numerical investigation of lightweight floor heating
with metallised polyethylene radiant sheet, Energy and Buildings 177, pg. 23-32.
[5] Zhang, D,. Cai, N., Wang, Z., (2013): Experimental and numerical analysis of lightweight radiant floor
heating system, Energy and Buildings 61, pg. 260-266.
[6] Thomas, S., Franck, P-Y., André, P., (2011): Model validation of a dynamic embedded water base
surface heat emitting system for buildings, Building Simulation 4, pg. 41-48.
[7] Merabtine, A., Mokraoui, S., Kheiri, A., Darss, A., (2018): Experimental and multidimensional
numerical analysis of the thermal behavior of an anhydrite radiant slab floor heating system: a multi-
objective sensitivity study, Energy and Buildings 174, pg. 619-634.
[8] Shin, M., Rhee, K., Ryu, S., Yeo, M., Kim, K., (2015): Design of radiant floor heating panel in view of
floor surface temperatures, Building and Environment 92, pg. 559-577.
[9] Tahersima, M., Tikalsky, P., (2018): Experimental and numerical study on heating performance of the
mass and thin concrete radiant floors with ground source systems, Construction and Building Materials,
178, 360-371.
[10] A. Kollmar, W. Liese, (1957): Die strahlungsheizung (4th ed.), Munchen. R. Oldenbourg, 1957.
[11] Athienitis, A.K., (1997): Theoretical Investigation of thermal performance of a passive solar building
with floor radiant heating, Solar Energy, 61, pg. 337–345.
[12] De Monte, F., (2000): Transient heat conduction in one-dimensional composite slab. A ‘natural’ analytic
approach, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 43, pg. 3607-3619.
[13] Lu, X., Tervola, P., (2005): Transient heat conduction in the composite slab-analytical method, Journal
of Physics A: Mathematical and General, 38, pg. 81.
[14] M. Koschenz, B. Lehmann, (2000): Thermoaktive Bauteilsysteme Tabs, EMPAEnergiesysteme/
Haustechnik, Zurikh, 2000.
[15] Holopainen, R., Tuomaala, P., Piipo, J., (2007): Uneven gridding of thermal nodal networks in floor
heating simulations, Energy and Buildings, 39, pg. 1107-1114.
[16] Jin, X., Zhang, X., Luo, Y., (2010): A calculation method for the floor surface temperature in radiant
floor system, Energy and Buildings, 42, pg. 1753-1758.
[17] Pierson, P., Padet, J., (1988): Etude théorique et expérimentale des échangeurs thermiques
instationnaires: Simulation d’une phase de relaxation, International Journal of heat and mass Transfer
31, pg. 1577-1586.
[18] N. Khanna, (2016): Design of experiments in titanium metal cutting research, Springer, 2016.
115
THE ENVIRONMETAL ASPECT OF ETICS REGULAR
MAINTENANCE
Katarína Minarovičová1
1
Department of Building Constructions, STU Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Radlinského 11, 810
05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: katarina.minarovicova@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
Most of current External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) is protected from microbial attack
by use of biocides mostly in base or finish coat/paint however this protection is time limited. Leaching of
these biocides is not controlled yet. There are various studies [1-5] examining possibilities of collecting and
processing the wastewater, the others try to find out new bio-biocides without negative effects on the
environment. Another point of view is regular maintenance of ETICS surface that is one of the most
important factors of prevention of biocorrosion. The technology includes biocide decontamination processes,
mechanical cleaning, rinsing of surface by a pressure cleaner and a preventive coating with a biocidal
preparation. In this maintaining process, ambient environments are loaded with running water with
detergents which are usually based on heavy metals. System designed to collect wastewater from the cleaned
surface is currently considered as the most effective way to reduce unwanted effects of biocidal substances
on the environment throughout the whole lifespan of ETICS.
INTRODUCTION
Evaluation of environmental effect of construction industry is an extensive issue dealt with by many
researchers and companies. It is important to take into account the whole lifespan of biocides. Use of
biocides and their presence in the natural environment can affect fauna and flora even at low concentrations
[1-3]. Latest research studies confirmed that substances released from facades and buildings can be
transported, accumulated, degraded, and also up taken by living organisms, including humans [6]. According
to research on toxicity of building materials [7] combination of physical and chemical properties of
construction elements with their treatment - e.g. biocides - may result in creation of more dangerous
substances than the parent compounds and can also interact with other agents. The goal of current
architecture is to use resources more efficiently and to reduce a building's negative impact on the
environment. However, many of the chemicals used in construction products have not undergone a risk
assessment and assessment techniques are still developing.
Set of regulations and procedures has been created in the EU region to control and regulate use of
chemicals (not only) in building industry. There are four most important regulations that have been
introduced to ensure the free transfer of chemicals in the European Union and to ensure high level of
protection for human health and the environment:
• REACH - Regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemical
Substances;
• CLP - Regulation on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and mixtures;
• BPR - Biocidal Products Regulation;
• PIC - Prior Informed Consent Regulation (concerning the export and import of hazardous chemicals)
The Biocidal Product Regulation (BPR, Regulation (EU) 528/2012) concerns the placing on the market and
use of biocidal products, which are used to protect humans, animals, materials or articles against harmful
©2020 K. Minarovicova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-019 116
Minarovičová, Environmental aspect of ETICS maintenance
organisms, like pests or bacteria, by the action of the active substances contained in the biocidal product.
This regulation aims to improve the functioning of the biocidal products market in the EU, while ensuring a
high level of protection for humans and the environment. It repealed the Biocidal Products Directive
(Directive 98/8/EC). The "polluter pays" principle is becoming a common policy according to Directive
2004/35/CE on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental
damage and according to Regulation (EU) No 1062/2014.
In context of regular ETICS maintenance in Slovakia it is very important to follow a law regarding water (In
Slovakia – Act No. 409/2014 based on the Directive 2006/118/EC on the protection of groundwater against
pollution and deterioration and Directive 2014/80/EU amending Annex II to Directive 2006/118/EC).
According to current regulations it is obligatory to ensure protection of the environment (mostly soil, water
and flora) against chemically contaminated water being leached during the cleaning and treatment of ETICS.
This fact is very often neglected by owners and building/facility managers.
Figure 1. Typical sign of contamination by biocorrosion - local contamination show process of water run-off
on façade and failures of metal flashigs.
BASIC RULES OF REGULAR ETICS MAINTENANCE

Maintenance cycle in order to prevent biocorrosion is recommended in 3 to 5 year intervals, depending on
various factors. Expected lifespan of ETICS according to (ETAG 2004) is 25-30 years. It means that disposal
of wastewater during cleaning occurs at least 4 to 5 times during the entire lifespan of ETICS [8].
First step is visual and laboratory assessment of the severity of the ETICS technical condition that results in
decision for the choice of recovery. Diagnosis of building construction is carried out by visual, basic,
preliminary or detailed surveys, at which the procedure and extent is not mandatory, there are several
methods used:
 non-destructive (indirect) - minimum damage, or no damage at all of strata of thermal
insulation composite system. These methods include visual assessment and determination of the
area of biocorrosion, evaluation of the samples of biological material by dross, laboratory
cultivation of biological material, measure the size of the cracks, measuring humidity,
absorbability, temperature displaying, acidity test.
 destructive (direct) - these methods require structural failure of ETICS construction. The most
common way is to carry out a probe in order to verify the composition of strata and the
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technology of recovery, laboratory verification of physical properties, in particular of plasters,

and also verification the presence and penetration of biological organisms into strata.
The proper assessment of the condition of ETICS based on its complex diagnosis results in a decision for the
most effective technology for its treatment. The basic conceptual design of disposal of micro-organisms and
their prevention is based on laboratory examination of types of micro-organisms and their degradation
effects. Disposal technology is therefore considered as operational technology, with direct mechanical and
chemical intervention to minimize further colonization of surfaces [9]. In terms of affecting the original
layers of ETICS the disposal technology may be:
• conservative (technology with minimal intervention to the original strata of ETICS)
• radical (technology with mechanical intervention to the original strata of ETICS).
Conservative technology means decontamination and repair or maintenance, as part of secondary prevention.
The principle of this technology is combination of mechanical and chemical action; in fact it means an
effective way of cleaning. This type of technology is considered as a barrier protection of ETICS surface.
The technology requires periodicity over the life cycle of ETICS. However, in the case of failure of adhesion
of strata, reduction of mechanical or physical properties of ETICS, decrease of plaster hydrophobicity, or
lack of thermal properties of ETICS or penetration of micro-organisms into the layers of insulation- then it is
appropriate to consider radical technologies such as recovery - replacement and completion of insulation
layers (finishing or insulation with new plaster) or total replacement of insulation. By combining several
techniques, it is possible to achieve the desired effect in all of stages of bio-corrosion severity. Regular
cleaning, sealing of joints and cracks, and regular monitoring of the ETICS condition are the most important
measures for biodegradation prevention [9].
Figure 2. Taking of samples with sampling tape (Fungitape) from the surface of contaminated plaster [10].
Figure 3. Sampling by tape from the strata under the plaster [10]. Sampling must be complemented by
samples of surrounding facades- for comparison.
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LEACHING OF CONTAMINATED WATER

Basic rules for cleaning surface of ETICS contaminated by microorganisms implies, that the most optimal
time interval for application of the product is when the algae and microorganisms go through vegetation
period, spring and fall [8]. The disposal of microorganisms can be realized within of the building options and
the site construction from scaffolding, or from the assembly platform. Construction site must include source
water designed to rinse surface of the façade and also electrical energy source. Construction site also must
include collecting mechanisms for runoff water with applied active substance according to the legislation.
Collected wastewater must be drained into collecting tanks, which need to be always accessible on the
construction site. Contaminated water must be disposed of according to legislation in force. It is
unacceptable to drain the contaminated water with active chemical substance into a sewage system without
the permission of the canalisation network administrator. The drainage system has to be designed with regard
to the amount of water required for washing and regular cleaning of the facade.
Figure 4. Example of leaching systems according to [12]: a) easy operational temporary solution with
absorbing mats (they must be treated as hazardous waste; there is a risk of leaching of liquid into the
ground), b) gutter leaching system as temporary structure, c) line drainage channels as permanent structure
that is part of the building design.
According to [12] there are more ways of disposal of contaminated water drained from the façade- one of
them is gutter leaching system as temporary structure (Fig. 4b) or line drainage channels as permanent
structure as a part of the building design (Fig.4c). Use of Both systems must be taken into account already
during project phase of renovation or new construction with ETICS. The simplest way is use of absorbing
mats (Fig. 4a) however it is less effective and there is a danger of leaching the wastewater into the ground.
Another approach of environment protection during ETICS maintenance is based on operational and
easy applicable system designed in [13]. The authors invented an easy operative system with use of portable
gutters laid on wooden or concrete pads of different sizes that produce decline of the gutter and so enable
leaching contaminated water to collection tank. Waterproof membrane of about 1m width must be used in
order to ensure safe leaching of water to the gutter (Fig. 5). Collection of wastewater can be provided by
gravity or by pumping with small submersible pump into a collection tank. The advantage of this system is
its easy application and multi usability with reduced capital costs of the maintenance. System designed to
collect wastewater from the cleaned surface is considered an effective way to reduce unwanted effects of
biocidal substances on the environment throughout the whole lifespan of ETICS.
The comparison of investment costs therefore confirmed [13] that after multiple uses, the cost of the
operational solution is much lower. The high costs of planned drainage systems are mainly influenced by the
cost of the collection tank that needs to be connected to the system and placed underground. Case study [13]
showed that ninety percent of water used for cleaning of the ETICS can be collected. This solution seems to
be very effective and easy applicable alternative system.
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1.WORKING SECTION 2.WORKING SECTION
Figure 5. Proposal of temporary solution for leaching of contaminated water [13]: a) temporary leaching
system (detail in a plinth) b) view: 1. wooden (concrete) pads, 2. collecting inclined gutter,
3. membrane attached to the object, 4. collecting container for contaminated waste water, 5.
collecting tank for pumping water, 6. pump
CONCLUSIONS
Uncontrolled leaching of the used biocides is unacceptable. Leaching should be predictable, regulated and
the amount of leached compounds comparable. New knowledge on compounds behaviour in leachates
should be incorporated in legislation and in new technologies for prevention and remediation of facades with
biocorrosion on ETICS. One of the possibilities is use of biological biocides (enzymes, parasites, plants etc.).
Finally, biocides used for the protection of facades should be non-persistent, non-bio accumulative and non-
toxic to organisms. However, the residues of some biocides can be more toxic than parental compounds and
it is not exactly known yet how some of them behave in mixtures with other chemicals [7]. In the case we
can´t avoid use of biocides based on heavy metals it is inevitable to control the release of biocides and its
transport to surface and groundwater.
The concept of a safe drain of chemicals leaching from the facade must take into account building structural
system of the building, perimeter wall construction, the purpose of the building, arrangement of house
surroundings, financial and technological context of bio corrosion elimination.
REFERENCES
[1] Coutu, S., Rota, C., Rossi L., Barry, D.A. (2012): Modelling city-scale facade leaching of biocide by
rainfall, Water Research, 46, pg. 3525-34.
[2] Wittmer, I.K., Scheidegger, R., Stamm, C., Gujer, W., Bader, H.P. (2011): Modelling biocide leaching
from facades, Water Research, 45, pg. 3453-3460.
[3] Hensen, B., Lange, J., Jackisch, N., Zieger, F.,Olsson, O., Kümmerer, K. (2018): Entry of biocides and
their transformation products into groundwater via urban stormwater infiltration systems, Water
Research 144, pg. 413-423.
[4] https://www.concawe.eu/publications/articles/
[5] OECD Environment, Health and Safety Publications Series on Testing and Assessment, Guidance
document on aqueous-phase aquatic toxicity testing of difficult test chemicals No. 23OECD No 23,
2000 2nd edition 2018
[5] Kobetičová, K., Černý, R. (2017): Ecotoxicology of building materials: A critical review of recent
studies, Journal of Cleaner Production 165, pg. 500-508.
[7] Pacheco-Torgal, F. et al (2012): Toxicity of Building Materials, Woodhead Publishing, ISBN 978-0-
85709-122-2
120
[8] Antošová, N. (2015): The methodology for the selection of technology for eliminating microorganisms
on the ETICS, Czech Journal of Civil Engineering 1, pg. 6-14.
[9] Antošová, N., Minarovičová, K. (2016): The methodology for the selection of technologies for the
removal of microorganisms from ETICS, Applied Mechanics and Materials, 820, pg. 200-205.
[10] Antošová, N., Minarovičová, K. (2016): Investigation of technical condition of external thermal
insulation composite system with microbial attack, PBE 2016, pg. 212-220.
[11] Švajlenka, J. et al. (2017): Assessment and biomonitoring indoor environment of buildings,
International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 27, pg. 427-439.
[12] Minarovičová, K., Dlhý, D. (2017): Environmentally safe system for treatment of bio corrosion of
ETICS, MATEC Web of Conferences 146, Building Defects 2017, 03005.
[13] Antošová N., Belániová B., Chamulová B., Janušová K., Takács, J. (2018): The protection of
environment during cleaning ETICS with biocides, Advances and Trends in Engineering Sciences and
Technologies III, ESaT 2018, Elsevier B.V., pg. 281-286.
121
LIFE-CYCLE AND HYGROTHERMAL BASED OPTIMIZATION OF
INSULATION FILLED MASONRY BLOCKS
Balázs Nagy1, Alberto Quintana Gallardo2, and Zsuzsa Szalay1

1
Department of Construction Materials and Technologies, Budapest University of Technology and
Economics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Műegyetem rkp. 3, 1111 Budapest, Hungary, Email:
nagy.balazs@epito.bme.hu, szalay.zsuzsa@epito.bme.hu
2
Centre for Physics Technologies, Universitat Politècnica de València, Av. de Los Naranjos, 46022
Valencia, Spain, Email: alquigal@upv.es
ABSTRACT
Fired clay masonry blocks are one of the most common building elements in Europe to construct thermal
envelopes of buildings. However, due to current energy performance requirements, thermal insulation of
buildings has become inevitable. Brick producers, therefore, started to develop their products and, as a possible
solution, they come up with thermal insulation filled masonry blocks, which meet the energy performance
requirements without the need of additional external insulation. However, there is still considerable potential
left in the available range of these bricks to improve their hygrothermal performance. In our research, we
connected building physical simulations with life-cycle assessment through a gradient-free geometry
optimization method (COBYLA) to obtain better masonry blocks. We performed heat and moisture transfer
(HAM) simulations while optimizing the internal geometry of the blocks within the given constraints regarding
to manufacturability, and minimized heat losses as well as 50-year CO2 emission as objectives in the process.
We tested the optimization process with mineral wool filled blocks and considered Hungarian climate. The
main achievement of the research is that we found new internal geometry designs for insulation filled masonry
blocks, which have significantly less thermal transmittance and lower global warming potential of the assumed
50 years of service life than the reference design, while also could be manufactured in current production lines
as well.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the design of new masonry blocks is still based mostly on manual drawings and despite significant
progress achieved over the recent decade; the state of the art research in this area relies mostly on heuristic
rather than on systematic methodology [Idan and Feldman, 2017]. The thermal performance of prototype
masonry blocks is then usually tested in laboratory or evaluated by thermal simulations one by one, and then
compared together to see which newly designed geometry alternative performs the best. As revealed by the
scientific literature review, there is no useful and algorithm based masonry block design and optimization
method published yet. Many publications claiming that an optimization of the geometry of hollow or filled
masonry blocks is performed, these optimizations are usually done manually by the authors, and on few
samples of bricks only. Algorithm based numerical optimization is rarely found in the scientific literature of
masonry, although, geometrical optimization can be found in other, mostly electrical or mechanical
engineering applications [Pánek et al, 2019, Orosz, 2019, Orosz et al, 2017]. Among the first applications on
masonry, in 2010, researchers used hybrid genetic algorithm combined with artificial neural network to
optimize the geometry of concrete hollow bricks [Sun et al. 2010]. They used Fluent to simulate steady-state
thermal transfer in bricks. With their two-step method, they achieved almost 22% reduction in the equivalent
©2020 B. Nagy. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-020 122
Nagy et al, Life-cycle and hygrothermal based optimization of insulation filled masonry blocks
thermal conductivity, compared to the reference block. Topological optimization of internal geometry of
building blocks was presented a year later with genetic algorithms [Sousa et al, 2011]. In the paper, lightweight
concrete blocks were optimized by minimizing their thermal transmittance by determining the optimum values
of a finite number of parameters that define the position, the size and the spacing of the holes within the block.
The holes were assumed to be rectangular and arranged in a regular mesh, either aligned or staggered. In 2013,
Italian researchers presented a topology optimization approach of the internal geometry of masonry blocks,
resulted in non-trivial brick layouts [Bruggi and Taliercio, 2013]. These layouts depended strongly on the
design constraints, and most of the result cases were hardly constructible because the walls between holes were
very thin, or the internal holes were too narrow in some places to fill them with additional thermal insulations.
Topological optimization is used mainly early in the design phase, when lots of analyses are needed and the
final design is not yet constrained by any parameters.
In 2018, a numerical optimization methodology on the internal geometry optimization of thermal insulation
filled masonry blocks was presented, which methodology forms the basis of this paper [Nagy 2018]. In the
presented research, we constructed a new and extended method, which based on hygrothermal numerical
simulations and derivative-free constrained numerical optimization. The goal was to find a better masonry
geometry, which results in lower thermal transmittance compared to the existing reference insulation filled
block, hence, it will result a lower life-cycle carbon-dioxide emission as well.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The optimized masonry block presented in this paper is based on a mineral wool filled masonry block used as
a starter block [Wienerberger, 2017]. The thickness of the block is 26 cm, it contains four rows with 40 mm
thick and 68 or 114 mm wide rectangular shaped mineral wool insulated holes. Between insulation filled holes,
horizontally there are 18 mm thick, and vertically there are 20 mm thick ceramic walls. The block is 50 cm
wide and 24.9 cm high, i.e. this block is twice as long as the usual masonry blocks in the market. This special
masonry block is usually used in footings of buildings, and it is selected for research because of its special
structure (4 filled hollows in each of the 4 rows). Standard 44 cm thick masonry blocks only have two filled
hollows, which are quite easy to optimize even manually, and have odd number of rows (7), which makes
unpleasant to find a matching pattern during the optimization process. The geometry and the model is shown
in Fig. 1. The model was simplified by neglecting the one tongue-and-groove connection on the sides.
Figure 1. Reference mineral wool filled masonry block geometry [Wienerberger, 2017] and its model.
The schematic flow chart of the numerical optimization process is illustrated in Fig. 2. Gradient-free
optimization can find the constrained design variables that have the minimal or maximal objective function
without knowing the gradient of the objective function. It should be used, when the objective function and/or
the constraints are scalar and non-differentiable, and in case of geometry optimization, which needs re-
meshing. The disadvantage of the gradient-free methods is that the number of variables could increase the
optimization time exponentially. In this case, searching for an optimum internal geometry needs re-meshing
in each optimization step, therefore gradient-free methods provide possible options only. 1st order approximate
gradient methods are Nelder-Mead [Nelder and Mead, 1964] and constrained optimization by linear
123
approximation (COBYLA) methods [Powell, 1994]. Both can take the constraints into consideration. Nelder-
Mead method constructs a simplex and improves the worst point, while COBYLA constructs a linear
approximant, by using a unique linear polynomial, to the objective function. Powell presented, that Nelder-
Mead algorithm can find the least value of a function incorrectly in case of convex objective function [Powell,
2007]. Therefore, in the presented research, COBYLA was used to perform geometry optimization of a
selected thermal insulation filled masonry block.
Figure 2. Schematic flow chart of the numerical optimization process.
Our goal of the optimization was to minimize the solution, and the objective function was the heat flux
magnitude measured by a boundary probe on the internal surface of the plastered masonry block. The variables
were the horizontal dimensions of the insulation filled hollows, as shown by Fig. 1, while the thickness of the
insulations were constant 40 mm, assuming that the MW insulation is cut from 40 mm thick boards. In this
study, the simplified model had 20 mm insulating plaster on the external side and 15 mm gypsum plaster on
its internal side. There are 64 variables (A1 to H4) describing the lengths of the insulation fillers’ sides
perpendicular to the heat source. However, these variables are set to be identical to each other in patterns
shown by Table 1 to reduce the number of variables to 8, because COBYLA optimization is reasonable only
under 9 variables according to [Powell, 2007].
Table 1. Variables and bounds of the presented optimization cases.

Case name Variables Bounds
min: 40
1-ABAB
max: 120
A1=C4=E1=G4, A2=C3=E2=G3, A3=C2=E3=G2, A4=C1=E4=G1 min: 50
2-ABAB
B1=D4=F1=H4, B2=D3=F2=H3, B3=D2=F3=H2, B4=D1=F4=H1 max: 150
min: 60
3-ABAB
max: 180
min: 40
4-ABBA
max: 120
A1=D4=E1=H4, A2=D3=E2=H3, A3=D2=E3=H2, A4=D1=E4=H1 min: 50
5-ABBA
B1=C4=F1=G4, B2=C3=F2=G3, B3=C2=F3=G2, B4=C1=F4=G1 max: 150
min: 60
6-ABBA
max: 180
In the presented study, conjugated heat and moisture (HAM) simulation and its material properties were set
according to [Nagy and Stocker, 2019] and performed in software Comsol Multiphysics 5.4. Boundary
conditions were set based to heating season averages in Budapest, Hungary. Heat and moisture transfer
coefficients were based on EN 15026:2007 standard. The external temperature was set to θe = 3.92 °C and the
relative humidity was φe = 70% and the internal temperature was set to θi = 20 °C and the internal relative
humidity was φi = 44%. The wind speed was set to 1.58 m/s to obtain the moisture transfer coefficient of the
external surface. After the HAM simulation based numerical optimization performed, a life-cycle analysis
124
(LCA) was conducted to compare the reference and the best optimized masonry blocks together consisting
fired clay and mineral wool materials.
Firstly, an inventory analysis based on the components of the blocks has been performed following the
framework provided by ISO 14040:2006 standard. The objective of an inventory analysis is to account for
every activity, raw material and process that can impact the environment. For that purpose, reliable data has
been collected to describe the mentioned model. The tool used to model the Life Cycle Inventory is the
software Simapro 8.3.1. In relation to the geographical representativeness, the energy and production data used
is adapted to Hungary, and when not possible, to the European market. The data used to conduct this study is
extracted from the Ecoinvent V3 database. It compiles real data about the impacts generated by every industry
field with over 14700 LCI datasets. The peer review process that every piece of data undergoes before being
approved as a part of the database makes it a highly reliable source [Pascual-González et al, 2016].
The allocation principle used for this study is Allocation at Point of substitution (APOS). This system model
is an answer to the challenge of allocating materials that require further treatment before being valuable
[Wernet et al., 2016]. To tackle the problem, the APOS model uses system expansion to include the treatment
processes needed by the mentioned by-products. This model is chosen for this particular study to avoid the
allocation within the treatment processes and replace it by system expansion. Therefore, it is considered to be
the most appropriate one in this specific case. Among all the available methods for performing the life cycle
assessment IPCC GWP 100a was selected and used for calculating the greenhouse gas emissions (equivalent
CO2 kg) emitted by fired clay and mineral wool materials during their production, use phase and their end of
life. For the masonry blocks, their service life is assumed to be 50 years, therefore, the energy demand
generated by the transmission losses through an unit surface of façade built of the reference and the optimized
masonry blocks were calculated on this basis, assuming standard Hungarian heating season lengths (4400 h)
and temperature differences (16 K). The heating system was assumed to be a condensing gas boiler system
(0.203 equivalent CO2 kg/kWh). After its use phase, despite of the possibility of using these materials as
concrete aggregate once they reach their end of life, for this study, and because using them as aggregate is not
the current common practice, it is assumed, that they would be landfilled. To model the landfilling, it has been
considered that the façades were built in the city of Budapest, Hungary; therefore, assigning the impacts related
to transportation to the landfill in accordance to it.
RESULTS
Before the optimization process started, a steady-state conjugated heat and moisture transfer simulation with
the initial geometry was performed. Only rectangular MW filled hollows were in the initial geometry, the filled
hollows were either 68 mm x 40 mm or 114 mm x 40 mm. The initial finite element mesh consisted of 15756
triangle elements, 8038 mesh vertices with the average element quality if 0.91. The initial simulation results
are presented in Fig. 3. Temperature distribution and heat flux magnitudes in the masonry block shows that
the ceramic structure, which is perpendicular to the internal (and external) side of the wall construction and
parallel to the inward heat flux are the key in the hygrothermal evaluation of the blocks. Heat flux magnitudes
are significantly larger in these parts of the blocks. Relative humidity is between 40% and 80% in the
construction. It is visible, that in the external sides of the insulation filler, higher relative humidity occurs than
in the filler at the internal side. Fired clay is a capillary active material, but also has significantly higher water
vapor diffusion resistance factor, than mineral wool. The U-value of the reference block was 0.24 W/m2K.
Figure 3. Temperature, RH, heat and moisture flux distributions of the selected reference block.
125
After the initial simulation was done, the optimization process is performed on the presented six cases. The
results shown by Fig. 4. demonstrates, that COBYLA optimization algorithm is applicable to obtain lower U
values of masonry blocks during an automated design process. Fig. 4. also shows how many steps of
optimization the algorithm needed to find the optimum and the achieved U values. It is clearly visible, that the
selection of the variables and bounds has impact on the process time and number of optimization steps too.
Figure 4. Schematic flow chart of the numerical optimization process.
The best case was 6-ABBA with 60/180 bounds are shown by Fig. 5. Although some results are close to each
other, the ABBA variable program won over the others by having U = 0.193 W/mK, which means that the
thermal transmittance of the initial block was improved by 19.5%. Besides the main objective of decreasing
thermal transmittance of the masonry blocks, there is also visible difference in the heat flux and moisture flux
magnitudes across the sections of the optimized blocks compared to the initial one. It is clear, that in the thinner
internal ceramic parts between the insulation fillers, the heat flux is lower than in case of the initial geometry.
Figure 5. Temperature, relative humidity, heat flux and moisture flux magnitudes of 6-ABBA.
The results of LCA shows, that based on the presented methodology, the embodied equivalent CO2 content of
1 kg fired clay in Hungary is 0.244 kg, and for mineral wool it is 1.33 kg. Since both the reference and the
optimized masonry blocks contains same amount of material (9.45 kg/m2 of mineral wool and 197.84 kg/m2
of fired clay) but in different geometrical shape, both mineral wool filled masonry blocks’ embodied equivalent
CO2 content is 6.79 kg/block. The transmission losses of 1 m2 façade built using the reference masonry blocks
is 16.9 kWh, while the optimized block is only 13.6 kWh. Based on these results, 1 m2 worth of masonry
block’s equivalent CO2 content including the use phase with the assumed 50-year service life is 225.82 kg for
the reference block and 192.36 kg for the optimized block. The results show that the 50-year CO2 emission is
reduced by 14.8% because of the obtained new optimized internal geometry. In future perspectives, decreasing
and optimizing the amount of fired clay in masonry blocks will lead to more sustainable solutions, because the
mineral wool filler was representing only the 23.13% of the embodied equivalent CO2 content of the blocks.
CONCLUSIONS
We constructed an automated design method, which based on hygrothermal numerical simulations and
derivative-free constrained optimization by linear approximation to obtain new masonry block geometries with
126
lower thermal transmittances than the reference geometry. We have designed thermal insulation filled masonry
blocks based on a 26 cm thick and 50 cm wide initial block and achieved 19.5% reduction in the U-value with
the presented bounds and constraints. Our study showed that the new, optimized masonry geometry would
save 14.8% of the equivalent CO2 emissions during the 50-year average service life of being built into a
masonry façade. Applying an optimization method in masonry block design leads to more energy efficient and
sustainable structures, even when same amount of raw materials is used without increasing production cost.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Project FK 128663 has been implemented with the support provided from the National Research, Development
and Innovation Fund of Hungary, financed under the FK_18 funding scheme. Support of grant BME FIKP-
VÍZ by EMMI is kindly acknowledged.
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the thermal point of view using a genetic algorithm, Construction and Building Materials 25, pg. 2254–
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127
DESIGN ASSESSMENT OF PITCHED ROOFS WITH HEAVY
STRUCTURE USING THE CTF METHOD
Ing. Ondřej Pilný1, and Ing. Lubor Kalousek, Ph.D.2
1
Institute of Building Structures, Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří
331/95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Email: pilny.o@fce.vutbr.cz
2
Institute of Building Structures, Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří
331/95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Email: kalousek.l@fce.vutbr.cz
KEYWORDS
Pitched concrete roof, mass materials, impact of material density on indoor environment, problems with wrong
usage of the mass pitched roof concept, CTF method
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, very strict thermal and technical requirements for thermal insulation of passive building envelopes
are imposed and thus, individual structures need to fulfil severe technical criteria. In order to comply with the
passive energy standard in the Czech Republic, heat flow losses in buildings need to be minimized and the air
tightness of their envelopes has to be kept between n50 < 0.6/hour. This can be achieved by using thermal
insulation materials of considerable thickness and complete airtight sealing of structures, both on the surface
and in critical details. However, meeting these requirements might cause problems in the summer months when
interiors tend to overheat, reducing users´ general thermal comfort as well as thermal stability of the building.
This may be solved by using natural or forced ventilation which is, nevertheless, very often rather inconvenient
to operate and generally requires a lot of space. Thus, the best way to improve thermal stability is to improve
the properties of the structure itself, especially of the roofing which is frequently a source of problems.
Therefore, it is advisable to focus on increasing the specific heat capacity and choosing a construction material
with the highest possible weight. This will delay the rise in temperature over time by increasing thermal
damping time and finally lead to increased interior temperature stability. However, the increase in energy
which is needed to increase the temperature of the shell is closely connected with the risk of accumulation of
heat gains. This is considered to be a potentially undesirable effect which may significantly reduce users´
thermal comfort. This paper aims to address this particular issue, focusing especially on the incorrect
application of used systems and inappropriate conception of internal operation. The paper introduces an
idealized experimental model computed by the CTF method (Conduction Transfer Functions) which was used
to compare material shells and traditional structures as well as to assess the influence of orientation of material
shells to the cardinal points on accumulation of temperature gains in the structure.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, there is a growing demand for energy savings in the usage of both family houses and civic
amenities. This requirement can be found not only in ever more stringent national standards, but also, for
example in a Directive of the European Parliament [1]. Values of the heat transfer coefficient which are
recommended for flat and sloping roofs of passive building show a 37-48% increase in requirements compared
to the required values [2]. When designing passive houses, the project must therefore impose great technical
requirements on all aspects of the building. The solution is the use of thermal insulation systems characterized
in particular by high thicknesses associated with increased technical requirements. The trend of nowadays
architecture is an increasing share of glazed areas, which have major influence on the thermal stability of rooms
not only in winter, but especially in summer. The problem of passive buildings is the formation of the interior
©2020 O. Pilny. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-021 128
Design Assessment of Pitched Roofs with Heavy Structure Using the CTF Method
overheating due to the lack of understanding of the internal operation, which is enhanced by high-quality heat-
exchange structures and the airtightness of the envelope (n50 < 0.6/h).
The easiest principle of decreasing the temperature is to increase the frequency of air exchange in the room.
However, this method is often inappropriate and inadequate for passive buildings, where it would be necessary
to keep the windows and other openings open for almost the entire evening (22:00-6:00). This method is
therefore very unsuitable for the users. Another way is to install an HVAC unit, but this measure increases the
energy performance of the building. Therefore, the most suitable way to improve thermal stability is to improve
the properties of the roof cladding itself, especially the specific heat capacity (1).
= /( ) (1)
∆
Where c – specific heat capacity, Q – heat needed to heat the body [J], m – mass of the body [kg], Δt –
temperature calculated from the equation Δt = t2 – t1 [C°], t2 – final body temp., t1 – initial body temp.
In particular, the construction of pitched roofs and roofs in general is a decisive factor in dealing with this
issue, given the almost constant exposure to solar gains. It’s therefore apparent that to increase this capacity
it’s advisable to select the construction material with the weight as high as possible. Thanks to this option, it’s
necessary to supply more energy to the structure and thus delay the temperature increase over time by
increasing the thermal decay time, which according to physical laws will result in an increase of the indoor
environment temperature stability in winter and summer. The main advantage of the heavy-structure roofs is
therefore the increase of this capacity and also the elimination of the problems associated with airtightness of
the building envelope in the roof structure. They seem to be an ideal element for passive building, or for solving
problems with interior overheating. However, the increase in energy required to raise temperature of the roof
structure is associated not only with the risk of higher moisture storage in the material than, for example, wood
elements usually used on sloping roofs, but also with the potential problem of heat gain accumulation. These
are potentially undesirable effects associated with the possibility of failure, thermal bridges and possible
deterioration of the user’s thermal comfort.
OBJECTIVES
The aim of the present study is to describe the problems that arise from misunderstanding of used systems and
poor conception of internal operation. Using an idealized computational experimental model, a comparison of
heavy-structure sheaths with commonly used structures was carried out, as well as the effect of orientation
towards the cardinal points in terms of the accumulation of temperature gains in the structure.
CALCULATION MODEL AND SIMULATION

For the simulation a real object located near Brno was used (see Figure 1). The building is made of aerated
concrete and has a sloping roof of material character. For calculation itself the living room with the roof in
question was chosen with parameters, see Table.1.
Table 1. Area and material specifications

Floor Int. walls Ext.walls Int. doors Roof window Window Roof cladding
A [m2] 85.73 85.1445 82.3875 7.625 5.12 15.6125 82.3
U W/(m2K)] 0.158 0.65 0.156 2.7 1.68 0.781 See comp. A/B
Volume of the room in question (1.08+1.03) 400.564 m3, window G-value g=0.54
Geometry and Specifications. In order to express the influence of the material cladding, a comparison was
made with the traditional composition of the cladding, which is commonly used in the Czech Republic, see
Table 2.
Table 2. Specification of roof composition
Subject composition U [W/(m2.K)] C [J/(kgK)] s[kg/m2]
A – Aerated concrete blocks 0.112 585.73 170.84
B – Wooden roof truss + rafters insulation 0.165 284.27 43.60
Boundary Conditions. Interior conditions based on average values for indoor temperature, relative humidity,
heating method, ventilation intensity, indoor humidity sources, pressure surcharge and temperature gradient
typical for living rooms of family houses were used for the calculation. The exterior is Brno, temperature
129
area 2 with altitude = 262.000 m a.s.l. The parameters of the external environment were obtained from the
monitoring system ASHRAE/IWEC – Brno Tuřany (see Figure 2.).
Figure 1. Ground Plan of 1st Floor and Section of object A-A´ of family house [3]
Figure 2. ASHRAE/IWEC data for Brno – Tuřany 2018 [4]
Model and Idealization. All rooms related to the operation of the building were included in the calculation.
Given the complexity of the calculation, idealizations were made in sense of not including structures directly
related to the potential exchange of heat flow (see Figure 3.). The internal operation is considered according
to the model situation typical for family houses.
Figure 3. Idealized Computational and Assessment Zone – constructed in Design Builder [5]
Calculation Model. The state of thermal stability of the indoor environment is simulated and modelled by a
dynamic method for thermal stability, thus a method taking into account all influences on the resulting state of
the examined space over time. The method includes the influence of climatic conditions, changes of material
characteristics, heat accumulation etc. in the calculation. The program Design Builder was used to build the
numerical model. The simulation is performed by a set of interconnected differential equations of the CTF
(Conduction Transfer Functions [6]) method and the NSGA-II algorithm that converges and evaluates the
solution suitably and quickly. The CTF method is given by equation (2).
130
´´ ( )= , − , (2)
!" !"
Where qko density of humidity flow [kg/(m2s)], To exterior thermodynamic temperature [K], Ti interior
thermodynamic temperature [K], t used time step, XY response factors, coefficient of method CTF, j#
coefficient of CTF flow.
Simulation. To determine the influence of the material envelope in the impact of the internal environment
state, a calculation was performed for two situations with two variants of the roof composition (A and B). In
the first situation, the object is turned unfavourably towards the sunlit sides with a 40° offset from the North
(real state). In the second situation, the object was rotated sharply towards the sunlit sides to maximize solar
gains with a 220° offset from the North. In both cases, the same operation, the ventilation intensity and the
same usage of the interior are considered.
INTERNAL ENVIROMENT RESULT

For simulation, Air (Air [°C]) Radiant (Rad. [°C]) and Operative temperature (Ope. [°C]) was observed.
Low Solar Gains (LSG). This simulation represents the actual state of the building in which the roof
composition A is currently used. In real and traditional/comparative composition, it’s possible to observe
almost identical temperatures (Table 3.) in both winter and summer months, when there are differences
especially in the rate of rise and fall of temperatures. However, this doesn’t have a significant effect on the
overall condition of interior see Figure 4.
Table 3. Rotation 40° from North – Results

Composition Average Values per 1/10 Year
Air [°C] 14.88 17.80 19.42 30.60 32.89 28.82 28.40 22.15 17.71 15.87
Composition
Rad. [°C] 14.47 18.34 20.22 31.55 34.32 30.69 30.03 22.83 17.93 15.50
A
Ope. [°C] 14.67 18.07 19.82 30.80 33.61 29.75 29.22 22.49 17.82 15.69
Air [°C] 14.84 17.79 19.35 30.17 33.11 28.51 28.12 22.04 17.61 15.79
Composition
Rad. [°C] 14.27 18.32 20.13 31.72 34.62 30.39 29.73 22.72 17.79 15.41
B
Ope. [°C] 14.55 18.05 19.74 30.95 33.86 29.45 28.93 22.38 17.70 15.60
Mech. vent+Nat. Vent +
0.77 0.72 0.73 1.54 1.53 1.54 1.15 0.72 0.72 0.73
Inf. [ac/h]
Figure 4. Results of Different roof compositions with Low solar gains
High Solar Gains (HSG). This simulation represents maximizing the effects of solar radiation, thus
maximizing potential solar gains. For individual compositions it’s possible to observe different temperatures
in both winter and summer months (Table 4.). Differences occur not only in the rate of increase and decrease
in temperatures, but especially in the time and intensity, which the massive roof emits energy to the
surrounding see Figure 5.
131
Table 4. Rotation 220° from North – Results

Composition Average Values per 1/10 Year
Air [°C] 15.31 20.91 21.09 32.79 34.49 30.41 30.74 22.95 18.70 15.89
Composition
Rad. [°C] 15.40 21.98 22.14 34.54 36.02 32.42 32.64 23.75 19.26 15.53
A
Ope. [°C] 15.35 21.45 21.61 33.67 35.25 31.42 31.69 23.35 18.98 15.71
Air [°C] 15.59 19.66 19.79 30.29 32.23 28.22 28.28 21.83 18.00 15.99
Composition
Rad. [°C] 15.12 20.43 20.64 32.00 33.66 30.04 29.97 22.55 18.24 15.52
B
Ope. [°C] 15.35 20.04 20.22 31.14 32.94 29.13 29.13 22.19 18.12 15.75
Mech. vent+Nat. Vent +
0.77 0.72 0.73 1.54 1.53 1.54 1.15 0.72 0.72 0.73
Inf. [ac/h]
Figure 5. Results of Different roof compositions with High solar gains

Within simulation evaluation, a comparison of compositions A and B was performed with the same LSG and
HSG. Further, the individual compositions in question were compared with different LSG and HSG. For the
comparison, Air (Air [°C]) Radiant (Rad. [°C]) and Operative temperature (Ope. [°C]) was used.
Comparison between Roof Compositions in LSG and HSG. As can be seen in Table 5., it’s possible to find
obvious differences between the tracks at the same solar gains. While in LSG the differences between the
compositions are almost the same with slight deviations, HSG is fully beginning to exhibit a different specific
heat capacity parameter.
Table 5. Comparison between Roof Compositions in LSG and HSG

Composition Average Average deviation Min. Max.
Air [°C] 0.121 0.1195 -0.22 0.43
Composition A-B (Low Gains) Rad. [°C] 0.078 0.1244 -0.3 0.3
Ope.[°C] 0.073 0.1089 -0.25 0.3
Air [°C] 1.340 0.7364 -0.28 2,5
Composition A-B (High Gains) Rad. [°C] 1.551 0.6811 0.01 2.67
Ope. [°C] 1.447 0.7095 -0.04 2.56
Comparison between LSG and HSG. In Table 6., It’s possible to compare the effect of the intensity of solar
radiation and the resulting profits in individual compositions. Traditional wooden composition B copes with
the increase of solar gains relatively well and the average increase over the year is not significant. The emission
values of the structure into the space are considerable in terms the limit values, but overall the composition
shows lower temperature values with lover deviation. However, when the heavy-structure of composition A is
exposed to a same boundary conditions in term of same heat accumulation within the structure, a significant
increase in temperature over time due to the higher specific heat capacity occurs. The composition in terms of
the limit values exhibits far greater extremes than traditional wooden compositions. This difference appears
despite the considerable idealization of the calculation model. It’s highly probable, that given the ever-
132
increasing average annual temperatures, the real values that could be measured on a real building are higher
that the idealized simulated values resulting from the calculation.
Table 6. Comparison between LSG and HSG
Composition Average Average deviation Min. Max.
Air [°C] 1.474 0.6647 0.02 3.11
Composition A (H. Gains-
Rad. [°C] 1.780 0.7346 0.03 3.64
L.Gains)
Ope. [°C] 1.654 0.7109 0.02 3.38
Air [°C] 0.255 0.4418 -0.88 1.87
Composition B (H. Gains-
Rad. [°C] 0.307 0.4895 -0.96 2.11
L.Gains)
Ope. [°C] 0.280 0.4673 -0.92 1.99
CONCLUSION
This simulation confirmed the initial assumption, which is based on fundamental properties of heavy-structure
materials, therefore a higher specific heat capacity. The problem, which especially in the summer months is
shown, is caused not only by this material property and is further exacerbated by the often-poor concept of
internal operation caused by lack of knowledge of users, but also by the orientation of heat exchange structures
on strictly sunny sides, which resulting in increase of solar gains. These solar gains, which pass through the
roof composition for longer periods of time due to the thermal inertia of the structure are leading in conjunction
with a high-quality insulation and the inability of the structure to cool itself naturally during night time to much
higher indoor temperatures. However, it’s important to mention that heavy-structure materials which are used
in roof compositions are found mainly in passive buildings, where their advantages are exploited by artificial
treatment of the internal environment by HVAC. Considering the extent of idealization and simplification of
calculation model, further research should:
 Develop a concept of indoor operation for roofs with a heavy-structure material, based mainly on the
ventilation intensity.
 To carry out a long-term measurements and subsequent analysis of the assumptions presented in this
study for real objects in the Czech Republic.
 To design the ideal orientation of roofs with a heavy-structure material against the sunlit sides.
It’s likely that this issue will increasingly emerge in the coming years, and it’s expected that there will also be
an increase in interest in the heavy-structure roof compositions in question. This interest is directly linked to
an increasing number of warm summer days and an effort to stabilize the indoor environment without
additional energy costs. It’s important to understand the diversity of these technologies and to instruct not only
the professional, but especially the general public about a different concept of use so that future buildings can
be used without undesirable countermeasures, price increases and energy intakes in order to create an ideal
indoor environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper has been worked out under the project No. LO1408 "AdMaS UP - Advanced Materials, Structures
and Technologies", supported by Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports under the „National Sustainability
Programme I" and under the project No. FAST-S-19-6045 “Studium fyzikálních procesů v kritických detailech
obalových konstrukcí budov s téměř nulovou potřebou energie".
REFERENCES
[1] Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy
performance of buildings
[2] ČSN 73 0540-2 Thermal protection of buildings – Part 2: Requirements, Praha ČNI, 2011
[3] Author’s Archive
[4] Weather Data Center. Home | ashrae.org [online]. Accesible from: https://www.ashrae.org/technical-
resources/bookstore/weather-data-center
[5] Design Builder Software Ltd 5.5, U.K.
[6] Application of Conduction Transfer Functions and Periodic Response Factors in Cooling Load
Calculation Procedures [online]. Copyright © ResearchGate 2019. All rights reserved. [cit.
6.01.2019]. Accesible from: ttps://www.researchgate.net
133
STUDY OF SUMMER OVERHEATING ON THE NEW MASONRY
SELF-INSULATING BLOCK
Radoslav Ponechal1, Ján Rybárik1
1
Department of Building Engineering and Urban Planning, University of Zilina, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Univerzitna 8215/1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia, Email: radoslav.ponechal@fstav.uniza.sk
ABSTRACT
It seems that brick manufacturers in Slovakia are well prepared for high thermal resistance requirements.
However, they are not ready for the requirement of the summer overheating that occurs more frequently. The
article deals with a new type of asymmetric masonry block in various variants of its possible construction. The
primary goal is to improve the thermal comfort in summer and eliminate the overheating. The new type of
ceramic block is based on an existing mineral-filled block and it is supplemented with an internal thermal
storage layer. The dynamic simulations presented in the paper show how the resulting indoor temperature
could be lowered when the brick is properly adjusted. It also shows how the most popular wall is currently 300
mm thick aerated concrete with 150 mm thick polystyrene. They are practically on the same level. An
improvement of approximately 0.8 ° C may come with the use of new special types of bricks aimed at
combating summer overheating.
INTRODUCTION
When architects design building envelope, the heat transfer coefficient of its component is the basic criteria in
their decision-making. The most commonly used claddings in Slovakia are made of various masonry elements,
which are mainly materials based on brick burnt products and lightweight concrete. This contribution focuses
on the burnt clay blocks for walls. In order to meet the required heat resistant criteria according to the new
legislation, the manufactures focus on their maximum lightened. This is achieved by increasing the porosity
of the shank except increasing the area of the openings [1,2] and filling them with the thermal insulating
material [3]. In addition, the dimensions of the elements are increased, so that a single-layer wall with thickness
not only 375 mm but normally 440 mm and 500 mm can also be built. They have great thermal resistance but
less short-term accumulation potential.
THE CURRENT BRICK PRODUCTION

Modern masonry technologies consume a small amount of mortar, because they are more accurate. The height
of the individual elements is guaranteed by the manufacturers with 1mm accuracy, which is achieved by
calibrated grinding in factory. This is probably a great relief with attractive price, for which they become very
popular. Moreover, masonry mortar can be replaced by mounting polyurethane foam.
Lightening of the brick is achieved by the well-known addition of additives and admixtures to the brick raw
materials during their processing. The additives save the natural raw material and the firing energy also. The
use of additives and admixtures is adapted to each specific factory, which is influenced mainly by the nature
of the raw material and the product range. Using various additives and admixtures in several brick raw
materials from Slovakia and optimizing the firing temperature with regard to the technology of brick
©2020 R. Ponechal. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-022 134
Ponechal et al, Study of Summer Overheating on The New Masonry Self-Insulating Block
production Šveda and Rybárik have solved in past with the Department of Materials Engineering of the Faculty
of Civil Engineering STU [4]. In order to achieve the highest quality of brick products, each manufacturer
must observe the technological properties of the brick material. In the firing process, this is the length variation
by the firing and the weight loss by the firing. After firing, the bulk density of the brick shake is monitored,
which generally increases with the firing temperature, which means that the absorbency decreases with the
firing temperature and thus the apparent porosity decreases. The density of the brick depends on the natural
raw material used, the additives and admixtures used and the firing temperature. Soil for bricks from the
locality Ružomberok without additives and admixtures after firing at a temperature of approx. 920 °C will be
around 1870 kg/m3, after adding additives and admixtures this value can be reduced to approx. 1570 kg / m3.
Compressive strength and thermal conductivity correspond to these characteristics. The coefficient of thermal
conductivity of said brick slab fired from brick soil without additives and admixtures oscillates around 0.71
W/(m.K), after addition of additives and admixtures to brick soil it may fall to half this value.
Figure 1. Porotherm 44 T Profi brick [5].
THE BRICK FOR THE FUTURE?

Another way how to lighten brick products is to create a system of holes in their structure. They kept growing,
and now the plane share of brick openings area is usually 40 – 50 %. The manufacturer Wienerberger currently
uses a series of large rectangular holes in masonry brick blocks Porotherm. In brick Porotherm 44 T Profi (440
x 248 mm) it is 7 rows of holes. The manufacturer fills these holes with thermal insulation material based on
mineral hydrophobized fiber. For the Porotherm dryfix extra foam masonry system, the manufacturer declares
a thermal conductivity coefficient 0.064 W / m.K, the heat transfer coefficient U for the thickness 440 mm is
then 0.14 W / m2.K. The wall of this brick meets the final target requirement for thermal resistance according
to STN 730540. Unfortunately, the demonstrated technological modifications of the masonry blocks
unfavorably affected the accumulation ability of the masonry wall. We should ask ourselves whether it can
slightly reduce the thermal resistance of the brick in order to improve heat storage. What is the potential effect?
Does it make sense to address this issue? It seems that the current problem of global warming supports such
issues. This paper points out the possibility of filling two interior rows of openings with unburnt clay (see
Figure 2) in order to improve the accumulation ability of modern masonry.
Figure 2. The sketch of innovative brick with two clay layers.

135
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
The moldings may be used as storage material and they do not have to be returned to the basic raw material
during the technological production cycle. Damaged moldings would have to be mixed into a plastic dough in
a separate device and this would fill the holes of the fitting. For this purpose it would also be possible to use a
mixed dough from which the shaped pieces are pressed. It can be assumed that, from a technological point of
view, the raw clay due to the residual temperature of the post-firing shred would be freely dried, thereby
achieving a dried unburnt clay state. The hole filling technology needs to be solved by robotic filling. In
innovative processes, the manufacturer would incur the cost of developing the holes filling robot. Here is an
interesting space for 3D printing technology for example [6].
THE SIMULATION OF THERMAL COMFORT IPROVEMENT POTENCIAL

The second task of the paper is to explain the importance of the change in brick to the indoor climate, especially
to the summer overheating in the context of global warming. In order to prove its significance, a simulation of
heat flows in a family house during the summer was made. The simulated low carbon dwelling house is
bungalow with a simple constructional shape and with loft space. The side view of the 8 zone simulation model
shown Figure 3. All of the window were protected in simulation by outer shielding which eliminates direct
beam solar radiation transport to the interior. Simulated alternatives of testing constructions are presented in
Tab. 1. Only vertical construction were changed by alternatives, horizontal constructions were still the same.
Numerical simulation calculations were made with EnergyPlus simulation program. The simulation used
Standard International Weather for the Energy Calculation (IWEC) climate file for the Ostrava city. The heat
gain and ventilation schedules shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 were based on previously published studies [7].
Table 1. Walls construction simulation alternatives.

External wall Internal wall Partition wall
Plaster 10 mm Plaster 10 mm Plaster 10 mm
Construction 1 Brick 44 T Profi 440 mm Brick 30 Profi 300 mm Brick 14 Profi 140 mm
Construction 2 Brick 44 T Profi improved 440 mm Brick PT 290 300 mm Brick PT 290 140 mm
Plaster 10 mm
Plaster 10 mm Plaster 10 mm
Light-weight concrete 300 mm
Construction 3 LW concrete 300 mm LW concrete 140 mm
EPS 150 mm
Plaster 10 mm Plaster 10 mm
Plaster 10 mm
Figure 3. The simulation model of dwelling consists of eight zones.

136
Figure 4. Heat gains and ventilation daily schedule used by simulation.
SIMULATION RESULTS
Figure 5 and 6 documented result of simulation with ventilation schedule 1, which it was meant as more
sophisticated ventilation schedule. The dwelling is mainly ventilated in the morning and late in the evening,
when it is very hot outside during the day dwelling is ventilated a little. The air movement required for thermal
comfort can be produced by a fan during the day. Under such conditions, the air temperature is kept below 26
°C after three hot days only with construction 1. With construction 1 and 3 design, which are most used wall
designs, the internal air temperature exceeds 26 °C for several hours.
Figure 5. Courses of resultant temperature in living room for extreme summer days from simulation with
ventilation schedule 1(represents sophisticated ventilation)
Figure 7 and 8 documented result of simulation with ventilation schedule 2, which it was meant as more
intuitive ventilation schedule. By this schedule the dwelling is ventilated, when people in the house are active.
The air movement required for thermal comfort can be produced by a fan during the day. There is little
ventilation at night. Under such conditions, the air temperature exceeds 26 °C after three hot days for all
construction design. However, there is still a significant difference between using an innovative brick with
thermal storage layer and conventional brick wall solutions. If we take two extreme states from all simulation
results, the difference between them in the resulting temperature is 1.7 °C. Such a difference can be achieved
in thermally insulated dwelling, with quality of well shielded exterior blinds and relatively good natural
137
Figure 6. Courses of mean air temperature in living room for extreme summer days in simulation with
ventilation schedule 1(represents more sophisticated ventilation)
Figure 7. Courses of mean air temperature in living room for extreme summer days from simulation with
ventilation schedule 2 (represents more intuitive ventilation)
138
Figure 8. Courses of resultant temperature in living room for extreme summer days from simulation with
ventilation schedule 2 (represents more intuitive ventilation)
ventilation, with a change of the brick and a small adjustment of the ventilation mode only. The difference
purely from the use of an innovative brick is not as big, it is around 0.6 - 0.8 °C, depending on how the dwelling
was ventilated. With intensive ventilation in the afternoon, the indoor air temperature will increase. This
increase is rapid and cannot be eliminated even by higher thermal inertia of the innovative brick. The
contribution of thermal storage is reflected in the long-term scale.
SUMMARY
The aim of the study was to point out that modern bricks are very well adapted to the requirements of high
thermal resistance, but less to the problem of overheating in the summer. Bricks that are lightened lose their
ability to store cold. The need for mass in low carbon houses has been discussed recently before [8]. Increasing
thermal mass in low carbon dwelling results in an operative temperature drop 2.0 K. Unfortunately, the offer
of brick manufacturers has not yet been aimed in this direction. The paper presents a theoretical possible
product of brick, which has slightly worse thermal insulation properties, but contains a thermal accumulation
layer from the interior.
If such a brick is used together with heavy bricks for interior walls and partitions, the resultant temperature in
the interior is adjusted around 0.8 °C. It is not a big number, but it is one of necessary steps to ensure thermal
comfort in summer extreme conditions. Of course, high-quality external shielding and intensive ventilation
must be considered. From the point of view of the ventilation mode, interesting differences in the results of
summer overheating were found with little different ventilation schedule. If we want to meet the requirements
of the standard, the right brick and good shielding is not enough. It is also necessary to ventilate properly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been funded by the grant project VEGA No. 1/0945/16 and KEGA No. 032ŽU-4/2018.
REFERENCES
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Design of Greek Hollow Clay Bricks. International Journal of Thermophysics. 33 (2012). pp. 2274-2290.
[2] Pavlík, Z., Fiala, L. & Černý, R.(2013): Experimental Assessment of Thermal Conductivity
of a Brick Block with Internal Cavities Using a Semi-scale Experiment. International Journal of
Thermophysics 34(2013). pp. 909-915.
[3] Nagy, Balázs. (2019). Designing insulation filled masonry blocks against hygrothermal deterioration.
Engineering Failure Analysis. 103 (2019). pp. 144-157.
[4] Šveda, M., Rybárik, J., Gomolová, Z. (1997): Inprovement of Production and product characteristics with
Vuppor. Ziegelidustrie International, No. 2, 1997, Chinese special Issue, pp. 28 – 31, ISSN 0341-0552.
[5] https://www.wienerberger.sk
[6] Rael, R., Fratello, V. (2018): Printing architecture: materials and methods for 3D printing, Princeton
Architectural Presss, New York, 2018.
[7] Ponechal, R. (2018): Influence of devices with internal thermal effects on simulation results
thermal comfort. In: 41st Scientific International Conference of Building Constructions and Departments
of the Czech and Slovak Republics: Current data in the field of building construction: Faculty of Civil
Engineering CTU in Prague, 2018 p. 51-54, ISBN 978-80-01-06494-8.
[8] Ponechal, R. (2015): Increasing thermal mass in low carbon dwelling. In: Procedia Engineering. ISSN
1877-7058, 2015, Vol. 111, pp. 645-651. XXIV R-S-P Seminar, August 2015, Samara, Russia.
139
FLAMMABLE REFRIGERANTS IN BUILDINGS FROM FIRE
SAFETY POINT OF VIEW
Marie Rusinová1 and Marian Formánek2
1
Institute of Building Structures, BUT Brno, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří 95, 602 00 Brno, Czech
Republic, Email: rusinova.m@fce.vutbr.cz
2
Institute of Building Services, BUT Brno, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří 95, 602 00 Brno, Czech
Republic, Email: formanek.m@fce.vutbr.cz
ABSTRACT
The contribution is an introduction to a new trend in the assessment of buildings as concerns their fire safety,
and namely assessing the refrigerating system with refrigerants as such, forming an important part of the
technological equipment of the edifice. Down to the present day both refrigerants and refrigerating systems
used to be in the background of considerations, being handled as mere component parts of the ventilation
systems, or even totally left out of consideration in fire safety statements relating to buildings. However, a
certain improvement is seen to have set in, thanks to which refrigerants are claiming due attention. The
reason for focusing upon their problems lies in the fact that refrigerants with high GWP index are being
gradually replaced with low GWP index preparations ever since 2015, and namely due to the legitimate
requirement of environmental protection. High GWP index refrigerants are even going to be prohibited after
2020. The shady side of this process is the considerable flammability of the newly introduced refrigerants.
This is also why these problems arouse increased interest in the domain of the fire safety experts of the
building trade on the one hand side, and among those specialized in refrigerating systems on the other hand
side. This paper offers an outline of ways helping to solve the situation having set in. The aim of the paper is
to point out the new situation in buildings where there are refrigerating systems with flammable refrigerants
and the necessary measures resulting from the given situation, such as reducing the amount of refrigerant and
the need to ventilate the space using cooling.
INTRODUCTION
The fire safety of a building facility is its ability to protect the life and health of persons in case of fire and
further, if case be, to prevent the loss of property [ČSN 730802, 2009]. Within the Czech environment this
requirement is ensured by legal and standardizing regulations [Act No. 133/1985] followed by the Fire Code,
namely a set of standards governing the fire safety of buildings [Regulation No. 23/2008]. The
appropriateness of a proposed building project shall be checked as early as in the design phase by the so-
called fire safety solution of the building whose single steps are binding [Regulation No. 246/2001]. One of
the prescribed steps is also the assessment of the technological equipment of a given building involving, e.g.,
the assessment of air conditioning or ventilation systems. The consideration of refrigerant systems, actually
in many cases immediately following the ventilation issue, has been hidden in this step almost down to the
present day. Prior to 2015 the assessment of cooling systems did not attract special attention, since the
majority of used refrigerants were not flammable.
Since 2016 the following standard has been valid on the Czech territory: EN 378 [ČSN EN 378-1, ČSN EN-
2, ČSN EN-3, ČSN EN-4, 2016]. These legal documents reflect the strict requirements relating to the
reduction of the GWP (global warming potential) index. GWP assesses the capacity to catch heat in the
©2020 M. Rusinova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-023 140
Rusinová et al, Flammable refrigerants in buildings from fire safety point of view
atmosphere, and possibly to refract it back to the surface of the Earth, i.e. it evaluates gaseous matter with
regard to its effect upon its impact upon the creation of greenhouse gas whose consequence lies in the
warming-up of the Planet. As has been mentioned, preferred refrigerants are those with low GWP index
comprising, however, also an adverse aspect – the prevailing majority of them are flammable. These newly
preferred refrigerants are proposed both to form part of new cooling systems, and to replace the former not
flammable refrigerants in the existing ones.
The above problems inspire the efforts to create a system enabling to assess the utilization of flammable
refrigerants in buildings. This endeavor is supported also by the present day situation in the building trade
where the necessity of creating user friendly environment within the houses leads to fulfilling of the targets,
at the one hand, by appropriate design of the facility and, on the other hand, by top quality building services,
including the systems for cooling down [Kitanovski, 2015]. A working group consisting of experts from both
participating fields, namely fire safety and refrigeration, have been processing this task now arriving at its
objective in form of a methodology determining limit condition for the application of flammable refrigerants
in buildings.
The primary task consisted in the determination among what type of matter these media should be classified.
Further this assessment had to comprise all statements that had already been determined for the utilization of
refrigerants by standard EN 378 [ČSN EN 378-1, ČSN EN-2, ČSN EN-3, ČSN EN-4, 2016]; the strictness of
these boundary conditions makes them preferable also for further application in fire safety statements.
METHODS
Accordingly, the first phase required us to classify the refrigerant as a certain type of matter, which is not
that easy, as we are going to show. The general division of material is into solids, liquids and gaseous matter.
Each of these forms has its given system, classifying the respective reaction to high temperatures occurring
in the course of a possible fire. This classification is called the fire technical characteristics of material.
These are measurable or classifiable values enabling either classification or passing the decision about
recommending or forbidding them for the use in a certain environment.
With regard to the domain of the fire safety of buildings the building products are divided into combustible
and not combustible ones. The respective evaluation criterion is their class of reaction to fire, namely the
reaction of a given building material or artefact to high temperatures. The used differentiation consists of
seven classes of reaction to fire, class A1 and A2 involve not flammable building products, whereas classes
B to F flammable ones. Solids are mentioned only to make the overview complete, since refrigerants do not
fall among solid matter.
Flammable liquids are evaluated by indicating their hazard class, see Tab. 1 [ČSN 650201, 2003, 2006]. The
hazard class of a flammable liquid is defined by its point of ignition, i. e. according to such lowest
temperature under which the volume of steam generated over the flammable liquid under normal pressure
catches fire through air by approaching a flame for a short time, but does not continue burning upon
withdrawing the flame. Low boiling liquids with boiling point less than 21°C, e. g. ether, are classified as
flammable liquids of the first hazard class. Under certain conditions most refrigerants are liquids.
Table 1. Hazard class of flammable liquid

HAZARD CLASS POINT OF IGNITION [°C]
I. from 21°C inclusive
II. from 21°C to 55°C inclusive
III. from 55°C to 100°C inclusive
IV. more than 100°C
141
Flammable gazes are classified by the explosion range wherein explosions of gas blended with air occur
under the effect of high temperature. This range is delimited by explosive limits (the upper and lower one),
indicating the concentrations of flammable gas in g/m3, under which explosions of the mixture already/still
occur, see Fig. 1. Refrigerants in current environments are gaseous matter.
Figure 1. Explosive limits
Most refrigerants exist in two states of matter. If the refrigerant mixture is closed in the cooling circuit under
the determined pressure, it behaves as a liquid. If the refrigerant escapes into the environment with normal
temperature and atmospheric pressure, it turns in gas in most cases. However, there are exceptions when a
refrigerant remains in liquid state even after having left the cooling circuit.
Under the concept of refrigerant in a special machine appliance serving as cooling circuit, a substance is
understood that is used for the transfer of heat from one environment to another, the resulting temperature in
one of them dropping consequently under the environmental temperature [ČSN EN 378-3, 2016]. Within the
cooling circuit the refrigerant is a liquid with boiling temperature under 0 °C. Most refrigerant media are
heavier than air, exceptions being methane, ethane and ammnonia. As mentioned above, most refrigerants
convert to gas under current pressure and temperature, remaining in liquid state only by way of exception
(e.g. R11 refrigerant). Refrigerants are characterized by the impact of GWP, the global warming index, by
their toxicity and flammability. Toxicity and flammability of a refrigerant are decisive for its safety
classification. In addition to that also the maximum volume of refrigerant fill is defined as its practical limit.
This classification is prescribed [ČSN EN 378-1, 2016].
As indicated above, GWP being the governing aspect for the choice of refrigerant at the present day, the low
GWP index refrigerants are preferred [European Regulation No. 2038, 2002, European Regulation No. 517,
2014]. GWP assesses the ability to get hold of heat in the atmosphere, and possibly to reflect it back to the
surface of the Earth, i.e. the possibility of warming-up of the Planet. The limit of refrigerant applicability
from the viewpoint of the impact of warming-up of the Planet is GWP = 2500 [Brož, J., 2017]. Any
refrigerant exceeding this value will be prohibited after 2020. Unfortunately, the preferred refrigerants
having favourable GWP values between 450 and 650 are all more or less flammable.
Refrigerants are classified according to their toxicity upon the basis of their long-time limit of exposure, the
PEL classification see Tab. 2.
Table 2. Classes of refrigerants according to their flammability

CLASSES OF LFL index of spread of fire PCL
-3
REFRIGERANTS [kg.m ] [cm/s] [MJ/kg]
Class 1 Without origin of flames
Class 2  0,10 -  19
Class 2L -  10 -
Class 3  0,10 -  19
142
The bottom limit of flammability with the LFL limit is used to assess refrigerants according to their
flammability. The flammability classes of refrigerants depend both upon the LFL index [kg.m-3] and upon
the amount of burned heat PCL [MJ/kg], see Tab. 2. Toxicity and flammability serve for dividing
refrigerants into safety classes, as shown by Tab. 3.
Table 3. Safety classes of refrigerants

REFRIGERANTS REFRIGERANTS
with low toxicity with high toxicity
REFRIGERANT
mark refrigerant mark refrigerant
FLAMMABILITY
Class 1 A3 hydrocarbons B3 doesn´t exist
Class 2 A2 R152 B2 R30
Class 2L A2L R32, HFO B2L R717
Class 3 A1 CO2, synthetic B1 R123
Another indicator, maximum fill of refrigerant, is given by PED (Pressure Equipment Directive),
determining groups that define the type of gas related to the respective classification of liquids according to
PED, namely groups 1 and 2 [European Regulation No. 68, 2014]. The first group comprises dangerous
liquids characterized by problematic features – flammable, explosive, toxic and causing oxidation. The
second group involves safe liquids not mentioned in group 1. The highest amount of a certain refrigeration
fill in a given system and environment is determined by the practical limit of refrigerant. Considering the
options of emplacing a certain refrigerant system and refrigerant medium in a certain environment requires
the knowledge of refrigerant properties, its flammability, toxicity and safety class, the location of the cooling
equipment (direct, indirect, outside of the occupied spaces or in their interior), the categories of approach to
the occupied spaces and some further aspects (such as the respective volume). Then the maximum amount of
the gaseous refrigerant in the occupied space is determined so as to avoid any subsequent requirements
relating to the evacuation of the place. Examples of classifying refrigerant media to the respective practical
limits are shown by Tab. 4.
Table 4. Practical limit

SAFETY CLASS PRACTICAL LIMIT LFL
REFRIGERANT
OF REFRIGERANT [kg.m-3] [kg.m-3]
R22 A1 0,3 non-flammable
R32 A2L 0,061 0,307
R1234yf A2L 0,058 0,289
Other circumstances to be assessed comprise the occupied space, namely the space within the building
facility that is enclosed by structures (walls, ceiling, building envelope) wherein persons can appear for a
considerable time. These can be also rooms accessible to the public, including uninformed persons, e.g. in
hospitals. Another category contains rooms with supervision, used by persons repeatedly, such as production
areas. The last option to be mentioned are rooms accessible to authorized persons whose instruction can be
anticipated, e.g. specialized laboratories. The fire safety of buildings does not recognize this categorization
that can be considered as rather strict. The last important note concerns the sealing of refrigerating systems.
There are namely, besides open types of equipment, also two groups of sealed ones [ČSN EN 378-3, 2016].
A semi sealed system is a cooling system where all parts containing refrigerant are sealed by welding, by
brazed joints, pressing, threaded connections, flange joints; it can be provided with capped valves and with
covered service openings, thus enabling repairs, if need be, or liquidation, and where the tested amount of
escape of one joint lies under 5 g per year under the pressure of at least one fourth of the maximum
143
permissible pressure A sealed system is a cooling system where all parts containing refrigerant are sealed by
welding, by brazed joints or similar not dismountable connections; it can be provided with capped valves and
with covered service openings, thus enabling repairs, if need be, or liquidation, and where the tested amount
of escape of one joint lies under 3 g per year under the pressure of at least one fourth of the maximum
permissible pressure.
EXPERIMENT – DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM REFRIGERANT FILL AND FIRE

SAFETY EVALUATION
At the present day flammable refrigerants A2 and A2L are getting ever broader popularity. The following
example will show the necessity to aerate the occupied rooms wherein they are located. It is necessary to
consider proper ventilation of occupied spaces, i.e. rooms where the presence of persons can be anticipated,
as early as in the design phase. If it holds that Q x RCL/10  1, the through-flow of air shall be drafted under
the following equation [ČSN EN-3, 2016]:
(1), where:
m refrigerant fill [kg],
V volume of the refrigerated space [m3],
10 expected maximum nominal escape [m3/h],
Q flowing air passage by ventilation [m3/h],
RCL limit refrigerant concentration [kg/m3] under [ISO 817, 2014].
In the opposite case the relation changes to take the form:
, (2).
The above makes it obvious that the fill of refrigerant is a function of the volume of the cooled space, the
through-flow of air by ventilation and the RCL value. The latter amounts, e.g. for refrigerant R1234yf,
RCL = 0,058 kg.m-3. This linear dependence, see Fig. 2, enables the determination of the refrigerant fill for a
certain volume of the room. Values of fill that have been calculated can be converted to fire charge
[Regulation No. 23/2008], where 1 l of flammable liquid stands for 2,5 kg.m-2 fire charge, see Tab. 5.
Figure 2. Dependence of refrigerant charge R1234yf on the volume of occupied space at different air
through-flow ventilation values.
144
Table 5. Determination of refrigerant fill for a given air flow by ventilation Q [m3/h] and fire load resulting
of this fill for refrigerant R1234yf at space´s volume V = 100 [m3]
Calculated Fire risk of given
Q [m3/h] refrigerant fill amount of refrigerant
[kg]
50 7,13 17,825
25 6,50 16,250
10 6,18 15,450
DISCUSSION
Supposing that the occupied space are rooms of office character with given fire risk 42 kg.m-2 [ČSN 730802,
2009], the values characterizing the fire load in such area can be assessed as high. Taking into account that
in the case of escaping R1234yf into current environment the substance in question is a gas already, it is not
clear where such load should be accounted for within the refrigerated space. Let us underline that the cooling
apparatus is a sealed system, namely one with joints that are hermetically tight and not dismountable. Under
conditions of current operation the prerequisite can be accepted that the refrigerant medium remains within
the circuit and need not be reflected in the calculation of the fire risk of the refrigerated rooms.
CONCLUSIONS
Flammable refrigerants are difficult to classify from the viewpoint of the fire safety of buildings. It is
obvious that a cooling circuit shall be considered as a closed technological apparatus. An option to classify
flammable liquids was left out of consideration in the course of processing the problems, accordingly, the
issue relates to flammable gases. Their occurrence within the space will continue to be limited by maximum
fill, as stipulated by standard [ČSN EN 378-1, 2016] and regarding the fire safety of buildings the space will
be monitored in accordance with the amount of flammable refrigerant on the appropriate level of technical
safeguards (independent detectors, detection combined with electrical fire alarm system). After all, the
application of flammable refrigerants is still at its beginnings and their integration into the system of
evaluating the fire safety of buildings can be expected to develop further.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been funded by the CZE research council, the original name being Specifický výzkum VUT
Brno FAST-S-18-5217: Vývoj nových typů výměníků pro systémy TZB s využitím 3D tisku (Development
of new heat exchanger types for technical services of buildings with the application of 3D print).
REFERENCES
[1] ČSN 730802. Fire safety of buildings – Non industrial buildings. ÚNMZ Praha, 2009.
[2] Law No. 133about fire safety. Praha, 1985.
[3] Regulation No. 23 about technical reguirements of fire safety. Praha, 2008.
[4] Regulation No. 246 of fire prevention, Praha, 2001.
[5] Kitanovski, A., Plaznik, U., Tomc, U., Poredoš, A. Present and future caloric refrigeration and heat-
pump technologies. In Internationl journal of refrigeration. Pg. 288-298. aviable from: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2015.06.008. 2015
[6] ČSN EN 378-1. Refrigerating systems and heat pumps – Safety and enviromental requirements – Part 1:
Basic requirements, definitions, classification and selection criteria. ÚNMZ Praha, 2016.
Conseption, construction, testing, marking and documentation. ÚNMZ Praha, 2016.
145
Instalation site and personal protection. ÚNMZ Praha, 2016.
Operation, maintenance, repaie and recovery. ÚNMZ Praha, 2016.
[10] ČSN 650201. Flammable liquids – Poduction, processing and stocking areas. ČNI Praha 2003, 2006.
[11] BROŽ, J. New trends in refrigerant development by 2030. In: Technicka-zarizeni.cz [online]. 6. 3.
2017. Available from: https://www.technicka-zarizeni.cz/nove-smery-ve-vyvoji-chladiv-do-roku-2030.
[12] EU Regulation No. 68. Aviable from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/cs/TXT/?uri=CELEX:
32014L0068. 2014
[13] ISO 817. Refrigerants – designation and safety classification. 2014.
146
DEVELOPMENT OF 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY: MATERIALS,
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS, EQUIPMENT
Mykola Savytskyi1, Sergii Shatov2, Oleksander Konoplianik3, Serhii Ivantsov4,
and Ibrahim Zaidan Khalaf5
1
2
Department construction and road machines, SHEI PSACEA, Faculty of Information Technology and
Mechanical Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: shatov.sv@ukr.net
3
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: konoplianik.alexandr@ukr.net
4
Department materials science and materials processing, SHEI PSACEA, Faculty of Information
Technology and Mechanical Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email:
serhiiivantsov@gmail.com
5
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: sav@mail.pgasa.dp.ua
ABSTRACT
Actuality. Three-dimensional (3D) printing (Construction 3D printing (c3Dp), 3D Construction Printing
(3DCP), additive manufacturing) is an advanced manufacturing process that can produce construction
component or buildings automatically from a 3D computer-aided design model [1].
To use 3D printing technology in construction, it is necessary to develop or improve mechanical equipment
for 3D printing, development of mixtures and technological parameters of mortars, development of methods
for controlling the physical and mechanical properties of materials, development of constructions of buildings
and structures made by 3D printing.
The purpose. The main objective of the presented research is to develop scientific bases and to create
innovative architectural, structural and technological system of construction by 3D printing method of
construction objects.
Methodology. Engineering design has been applied to develop the mechanical equipment and structures made
by 3D printing, laboratory study has been realized for development of mixtures and technological parameters
of mortars, methods for controlling the physical and mechanical properties of materials.
Finding. Theoretical and experimental studies were carried out at the SHEI PSACEA (Dnipro, Ukraine).
Mechanical equipment for 3D printing was improved during the research. The developments were protected
by patents of Ukraine. In the technological part of the research, compositions of mixtures with accelerating
curing were developed. Concrete quality control methods were substantiated. The structural elements of
buildings that are erected by 3D printing method are proposed and investigated. The results of the research
were put into practice in construction.
Scientific novelty and practical value. The results obtained are a significant contribution to the theory of
technological innovation development, which make it possible to improve the efficiency of construction
production while reducing the consumption of material and energy resources.
©2020 M. Savytskyi. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-024 147
INTRODUCTION
The needs of people in housing, the development of infrastructure, the construction of social facilities were
and are urgent economic and social problems. New materials, design approaches, and advances in digital are
creating a wave of innovation in the construction industry. Construction will become more sustainable and
easier with the use of 3D printers. This innovation in the printing of concrete objects will reduce the amount
of waste in the atmosphere and the harmful emissions resulting from the production of such structures will be
significantly reduced. In addition, the use of 3D construction printers will improve the accuracy of the
construction of buildings and will shorten their delivery time. Automation of manual labor will reduce the
number of construction workers and minimize the risk of industrial injuries. 3D concrete printing will also be
useful for housing in disaster-stricken, poor developing countries and in all other cases where a large number
of people need to be provided with a "roof over their heads" in a short time. In addition, 3D printing technology
for construction sites will facilitate the development of related industries such as engineering, instrumentation,
IT, robotics, construction chemistry, etc.
The basic idea of the research is to create an architectural, structural and technological innovative system of
construction by 3D printing method to increase production efficiency, reduce the cost of works, meet the needs
of the population while minimizing the environmental impact.
This paper gives a brief description of the results some recent developments for 3D concrete printing at the
SHEI PSACEA (Dnipro, Ukraine). On the basis of experimental and theoretical research: improved
methodological provisions for the creation of construction machines and mechanisms for 3D concrete printing
on the basis of BIM technologies and robotics; proposed compositions of building mixtures with technological
properties adapted to the 3D printing technology of building objects; proposed methods and standards for
controlling technical properties of materials, products and structures in relation to the technology of 3D
printing of construction objects; new thin-walled structural elements of buildings and structures are developed;
research results are implemented in construction practice.
IMPROVEMENT OF WORKING BODIES OF MACHINES

Today, an important problem is the utilization of building materials, including concrete, when dismantling old
buildings at the end of their life cycle. The authors have developed equipment for the recycling of old concrete
in the construction of 3D printing [2]. 3D printing equipment for building objects contains a moving metal
structure made of manipulator and print head with three consecutive extruders, pipelines supplying the mix.
Additionally equipped with stone conveyors materials, and the print head is additionally equipped with a
medium-sized seal extruder connected to the conveyors of stone materials, and front and back the extruders
are connected to the pipelines feeding the mixture. The essence of the development is explained by the
drawings. In Figure 1 shows a general view equipment; Figure 2 and 3 illustrates the head and 3D printing
process of a construction object.
The equipment contains a movable metal structure with supports 1 and 2, a bridge 3 and a trolley 4. On trolley
4 with the possibility of vertical movement mounted beam 5, platform 6 and rotary arm 7 with telescopic
working equipment 8 and print head 9. In the cabin 10 of the manipulator 7 is an automatic computer control
system moving the print head 9 and supplying it with mortar and stone materials. On beams 5 are toothed rails
11 that interact with gears 12 and actuator 13.
Each of the supports 1 and 2 have a drive in the form of caterpillars 14. The equipment is additionally equipped
with conveyors of stone materials: bucket conveyor 15 on support 1; scraper conveyors 16 and 17 respectively
in the lower part of the support 1 and on the bridge 3.
Receiving hoppers are installed on the rotary manipulator 7: 18 - stone materials and 19 - building mix. A
pipeline 20 is fixed to the metal structure by means of which mixture is supplied from the concrete pump 21,
installed near the support 2, in receiving hopper 19 of the manipulator 7. Concrete 21 is delivered from the
concrete pump to the concrete pump factories with concrete trucks 22.
148
The conveyor 17 is connected to the receiving hopper 18 by means of a pipeline 23. Near support 1 is installed
crusher 24 with a conveyor 25, in which is loaded stone materials, delivered by dump truck 26.
Figure 1. Equipment for the recycling of old concrete in the construction of 3D printing
Figure 2. The print head Figure 3. 3D printing process
The print head 9 is made of three extruders: front 27, middle 28 and rear 29. The front 27 and rear 29 extruders
are connected to the pipelines feed mixture, and the middle extruder 28 - with a pipeline of stone materials.
Print head 9 optional equipped with a rammer 30 mounted behind the middle extruder 28.
The equipment works like this. It is pre-installed at the site of construction object. By moving the trolley 4,
beams 5 and platform 6, the manipulator 7 is mounted on the starting position of the feed mixture. Working
telescopic equipment 8 and print head 9 in accordance with the computer program is the filing of the
construction mixtures and stone materials and the formation of a construction site. And first the front the
extruder 27 is laid a layer of mixture 31, then the middle extruder 28 layer of stone material 32. The rammer
30 immerses the stone material 32 into the mixture 31. Then the back extruder 29 is laid a layer of mixture 31.
Such a flow of material provides increasing the strength of the construction object. The presence of a crusher
24 allows you to grind stone materials to the required size.
Vertical movement of the rotary manipulator 7 is carried out by the actuator 13 and gears 12 and toothed rack
11. Availability of working telescopic equipment 8 provides movement of the print head 9 with the least
maneuverability of the platform 6. Movement along the object is performed by tracked carts 14.
Thus, the equipment with a conveyor of stone and installation in the head of the rammer, increases the strength
of the construction object. This enhances the 3D printing performance of construction objects.
149
BUILDING MIXTURES
For the technological process 3D print special properties of the mortar are important: extrudability, flowability,
buildability, open time, layer adhesiveness [3]. It is rational to choose the optimal composition of it
components.
The aim of the work [4] was to determine the reactivity of the binder components that make up the composition
and to determine their optimum amount in the mixture. In addition, the task was to compare the timing of the
beginning and the end of setting the mortars with various binder components and accelerators. In research 24
mixtures were prepared and tested. Four different types of binders were used: a) aluminous cement; b) high-
alumina cement; c) portland cement; d) liquid glass; e) powder lime. The curing agents for liquid glass were:
a) sodium silicofluoride; b) ferrochrome slag; c) portland cement M400; d) aluminous cement. As accelerators
for hardening mixtures used: a) building gypsum; b) calcium chloride CaCl2; c) boric acid; d) soda Na2CO3.
Vicat apparatus utilized for determination of consistence and setting time of the mixtures. Mortar consistence
has a specified resistance to penetration by a standard plunger. For Setting Time Test Vicat apparatus is used
too, but the plunger is replaced by the steel needle. The standard consistence of the mortar was achieved when
the plunger was immersed in a ring filled with the mixture did not reach 5-7 mm before the plate on which the
ring was mounted. The setting times were determined by immersing the needle in a concrete mixture. Initial
setting time is time measured from zero at which distance between the needle and the base-plate is 4 ± 1 mm.
Final setting time is time measured from zero at which the needle first penetrates only 0,5 mm into the
specimen. Components of mixtures and the results of some tests are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Materials compositions (kg/m3) and mortar properties Mix Design

Components and properties of mortar Mix Design
liquid glass - - 18,9 - - -
portland cement M400 73,3 74,5 62,4 - - 70,3
calcium chloride CaCl2 - - - - - 2,1
powder lime - - - - - 4,2
soda Na2CO3 2,2 0,7 - - - -
distensillimanite concentrate - - - 66,7 66,7 -
ferrochrome slag 22,6 24,4 - 3,2 - -
sodium silicofluoride - - - - 3,2 -
liquid glass - - - 30,1 30,1 -
water 24,5 24,8 18,7 - - 23,4
Standard consistence 0,324 0,33 0,6031 0,432 0,432 0,306
Initial setting time, min 5 9 10 20 25 35
Final setting time, min 15 25 20 30 37 70
1 2
Note: The of liquid glass and water to cement ratio. The liquid glass to free-flowing components ratio.
DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS FOR CONTROLLING PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Important is the quality control of concrete structures made by 3D printing. A feature of such structures is the
small wall thickness and the anisotropy of the properties. As standard specimens for testing the strength of
concrete produced by the 3D printing method are difficult to prepare, it is necessary to set the transition
coefficients for concrete produced by the 3D printing method and the standard vibration method.
For this purpose, 3D printing and vibration were made simultaneously from one mixture of concrete samples
- cubes with different rib sizes. When testing the load on the specimens, it was applied perpendicular to the
layers of concrete laying. The results of the studies are shown in Table 2.
150
Table 2. Сompression strength of concrete, MPa

Cubes the size of the rib, mm
Manufacturing method
150 100 70 50
vibration compacting of concrete in forms 15.92 18.29 15.52 19.31
3D printing 11.55 18.07 17.21 17.46-
As we can see, the test results of concrete samples made by vibration compacting in form and extrusion by 3D
printing are close. Therefore, in our opinion, the strength of concrete produced by the 3D printing method can
be controlled on standard samples produced simultaneously with vibration compaction.
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE BUILDING

In the course of the research, a numerical simulation of the stress-strain state of a two-storey residential
building located in Dnipro was performed. The results of the studies are shown in Figure 4 and Table 2.
a) b)
c)
Figure 4. a) 3-D building view in LIRA software complex, b) model grid of finite elements, c) mosaic of
normal stresses on the z axis
Table 2. Values of maximum normal and tangent stresses from the most unfavorable Estimated
combination of loads, MPa
Element # normal fx normal fz tangent xz
3359 0,15266 0,02058 0,03151
1791 -0,05061 -0,18007 -0,17783
1790 -0,10046 -0,17331 0,10287
As we can see stresses in elements from the most unfavorable Estimated combination of loads do not exceed
the compression or tensile strength of the concrete.
151
TRANSFER OF 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY TO CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE

Selection of concrete for the manufacture of structures using 3D prints was carried out in the laboratory mixer
of the German firm “Eirich Maschinentechnik”. For the manufacture of structural elements of buildings and
structures, the AMT building printer S-6044 LONG (medium-format portal COP-printer, Construction Objects
Printing) is used. Today, industrial production of elements of buildings and structures by 3D printing is carried
out in the factory in the city of Dnipro (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Equipment and prefabricated structures by 3D printing
CONCLUSIONS
1. Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an advanced manufacturing process. 3D printing method increase
production efficiency, reduce the cost of works, meet the needs of the population while minimizing the
environmental impact.
2. Improved methodological provisions for the creation of construction machines and mechanisms for 3D
printing method on the basis of BIM technologies and robotics.
3. Today, an important problem is the utilization of building materials, including concrete, when dismantling
old buildings at the end of their life cycle. The authors have developed equipment for the recycling of old
concrete in the construction of 3D printing method.
4. As a result of the performed research, building mixtures were proposed for the preparation of mortars and
concretes suitable for 3D printing technology.
5. Proposed methods for controlling technical properties of materials, products and structures in relation to
the technology of 3D printing of construction objects.
6. The structural elements of buildings that are erected by 3D printing method are proposed and investigated.
7. The results of the research were put into practice in construction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine.
REFERENCES
[1] Construction 3D Printing: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Construction_3D_printing (2019).
[2] Patent UA #125267. Equipment for 3D printing of building objects/ Savytskyi M., Shatov S., Unchik S.,
Ducat S. (2018).
[3] Processing and Properties of Construction Materials for 3D Printing/ Yi Wei Tay, Biranchi Panda, Suvash
Candra Paul, Ming Jen Tan, Shunzhi Quian, Kah Fai Leong, Chee Kai Chua (2016): Materials Science
Forum, Vol. 861, pg. 177-181.
[4] Savytskyi M., Konoplanik O., Uncik S., Dukat S., Savytskyi A. (2018): Materials for 3D construction
printing/ Sustainable housing and human settlement, Monograph, Dnipro – Bratislava, 2018, pg. 208–
214.
152
QUANTITATIVE DESIGN METHODS OF CORROSION
PROTECTION THE REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES AT
THE STAGES OF THE LIFE CYCLE
Mykola Savytskyi1, Olexandr Bardakh2, Andriy Savytskyi3, Tetiana Shevchenko4,
and Vyacheslav Chernets5
1
2
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: nad.novichenko@gmail.com
3
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: andy1978@ukr.net
4
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: rabota308@ukr.net
5
Engineering, Chernyshevsky 24A, Dnipro, Ukraine, Email: sav@mail.pgasa.dp.ua
ABSTRACT
Concrete and reinforced concrete are the main structural materials in modern construction. The area and
volumes of application of these materials continues to expand. In recent years, in the practice of construction,
there is a tendency to the use of structures that combine load-bearing and enclosing functions, as well as the
functions of technological equipment. At the same time, their working conditions are becoming more
complicated and harsh. In addition to the usual force effects (loads), structures are exposed to all kinds of
environmental influences (actions) in the form of substances, energy, or a combination thereof.
According to current design standards in reinforced concrete structures designed to work in aggressive
environments corrosion of materials is not allowed. However, there is a large amount of structures that have
received corrosion damage at the operation stage.
The standards do not contain any guidelines for designing a parameters of the primary protection and repair
system for reinforced concrete structures and their elements (durability forecast, repair period, determination
of structural and technological parameters of the primary protection or repair systems).
Thus, there are tasks of designing the protection of reinforced concrete structures both at the design stage and
at the operation stage. At the design stage, it is necessary to determine the structural and technological
parameters of the primary protection that ensure the service life of structures or the period between repairs. At
the stage of operation, it is necessary to determine the parameters of repair systems which provide the residual
service life until the next repair or liquidation of reinforced concrete structures.
Our research shows the economic feasibility of designing reinforced concrete structures interacting with
aggressive environment, taking into account the kinetics of concrete corrosion. The optimal design methods
can be used to obtain the most economical solutions.
We have developed quantitative methodology for the design of primary protection of reinforced concrete
structures.
©2020 M. Savytskyi. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-025 153
INTRODUCTION
One of the most common effects on structures is aggressive effects, which are caused by the presence of natural
or artificial aggressive environments in their origin. A number of industries in the chemical, metallurgical,
light, food, pulp and paper and other industries use in the technological process or release substances that are
aggressive towards building structures. According to the data of [1], from 6 to 70% of the total number of
structures of structures in industry, and from 30 to 100% in agricultural production are exposed to aggressive
environments.
Incorrect assessment of aggressive factors, the mismatch of the quality of concrete structures to the conditions
of their work, and often underestimation of anti-corrosion measures by construction organizations or service
departments, often lead to damage or complete failure of building elements.
a) b) c)
Figure 1. Corrosion damage to materials of reinforced concrete structures a) in sea water; b) in an airy
seaside environment; c) concrete in a liquid aggressive environment when exposed to sulfates
According to the estimates of foreign experts, corrosion losses account for about 1.25% of the national income
[1].
Thus, the need to expand research and study the behavior of concrete and reinforced concrete under the
influence of aggressive environments is due to the requirements of comprehensive reduction of costs from
corrosion of building structures.
QUANTITATIVE METHODOLOGY FOR THE DESIGN OF PRIMARY PROTECTION OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The following types of protection may be provided to prevent corrosion damage to concrete and reinforced
concrete and structures [2]:
1) primary, consisting in the choice of constructive solutions, the material of the structure or in the creation of
its structure in order to ensure the durability of this structure when used in an appropriate aggressive
environment;
2) secondary, which consists in applying a protective coating, impregnating and applying other measures that
limit or exclude the impact of an aggressive environment on concrete and reinforced concrete structures;
3) special, consisting in the implementation of technical measures not mentioned in lists 1) and 2), but allowing
to protect concrete and reinforced concrete structures and materials against corrosion.
Primary protection measures include:
1) the use of concrete resistant to aggressive environments;
2) the use of additives that increase the corrosion resistance of concrete and their protective ability with respect
to steel reinforcement, steel embedded parts and connecting elements;
3) decrease in permeability of concrete;
154
4) compliance with additional design and structural requirements when designing concrete and reinforced
concrete structures.
When designing concrete and reinforced concrete structures intended for use in aggressive environments,
durability should be provided mainly by primary protection means. The resistance of concrete is determined
by such technological parameters as the mineralogical composition of cement clinker, the material composition
of cement and the permeability of concrete. The chemical and mineralogical composition of cement clinker
and the material composition of cement characterize the degree of chemical activity of cement stone, and
permeability - the degree of accessibility of the inner surface of concrete.
The modern level of knowledge and the technique for monitoring the state of reinforcement excludes the
possibility of taking any degree of corrosion of reinforcement or loss of adhesion to concrete (due to corrosion)
in the calculation of the durability of structures. Therefore, the occurrence of the risk of reinforcement
corrosion or loss of adhesion to concrete should be considered as a structural failure.
Thus, the calculation of the conditions for preventing corrosion of the reinforcement and the danger of the loss
of the reinforcement adhesion to concrete includes the calculation of the amount of the introduced (removed)
component of the aggressive medium (cement stone) or the products of their interaction (a new growth), which
characterizes the accumulation (removal) in quantities that are dangerous from the point of view of corrosion
reinforcement, the danger of the loss of the reinforcement adhesion to concrete or destruction of the concrete
protective layer [3].
The protective layer or the technological parameters of the concrete of the protective layer ensure the failure-
free the life cycle of the reinforcement under condition (with a one-dimensional mass transfer process):
сa ( x  a p , t )  ca , u (1)
y (t )  a p
(2)
where: ca(x=ap,t) - the amount of the introduced component of the aggressive medium (the removed component
of concrete) or the introduced (taken out) product of their interaction (a new growth) at a depth equal to the
value of the protective layer; ca,u - the maximum amount of an aggressive component (concrete component) or
a new growth that can cause corrosion of reinforcing bars, extinguish passivating properties or soften (destroy)
concrete; y(t)- the penetration depth of the aggressive component, degeneration of the composition and
structure of concrete in quantities hazardous to the safety of reinforcement; ap - the value of the protective
layer of concrete.
The main criteria that cause structural failure are accepted:
• a decrease in the alkalinity of the electrolyte surrounding the reinforcement to a pH equal to or less than 11.5
during carbonization or corrosion of concrete [1];
• achieving a concentration of chloride (Cl-) of 3 mg/l or sulfates - 800 mg/l on the surface of the reinforcement
(critical concentration) [4];
• loss of concrete strength due to sulfate corrosion [3].
Structural and technological parameters provide the bearing capacity of structures – R(t), which is compared
with the external action – F(t). The safety condition of load-bearing structures is written in the form:
R(t) ≥ F(t) (3)
Mass transfer theory describes the spatio-temporal distribution of the concentration of a substance, as well as
mass flows. The phenomena of transfer are based on the fundamental laws of conservation and conversion of
energy. Based on these laws, the most general mass transfer equations are obtained [298]. A quantitative
description of mass transfer in general form includes a description of diffusion due to the concentration
gradient of the substance, a description of the transfer due to the action of temperature (thermal diffusion),
force (pressure), humidity, and other fields, and also takes into account the chemical interaction of the
components of the medium and materials.
155
In the practice of engineering calculations, usually the cross effects (thermal diffusion, barodiffusion) have
little effect on mass transfer; therefore, they are usually not taken into account in analytical solutions to mass
transfer problems.
The process of unsteady one-dimensional diffusion complicated by a chemical reaction is described by a
differential equation obtained on the basis of Fick's second law:
c  2c
 D 2  kc , (4)
t x
where: c - concentration; t - time; D- the diffusion coefficient; x- coordinate; k- chemical reaction constant;
 - reaction order; signs indicate the addition or decrease of chemical reaction components.
The effective diffusion coefficient characterizes the permeability or degree of accessibility of the inner surface
of concrete. Its value is a function of the structure of concrete and, therefore, all factors affecting the structure:
the quantity and quality of the starting components, particle size distribution of aggregates, water-cement ratio,
hardening conditions, degree of hydration of cement stone, etc. A significant effect on the spatio-temporal
change in the structure of concrete has gradient stress state and the process associated with the accumulation
of new growth. In addition, the diffusion coefficient is a function of temperature. Thus, in general terms, the
effective diffusion coefficient is a complex function of the form:

D  D C , S , G , p j , W / C , pi ,  g ,  ( x, t ), cab ( x, t ), T  (5)
where: C, S, G - accordingly, the quantity of cement, fine and coarse aggregates in concrete; W/C - water-
cement ratio; pi - hardening parameters; pj - parameters characterizing the quality of the initial components of
concrete; αg - hardening parameters; σ(x,t) - stress; cab(x,t) - the quantity (concentration) of a new growth; T -
the temperature.
The chemical reaction rate constant characterizes the degree of activity of the inner surface of a cement stone.
The research results show that the most significant factors affecting its size are: the chemical and mineralogical
composition of cement (the amount of C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF, gypsum, active additives, etc.), the amount of
active fillers or aggregates, pH of the medium, type and concentration of concomitant ions in a multicomponent
system of an aggressive environment, temperature, etc. Therefore, the rate constant of chemical reactions can
be written as a function:
k  k n(C3 S ), n(C2 S ), n(C3 A), n(C4 AF ), n(CaSO4 ), n( A), n( Ag ), pH , ci , T  (6)
where: n(C3S), n(C2S), n(C3A), n(C4AF), n(A) - accordingly, the amount of C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF, gypsum,
active additives in cement; n(Ag) - the amount of active fillers or aggregates in concrete; pH - pH of the
medium; ci - type and concentration of concomitant ions; T- temperature.
Taking into account expressions (5) and (6), as well as inconstancy of the diffusion coefficient, equation (4)
will take the form:
ca   c 
 
  Da C , S , G , p j ,W / C , pi ,  g ,  ( x, t ), cab ( x, t ), T a  
t x  x 
 k n(C3 S ), n(C 2 S ), n(C3 A), n(C 4 AF ), n(CaSO4 ), n( A), n( Ag ), pH , ci , T сa (7)
Equation (7) describes the spatio-temporal distribution of an aggressive medium in concrete during a one-
dimensional mass transfer process. However, the change in the properties of concrete in general is determined
not only by the amount of aggressive medium entering the concrete, but also by the number of hydrated
formations (active components of concrete) that determine the strength of the cement stone, as well as the
156
number of interaction products (a new growth). In this case, it is also necessary to supplement equation (7)
with equations describing the spatiotemporal distribution of the active components of concrete and their
interaction products. Independent equations should be written for them, and the number of equations becomes
equal to the number of components that must be taken into account.
In general, the mass transfer process is not one-dimensional. The noted features of the mass transfer process
are described by a system of equations of the form:
ca ,i   ca ,i  M L
 kil ( H , T ,  ,...)  ca,ii  cb,ll
N
  Da ,i ( S , T ,  , cab ,k ,...) 
t j 1 x j 
 x j  i 1 l 1 (8)
cb,l N   cb,l  M L
t


j 1 x j
 Db, l ( S , T ,  , cab, k ,...)


x j 
æb,l k il ( H , T ,  ,...)  ca,ii  cb,ll
i 1 l 1 (9)
cab, k N   cab, k  M L
t
 
j 1x j
 Dab, k ( S , T ,  , cab, k ,...)
 x j 
 æil k il ( H , T ,  ,...) c c
i 1
i
a ,i
l 1
l
b ,l
(10)
where: ca,I, cb,l, cab,k - accordingly, concentration of the i-th active component of an aggressive environment; l-
th active component of concrete k-th product of interaction; Da,i(S,T,σ,cab,k,…), Db,l(S,T,σ,cab,k,…),
Dab,k(S,T,σ,cab,k,…) - effective diffusion coefficients of the i-th component of the aggressive medium, the l-th
component of concrete, the k-th interaction product; the l-th component of concrete, the k-th interaction
product; kil(H,T,σ,…) - the rate constant of the chemical reaction of the i-th component of the aggressive
environment and the l-th active component of concrete; æb,l, æil - stoichiometric coefficient; S - structural
parameters of concrete; H - characteristics of the chemical activity of concrete; T- temperature; σ - stresses; xj
- spatial coordinates; t - - time.
To solve the differential equations of mass transfer, it is necessary to specify boundary conditions that include
the initial and boundary conditions.
The initial conditions are set as a function of the coordinates of the concentration distribution at time equal to
zero:
ca,i ( x j )  ca ,i ( x j )t  0 (11)
The boundary conditions are usually divided into four types. The boundary conditions of the first kind are to
set the concentration at any time on the surface of the body:
ca ,i (t )  ca ,i (t ) x  0 (12)
j
The boundary conditions of the second kind consist in setting the density of mass flows at each point on the
surface of the body, as a function of time:
q (t )  q (t ) x  0 (13)
j
The boundary conditions of the third kind are to set the concentration of the environment and the law of mass
transfer between the surface of the body and the environment:
 ca , i 
Da , i 
 x j 
 
  ca , i (t ) x j  0  ca , i (t ) x j    0
(14)

  x j 0
where: α- mass transfer coefficient; ca,i(t)xj=0, ca,i(t)xj=-∞ - accordingly, the concentration of the substance on the
surface of the body and in the environment.
157
The boundary conditions of the fourth kind correspond to the ideal contact of the surfaces of two bodies. In
this case, at the contact boundary, equal concentrations of the substance should be ensured, as well as equality
of diffusion fluxes:
ca,i (t )1, x j  0  ca,i (t ) 2, x j  0 ,  c   c  (15)
Da,1 a,i   Da ,2  a,i 
   
 x j   x j 
The proposed system of equations (8) ... (10) together with the boundary conditions (11) ... (15) allows one to
take into account all the most important features of the concrete corrosion process during diffusion complicated
by chemical reactions: multicomponent aggressive environment; parallelism of chemical reactions; the
dependence of the permeability of concrete on the initial characteristics of the structure, stress state,
temperature, the degree of development of the corrosion process; the dependence of the chemical reaction rate
constant on the chemical-mineralogical and material composition of cement, the type and concentration of
accompanying ions in a multicomponent system of an aggressive environment, temperature;
multidimensionality of the process (the ability to consider bodies of any shape and volume); change in the
concentration of the external aggressive environment in time according to any law.
Based on the proposed kinetic dependences of the corrosion processes(4)…(15) and safety condition (1)…(3),
it is possible to solve the problems of evaluating the durability of concrete of the protective layer, regulating
the technological parameters of concrete and the value of the protective layer that provide a given service life.
CONCLUSIONS
1. One of the most common effects on reinforced structures is aggressive effects, which are caused by the
presence of natural or artificial aggressive environments in their origin. There is a large amount of structures
that have received corrosion damage at the operation stage.
2. When designing concrete and reinforced concrete structures intended for use in aggressive environments,
durability should be provided mainly by primary protection means. Eurocodes and National standards do not
contain any guidelines for designing a parameters of the primary protection and repair system for reinforced
concrete structures and their elements (durability forecast, repair period, determination of structural and
technological parameters of the primary protection or repair systems).
3. For the first time, the system of equations is formulated, which describes diffusion complicated by chemical
reactions. Together with the boundary conditions, the equations allow one to take into account the most
important features of the concrete corrosion process.
4. Safety conditions for reinforcement are formulated based on the condition of preventing its corrosion or loss
of adhesion to concrete, as well as the condition of reliability of load-bearing reinforced concrete structures
5. Based on the proposed kinetic dependences of the corrosion processes and safety condition, it is possible to
solve the problems of evaluating the durability of concrete of the protective layer, regulating the technological
parameters of concrete and the value of the protective layer that provide a given service life.
REFERENCES
[1] Corrosion of concrete and reinforced concrete. Methods of their protection/ V.M. Moskvin, F.M. Ivanov,
S.N. Alekseev, E.A. Guzeev. - M.: Stroyizdat, 1980. - 533 p.
[2] Corrosion protection for concrete and reinforced concrete structures. General technical requirements.
State standard of Ukraine B.2.6-145:2010.
[3] Savytskyi M. Fundamentals of calculating the reliability of reinforced concrete structures in aggressive
environments. Diss. Doctor of Technical Sciences - Dn-sk, 1994.- 410 p.
[4] Durability of reinforced concrete in aggressive environments/ S.N. Alekseev, F.M. Ivanov, S. Modra, P.
Shissl. - M .: Stroyizdat, 1990.- 320 p.
158
THE QUALITY OF DAYLIGHT IN VARIOUS TYPES OF
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Ing. arch. Kristýna Schulzová1 and doc. Ing. Daniela Bošová, PhD.2
1
Faculty of Architecture, CTU Prague, Thákurova 9, 166 34 Praha 6, Czech Republic, Email:
kristyna.schulzova@fa.cvut.cz
2
Faculty of Architecture, CTU Prague, Thákurova 9, 166 34 Praha 6, Czech Republic, Email:
daniela.bosova@fa.cvut.cz
ABSTRACT
The residential building design must place an emphasis on daylight in interiors, in terms of quality as well as
quantity. The legislative requirements are more or less unified across the spectrum of residential building types.
The article compares the daylighting conditions in three different types of residential development in Prague:
a tenement house from the 19th century, a neighbourhood of precast panel buildings from the second half of
the 20th century and a contemporary housing complex. The urban situation, such as distances between the
buildings and street profiles, majorly influences the daylight and insolation in the apartments. The apartment
layout, the proportions of the room and the size and proportion of the windows are also important factors
affecting the distribution of daylight in the rooms.
The case study is a part of a larger research project, which aims to create a supplementary teaching material
for architecture students, who are learning to design the suitable interiors.
Keywords: daylight, insolation, tenement house, precast panel building, residential
INTRODUCTION
Daylight is an indispensable aspect of residential building design, especially nowadays when the developed
world population spends over 90% of their time inside buildings, most of it at home [Brasche, 2005]. There is
a number of studies pointing to the link between the daylight quality in buildings and the health of their
inhabitants [Aries, 2013].
The interior lighting conditions are, besides climate, determined by the architectural and spatial properties of
the building. This article compares the daylight quality in residential rooms of three common types of
residential buildings in Prague and links them to some of the architectural features. It proceeds from the urban
scale (especially street profiles, i.e. the height and distance of the opposite development and the associated
shading angle), through shielding obstacles on the facade of the house itself (loggias, balconies) and spatial
properties of the rooms (proportions of depth and width and positioning of window openings) up to the
properties of window openings (especially window frame thickness and glazing properties).
The first example is a tenement house from the end of the 19th century in the house block urban structure, one
of the most popular types of housing in Prague. Next, a typical apartment in a precast panel house
neighbourhood built in the VVU ETA construction system was selected.
It is not possible to identify such a distinctive building type in the contemporary housing development.
However, the selected housing complex appropriately illustrates some of the trends typical for contemporary
housing construction.
This case study is part of a larger research project that aims to create additional teaching material for
architects. The goal is to link the light characteristics (difficult to imagine for architects) to specific buildings
©2020 K. Schulzova. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-026 159
Schulzová and Bošová, The quality of daylight in various types of residential buildings
and rooms known to architects. This should facilitate architectural design in accordance with daylighting
requirements.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAYLIGHT REQUIREMENTS

The first requirements for the amount of daylight in residential buildings were already described by Marcus
Vitruvius Pollio in the first century BC in his Ten books on architecture [Vitruvius, 15BC] and the modern
daylighting requirements approximately match the notion recorded by Vitruvius [Kaňka, 2014]. The legislative
requirements on the provision of daylight and on the sunlight duration were formed in most European countries
after the second world war. In the Czech Republic, the first daylighting standard was drafted in 1949 and the
requirements on residential room insolation were formulated in 1955.
The currently valid standard ČSN 73 0580 – 2 Daylighting in buildings - Part 2: Daylighting in Residential
Buildings specifies two calculation points on the working plane at a height of 0.85 m in the middle of the depth
of the room at a distance of 1 m from the side walls. The minimum daylight factor at the two points shall be
0.7%, the minimum average of the two points shall be 0.9%. The requirements for sunlight duration (at least
90 minutes on 1.3.) are set out in ČSN 73 4301 Residential Buildings. Prague has its own set of building
regulations, in which the requirements for daylighting refer to the applicable standard. In 2018, however, the
insolation requirements were abolished in these regulations.
Recently, the European standard EN 17037 Daylight of Buildings, which summarizes the requirements for all
aspects of natural lighting, came into force. In addition to daylight provision and exposure to sunlight, it also
assesses the view out of the windows and glare protection.
This standard assesses the daylight provision on a grid of points located on a work plane 0.85 m from the floor.
A target illuminance of at least 300 lux shall be achieved at half of the reference plane and at least 100 lux at
95% of the reference plane, at mid-daylight hours. The standard allows a simplified calculation using the
daylight factor, where for Prague the minimum target illumination of 100 lux corresponds to D = 0.7% and the
target illuminance of 300 lux corresponds to D = 2.0%. However, the minimum daylight factor values required
by the Czech legislation is still assessed in the two points described above.
NINETEENTH CENTURY TENEMENT HOUSE

The house is located in a neighbourhood build in the second half of the 19th century, with four and five floor
blocks of houses. The selected building has a layout typical for the 1890s: a three-tract, where the residential
room location was based on the street and court orientation, regardless of the cardinal points. There are rooms
in the street wing, staircase and kitchens in the courtyard wing. The middle section is reserved for corridors
and sanitary facilities. Each floor typically has two apartments, both facing two facades. There are double
casement windows with wooden frames and single glazing, with notably vertical proportions.
Figure 1. 19th century tenement house typical floorplan and windows
Figure 2. 19th century tenement house street profile and urban situation
160
PRECAST PANEL HOUSE

The form of precast panel houses was largely influenced by the effort to increase the level of comfort, including
the requirements for insolation and daylight. The street profile (distances and heights of the buildings) were
set so that the houses do not obscure each other. The principles of prefabricated apartments are illustrated on
a two-bedroom apartment built in the VVU ETA construction system, which is one of the last (and therefore
the most developed) types in terms of layout. The apartments were mainly designed for families, i.e. two
bedrooms, living room and kitchen. The kitchen with a surface area under 12 m2 is not a residential room
according to the Czech legislation and as such was not evaluated in this article.
In a vast majority of these apartments, the original wooden frame windows were replaced by thermal insulation
windows of larger frame thickness, which are considered for the calculations in this article.
Figure 3. Precast panel house typical floorplan
Figure 4. Precast panel house street profile and urban situation
CONTEMPORARY RESIDENTIAL BLOCK

The principles of contemporary housing construction are illustrated on the 4Blok residential complex built in
2015-2017. The residential complex forms an entire urban block. The most common layout is a one-bedroom
apartment. Apartments (even larger layouts) are usually oriented to only one facade. Current housing
construction must meet a number of technical requirements and standards, which are usually met to the
minimum necessary extent. There are thermal insulation windows with double or triple glazing, often with a
floor level windowsill. The calculations were performed for double glazed windows.
Figure 5. Contemporary housing complex typical apartment floorplan
161
Figure 6. Contemporary housing complex street profile and urban situation
DAYLIGHT AND INSOLATION ASSESSMENT

The daylight provision in the rooms was assessed using the daylight factor. First, the residential rooms were
considered separately, with no external shading, to determine the impact of their architectural properties on
the interior daylight properties. The only shading element included was the loggia of the precast panel building,
as it is an integral part of the apartment layout. Then, the urban situation was assessed the daylight factor on
the surface of the windows was calculated and compared (discounting the shading obstacles of the buildings
themselves, such as balconies and loggias). Finally, the daylight factor was calculated and assessed in the
specific situation of each building in the apartments on the ground floor and on the first floor.
The daylight factor values were compared to the requirements of the currently valid standard (two points on
the working plane) and also assessed according to the new European standard EN 17037 on the entire working
plane. The uniformity of daylight was calculated as well.
The boundary parameters affecting daylight are: the average reflecting factor of the internal surfaces ρm = 0.5,
the reflection factor of the surrounding terrain ρ = 0.1 for dark terrain. The window properties for each room
are listed in Fig. 1, Fig. 3 and Fig. 5. The value of the pollution factor for internal pollution is τzi = 0.95 for a
clean interior and for external pollution it is τze = 0.9 for an area with average pollution. The daylight
calculations were performed in the software Building Design [Astra SW, ] using the computing module Wdls
5.0 – Daylight calculation and ČSN EN 17037 – Daylight of Buildings.
The insolation was evaluated using the duration of sunlight in the rooms on the first and second floor. The
sunlight duration was calculated according to the EN 17037 – Daylight of Buildings. The duration of sunlight
was evaluated on the 1st of March and the minimum requirement is 90 minutes.
DAYLIGHT PROVISION
Table 1. Daylight assessment with no external shading
ČSN 73 0580 – 2 DF values [%] EN 17037 % of work plane area uniformity of
point1 point2 >0.7 mean >0.9 DF>2.0% >50% DF>0.7% >95% daylight
19th century tenement house
kitchen 0.9 0.9 yes 0.9 yes 16% no 73% no 0.200
room 1.2 1.4 yes 1.3 yes 33% no 94% no 0.075
Precast panel building
bedroom1 1.2 1.2 yes 1.2 yes 33% no 67% no 0.054
bedroom2 2.6 2.6 yes 2.6 yes 60% yes 100% yes 0.110
living 0.8 0.9 yes 0.9 yes 19% no 63% no 0.092
Contemporary housing complex
bedroom 0.8 0.9 yes 0.9 yes 17% no 56% no 0.050
living 1.6 1.2 yes 1.4 yes 27% no 95% yes 0.073
With no external shading, all the evaluated apartments meet the requirements of the valid daylighting standard,
although some of the rooms are already at minimum values even without any external shading. However, with
the exception of one of the precast panel house bedrooms, none of the rooms meet even the minimum
requirements of the new European standard EN 17037 Daylight.
162
Table 2. Daylight factor DFW [%] on the points in the middle of the window surface
19th century tenement house precast panel house contemporary block
room (w2) room (w2) kitchen bedroom1 bedrooom2 living bedroom living
ground floor 24.5 24.8 22.0 39.5 39.5 39.6 29.7 28.6
st
1 floor 29.7 29.9 28.5 39.5 39.5 39.6 32.7 32.1
According to the standard ČSN 73 0580 – 1, the minimum required DFW values are 24% in areas with
permanent residence of people in extremely cramped conditions of historical city centres (the tenement house)
and 29% in areas with permanent residence of people in continuous development in city centres, therefore all
of the evaluated building meet the requirements, with the exception of the ground floor kitchen of the tenement
house, which is oriented into a rather small courtyard and the living room window on the contemporary
building ground floor.
Table 3. Daylight assessment on ground floor
kitchen 0.3 0.2 no 0.3 no 10% no 28% no 0.030
room 0.4 0.4 no 0.4 no 13% no 32% no 0.052
Precast panel house
bedroom 0.3 0.3 no 0.8 yes 8% no 22% no 0.034
living 0.4 0.4 no 0.4 no 6% no 27% no 0.100
Table 4. Daylight assessment on the first floor

kitchen 0.5 0.5 no 0.5 no 12% no 44% no 0.033
room 0.6 0.6 no 0.6 no 17% no 38% no 0.058
Precast panel building
bedroom 0.4 0.4 no 0.4 no 14% no 22% no 0.035
living 0.7 0.6 no 0.7 no 24% no 27% no 0.056
th
Due to the cramped urban situation, the rooms in the 19 century tenement house do not meet the current
daylighting requirements. In the precast panel house, the daylight provision remains virtually unchanged from
the ideal (unshaded) situation, as the neighbourhood was designed with emphasis on the lighting conditions.
The contemporary housing complex fails to meet the daylight requirements, especially due to the shading by
balconies. However, this evaluation took into account the entire room area and used the real window frame
thickness, which was probably not the case for the building permit process.
163
INSOLATION
Table 5. Duration of sunlight in the best insolated rooms
19th century tenement house precast panel house contemporary block
ground floor 0 minutes 224 minutes 76 minutes
1st floor 111 minutes 224 minutes 92 minutes
Due to unfavourable urban situation (Fig. 2 and Fig. 6), both the tenement house and the contemporary housing
complex fail to meet the current legislative requirements on the ground floor.
SUMMARY
This article compared the daylighting conditions in three different types of residential development in Prague.
Typical apartments were evaluated, first separately (with no external shading) and then in the context of the
actual urban situation.
In the 19th century tenement house, the daylight provision on the work plane was acceptable in the ideal
conditions. In the real conditions, the daylight factor values did not fit the contemporary requirements. There
are no architectural features on the facades obscuring the windows (such as balconies), the urban situation of
the neighbourhood is however rather cramped. There were no daylight requirements in the time of construction
and the street profiles were limited by the fire safety requirements and construction options. Although this
apartment has the smallest windows compared to the room area, it has the highest lintel, which improves the
lighting conditions.
Of all the evaluated apartments, the one in the precast panel house neighbourhood had the best overall
daylighting properties, both in terms of daylight and insolation. The neighbourhood was designed with the
daylighting requirements in mind and there was virtually no difference between the ideal unshaded conditions
and the actual urban situation. The most prominent shading obstacle is the loggia of the living room.
The apartment in contemporary housing block did meet the legislative requirements in the ideal conditions. In
the real urban situation, the daylight factor values were far below the required limits. Beside the shading from
the opposite building, the windows are mostly obscured by the balconies, which are the largest of all the
evaluated buildings. This apartment had the lowest lintel height and the thickest window frames.
Of the architectural features of the rooms themselves, the windows influence the daylighting conditions in the
room the most. The total area of the window has much lesser impact on the daylight provision on the work
plane than the window position, especially the lintel height, and the frame thickness.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been funded by the Czech Technical University research grant SGS18/197/OHK1/3T/15.
REFERENCES
[1] BRASCHE, Sabine a Wolfgang BISCHOF. (2005): Daily time spent indoors in German homes – Baseline
data for the assessment of indoor exposure of German occupants. International Journal of Hygiene and
Environmental Health. 208(4), 247-253
[2] ARIES, MBC, MPJ AARTS a J VAN HOOF. (2013): Daylight and health: A review of the evidence and
consequences for the built environment: A review of the evidence and consequences for the built
environment. Lighting Research & Technology. SAGE Publications Ltd STM, 47(1), 6-27.
[4] KAŇKA, Jan. (2014): Vitruvius o denním osvětlení a dnešní stavební předpisy = Vitruvius on daylight
and contemporary building regulations. Tepelná ochrana budov. 17, 14-17.
[5] Autodesk and Astra MS software . Building design, module Wdls 5.0 (daylighting) and ČSN EN 17037
(Daylight of Buildings), [software], accessible from http://www.astrasw.cz/cs/node/3.
164
EVALUATION OF ENERGY SOURCES OF AN OFFICE
BUILDING - A CASE STUDY
Ondřej Šikula1, Iva Nováková1, Jakub Oravec1
1
Institute of Building Services, Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří
331/95, 602 00 Brno, Czechia, Email: sikula.o@vutbr.cz
ABSTRACT
The energy building performance depends on the envelope of the building, the installed heating and cooling
systems, the heat and cold sources, the interior elements and the control system. By choosing the right concept
for a particular building and its operation, a considerable amount of energy and / or investment and operating
costs can be saved. The presented work falls within the area of optimization of these systems using the
computer simulation method in DesignBuider software. A specific high-rise office building in Brno was
considered. The model was verified by comparison with the calculation according to the standard EN ISO
13790. The work focuses mainly on the heating and cooling source variations. The outcome of the work is the
evaluation and comparison of several alternatives in terms of heat and cold consumption and economic
efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with the influence of selected HVAC system (Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning) on
indoor climate, energy efficiency and economic demands of a particular high-rise office building in Brno. This
study is primarily based on energy simulations and calculation of the energy performance of a building
according to [ČSN EN ISO 13790, 1]. Review [Mahmud et al, 2] comparing the available simulation software
shows that DesignBuilder 6 [DesignBuilder, 3], which uses the EnergyPlus 8.9 computing core, is a robust
tool for building energy optimization and is therefore suitable for this purpose. The comparison of the
simulated and actual energy performance of the building and the use of DesignBuilder software is discussed
in the article [Tronchin et al, 4].
Solar thermal gains play a major role in the energy balance of buildings, with a significant percentage of
glazing. Their influence on daylight, heat savings on heating but also on the effect of thermal load are discussed
in publications [Sikula et al, 5], [Hraska, 6]. The impact of internal profits on energy simulations is discussed
in [Sojkova et al, 7]. Simulations of HVAC (Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning) systems influence on
thermal comfort in office building are discussed [Szabo et al, 11], [Petráš et al, 16], [Nemethova et al, 17]. A
publication [Szabo et al, 12] discusses the relationship between thermal comfort and energy savings in a
building. Another publication [Urban et al, 13] deals with the concept of a low-energy office building using
photovoltaic systems.
DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING, ENERGY SYSTEMS AND OPERATION

The solved high-rise office building is located in the southern part of Brno - see [Pichova et al, 14], [Horka et
al, 15]. It consists of two underground floors and fourteen aboveground floors. Underground floor and part of
©2020 O. Sikula. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-027 165
Šikula et al, OPTIMIZING THE ENERGY SYSTEMS OF THE OFFICE BUILDING
the aboveground occupy garage parking. On the first floor there is the main entrance, reception and commercial
area. The second to twelfth floors are reserved for open space offices. Typical floor occupies about 1,000
square meters of floor space. On the thirteenth floor there is a restaurant for the staff of the building. On the
fourteenth floor is an air-conditioning engine room and a boiler room.
The structure of the building consists of reinforced concrete skeleton, which is completed with concrete walls
and walls from ceramic blocks. The cladding is insulated with a mineral wool thermal insulation system and
the facade consists of a sandwich aluminum sheet with a plastic insert. The windows consist of triple glazing
mounted in an aluminum frame.
The source of heat are gas condensing boilers. Two are Broetje SGB-106 and two Broetje SGB-250. The
minimum output of condensing boilers at a temperature gradient of 75/55 °C is 38.6 kW, the maximum output
of boilers is 677.0 kW. The heat is transferred to the room by panel radiators. Boilers also supplying the water
heaters in AHU (Air Handling Unit).
The source of the cold are two liquid coolers (chillers), each with two compressor circuits and a separate air-
cooled condenser. Cooling capacity of one cooling source is 292 kW with four-stage output control
(25/50/75/100). The minimum cooling capacity of the chillers is 73kW and the maximum capacity is 584 kW.
The capacitors are two-circuit with output of 2 x 148 kW, the design condensation temperature is 50.3 °C. The
heat carrier is water with a temperature difference of 6/12 °C. The cold is distributed to the building by fan-
coil units, which are controlled manually. The cooling system is a source of cold for water coolers, which are
part of air handling units.
Office hours are from 7 am to 6 pm, Monday to Friday. In winter, the premises are heated to 20 °C during
operation, outside the working hours they are heated to 16 °C. In summer they are cooled to 26 °C, outside
working hours they are only cooled to 28 °C.
Infinite line source
Figure 1. Building geometry and materials overview
VARIANTS OF ENERGY SOURCES

The existing heating and cooling system has been supplemented by heat pumps using GHE (Ground Heat
Exchanger) and DWC (Dry Water Cooler) according to the following variants:
 V1) GHE, heat pump for heating and cooling with temperature differences of 75/55 °C and 6/12 °C.
166
 V2) GHE, heat pump for heating and heat exchanger for cooling; temperature differences 75/55 °C,
15/17 °C.
 V3) GHE, heat pump for heating and a heat exchanger for cooling with a temperature differences of
45/35 °C, 15/17 °C.
 V4) air-to-air heat pump for heating and cooling connected to a dry cooler with a temperature
differences of 75/55 °C, 6/12 °C.
The wiring diagram of energy sources is shown in Fig. 2.
Current State Variant V1
Chiller Boiler
Boiler
Chiller
Heat
Pump h/c
Ground Heat
Exchanger
Variant V2, V3 Variant V4
Boiler Boiler
Dry Water Chiller
Chiller
Cooler
Heat Heat
Exchanger Heat
Pump h Pump h/c
Ground Heat
Exchanger
Figure 2. Definition of energy sources variants.
RESULTS
Selected temperatures and thus the evaluation of the thermal comfort during a test year are shown in Fig. 3,
and heating and cooling capacities during the test year are shown in Fig. 4 for the current status.
The evaluation of the selected variants was carried out on the basis of a comparison of the annual gas needs
for the boiler and the electric energy for the chiller, heat pump for cooling and heating and for the pumps and
fans AHU - see Fig. 5. The price of electricity was considered 3 CZK/kWh and gas 1.5 CZK/kWh.
167
Figure 3. A course of selected temperatures – current state
Figure 4. A course of selected heating and cooling capacities – current state
168
Boiler:Heating:Gas [kWh] Electricity:Plant [kWh] Total Energy Costs [Kč]

650 000
620 798
600 000
550 000
500 000
450 053
450 000
400 000
350 000 327 499

316 627
300 000
264 763
250 000 222 388
200 000 190 550
143 009
150 000 131 350
100 000 84 689 81 041 78 332

50 295 50 346
50 000 41 789
20 388
0
Calculated (ČSN EN ISO Simulated - Current Simulated - V1 Simulated - V2 Simulated - V3 Simulated - V4
13790) - Current State State
Figure 5. Energy and cost comparison
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of the case study is to show an influence of selected variants of energy sources of an office building
on energy and cost consumption. Even if we used the same operation and have reached thermal comfort across
all variants considered, we can see substantial differences.
Clearly the most advantageous variant proved to be the V3 variant, using - as a source of heat and cold - a
ground exchanger, especially when the low-temperature heating and high-temperature cooling modes are used.
This option is able to ensure that energy consumption and costs are reduced by less than half compared to the
current situation. On the other hand, the V4 option will bring a slight reduction in energy consumption, but a
significant increase in energy costs. The results achieved confirm the effectiveness of geothermal systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been funded by TAČR NCK CAMEB, project Epilot nr. TN01000056/06.
REFERENCES
[1] ČSN EN ISO 13790. Energetická náročnost budov – Výpočet energie na vytápění a chlazení.
Praha: Úřad pro technickou normalizaci, metrologii a státní zkušebnictví, 2009.
[2] Mahmud K, Amin U, Hossain MJ, Ravishankar J. Computational tools for design, analysis, and
management of residential energy systems. Applied Energy 2018;221:535-556.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.111.
[3] DesignBuilder [online]. [cit. 2019-05-20]. Dostupné z: https://designbuilder.co.uk/
[4] Tronchin L, Fabbri K. Energy performance building evaluation in Mediterranean countries: Comparison
between software simulations and operating rating simulation: Comparison between software simulations
and operating rating simulation. Energy And Buildings 2008;40:1176-1187.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.10.012.
169
[5] Sikula O, Plasek J, Hirs J. Numerical Simulation of the Effect of Heat Gains in the Heating Season. 2011
2Nd International Conference On Advances In Energy Engineering (Icaee): Energy Procedia
2012;14:906-912. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2011.12.1031.
[6] Hraska J. Adaptive solar shading of buildings. International Review Of Applied Sciences And
Engineering 2018;9:107-113. doi:10.1556/1848.2018.9.2.5.
[7] Sojková K. Deterministic occupancy and internal heat gains patterns for building energy simulation.
Vytapeni, Vetrani, Instalace 2017;26:220-227.
[8] Elsland R, Peksen I, Wietschel M. Are Internal Heat Gains Underestimated in Thermal Performance
Evaluation of Buildings?. Energy Procedia, vol. 62, Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2014, pp. 32-41.
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.364.
[9] Elsland R. Analysing the Contribution of Internal Heat Gains When Evaluating the Thermal Performance
of Buildings. Smart Energy Control Systems For Sustainable Buildings 2017;67:139-158.
doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52076-6_6.
[10] Weyr J, Šikula O, Hirš J. Building performance simulation of industrial hall with excessive heat loads.
Vytapeni, Vetrani, Instalace 2018;27:344-347.
[11] Szabo J, Kajtar L. Thermal comfort analysis in office buildings with different air-conditioning systems.
International Review Of Applied Sciences And Engineering 2018;9:59-63. doi:10.1556/1848.2018.9.1.8.
[12] Szabó GL, Kalmár F. Investigation of subjective and objective thermal comfort in the case of ceiling and
wall cooling systems. International Review Of Applied Sciences And Engineering 2017;8:153-162.
doi:10.1556/1848.2017.8.2.8.
[13] Urban M, Bejček M, Wolf P, Vodička A. Concept of administrative buildings as a nearly zero-energy
building. Vytapeni, Vetrani, Instalace 2017;26:30-36.
[14] Pichová L, Šikula O. Thermal behavior and energy performance of low-energy office buildings [in
Czech]. Master thesis. 131s. VUT v Brně. Brno, 2013.
[15] Horká L, Šikula O. Optimization of energy consumption in office building. [in Czech] Master thesis.
2015. 70s. VUT v Brně. Brno, 2013.
[16] Petráš D, Krajčík M, Bugáň J, Ďurišová E. Indoor environment and energy performance of office
buildings equipped with a low temperature heating/high temperature cooling system. vol. 899. 2014.
[17] Nemethova E, Krajcik M, Petras D. Performance of the Building with Three Different Radiant Systems.
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 471, 2019. doi:10.1088/1757-
899X/471/6/062013.
170
A REVIEW OF THE EVA – PROJECT: EVALUATION OF
VISONARY ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPTS IN VIEW OF
BUILDING PERFORMANCE
Bernhard Sommer1, Ulrich Pont2, Galo Moncayo1, Matthias Schuss2, and Ardeshir
Mahdavi2
1
Energy Design, University of Applied Arts Vienna, Oskar Kokoschka Platz 2, 1010 Vienna, Austria;
Email: {bernhard.sommer| Galo.Moncayo}@uni-ak.ac.at
2
Department of Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria; Email
{ulrich.pont|Matthias.schuss|amahdavi}@tuwien.ac.at
ABSTRACT
This paper reports on the EVA-project, which was collaboratively conducted by the University of Applied
Arts (Energy Design) and the TU Wien (Dept. of Building Physics and Building Ecology). This project
focused on the assessment of a number of innovative architectural concepts in the field of energy-efficient
architecture. Whereas a large number of building projects focuses on adding thermal insulation and rather
rely on the performance of mass products like insulation panels, a by far smaller number of projects try to
explore other ways of improving building performance, such as adaptive, moveable, or performance-shifting
envelope element. Such architectural concepts often experience contra-arguments, such as the high risk of
failure due to childhood diseases in the planning, the fear of increased cost and less-than-expected impact, or
even invective as architect’s fantasies. However, the track of innovation often has to cross rickety bridges to
be accepted by the AEC (architecture-engineering-construction) domain. Toward this end, the EVA project
provides two contributions: On the one hand, a structured evaluation database has been developed, in which
“innovative architectural concepts” can be stored and queried regarding their key features. On the other hand,
one innovative approach has been chosen, constructed and implemented in an existing building’s envelope.
The paper illustrates the idea, the principle construction, and the performance impact of this realization,
which was pertaining to radiative heating and cooling achieved by adjustable distribution of thermal mass
through indoor panels that were linked to outdoor façade elements.
INTRODUCTION
In the ongoing discourse on architecture and its role in view of energy consumption, GHG (Greenhouse
Gases) emission, many stakeholders from the A-E-C domain suggest new ideas of how to reduce the portion
of the built environment regarding harmful impact on the planet. Many of these concepts provide far-fetched
ideas, which seem to be tempting approaches to the contemporary challenges and range from geo-
engineering to small-scale interventions, such as autarky-systems for houses, household-intern circular
economy approaches, and similar. However, the percentage of these concepts that are later translated into the
built reality is a very small one. There could be a set of reasons for that: (i) There might be problems with
upscaling; What works fine in a small scale model or on paper, might not necessarily being realized in an
easy fashion in a scale 1:1 realization. Such realizations would often require a complex interaction between
domains such as building engineering, architectural planning, mechatronics, Information technology, and
others, which is both difficult and expensive; (ii) The real impact of realizations is often difficult to assess in
a scaled model or simulation-based assessment. Thus, pioneer realizations often are observed critically and –
©2020 B. Sommer. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-028 171
Sommer et al, A review of the EVA-Project
7th November, Bratislava
in case of even slight failure – are considered as dysfunctional. The present contribution was written to
document the outcomes of the EVA-project, which focused on the evaluation of innovative architecture
concepts in general, and the realization of one of these concepts to proof its functionality. To achieve these
goals, two efforts have been conducted: In the starting phase of the project, innovative architecture concepts
that have been suggested for improvement of energy consumption or thermal comfort of buildings, or touch
other environmental aspects have been collected, documented, and systematically evaluated. As a result, a
database of innovative architecture concepts has been generated. Amongst many other projects from
academia and professional context, works by the students of the University of Applied Arts in Vienna have
been integrated into this database. Some of these concepts have been described in [1] and [2]. In a
subsequent step, the concepts have been examined towards their feasibility in view of a realization. Thereby,
a concept pertaining to variable thermal mass and indoor thermal comfort has been selected for a realization.
EVALUATION REPOSITORY OF INNOVATIVE ARCHITECTURE CONCEPTS

After starting collecting innovative architecture concepts from literature, academic resources and freelance
professionals of the AEC- (architecture-engineering-construction) domain, it became clear that common
databases do not allow for a specific evaluation of such concepts. Thus, a Grasshopper [3]-based database
has been generated that is capable of helping with specific enquiries and visualization of the different
concepts. Figure 1 illustrates the graphical algorithms behind that database. Figure 2 and 3 illustrate
enquiries that can be done with this script, in detail percentages of touched keywords/domains by the
projects, or how projects in detail work.
Figure 1. Graphical setup of the database in Grasshopper.
Fig 2. User Interface for enquiries of “Why” Fig. 3. Results of a “How”-Enquiry in the database.
Questions in the database
172
Moreover, a catalogue of the innovative concepts has been generated. Thereby, a template has been used that
allowed to extensively describe the specific aspects of each concept. Figure 4. Illustrates this template for the
project KALEIDOSKIN (described in original in [1])
Figure 4. Project description template, filled with the information of the project KALEIDOSKIN.
REALIZATION OF AN INNOVATIVE ARCHITECTURE CONCEPT FOR EVALUATION

PURPOSES
The architecture concept that was selected for realization addressed the issue of summer overheating in
indoor spaces (lack of thermal comfort in indoor spaces). Inspired by a project by Carlo Ratti of the MIT
senseable city lab, which has been exhibited at the Architecture Biennale in Venice some years ago [4],
variable thermal mass panels have been designed and built for an interior space. The test site thereby
encompassed two office room cells, which were widely identical in their size, materials, windows orientation
and size, and usage. Figure 5 illustrates the rooms (Raum A, and Raum B).
Figure 5. Test site rooms (left: Plan, right: View from Street)
173
The background of the selected project is, that while still many buildings possess a sufficient thermal mass,
this thermal mass can seldom be utilized for a short-term thermal comfort improvement in case of summer
overheating. Moreover, typical retrofit incentives feature thermal insulation from outside or inside, so that
sometimes reactive thermal mass is hindered to be heated up or chilled down. Ratti’s idea was that it is not
really necessary to be surrounded by areas of high thermal mass, but rather that occupants find a healthy
relation of air- and mean radiant temperature in spaces. This concept in principle is also supported by the late
Ole Fanger thermal comfort theory (which still is matter of many discussions, for instance in [5]). As such,
the pursuit of an occupant by panels that react on that person’s presence could offer microclimatic aid against
overheating or undercooling in spaces, which negatively influence the thermal comfort.
This principle of personalization of thermal comfort via reactive panels was now translated to a technical
system that was implemented in room B. Figure 6 illustrates the principle of the realization: A set of panels
that are mounted on the inner enclosures of the space are equipped with hoses, through which water can be
pumped (1). On the outer wall surface of the room collector/chiller panels are mounted, similarly equipped
with hoses than the inner panels (2). These two types of panels are connected via a buffer storage, in the
realization case a portable insulated camping box (3). Persons and their position in the room are detected via
occupancy sensors (4). Via a set of microcontrollers (5), the indoor panels are provided with warm / cold
water from the buffer or directly from the collector panel. Needless to say, the pumps and routines of filling
the buffer tank with chilled water requires the utilization of the outdoor panel during day and night
(nighttime chilldown). Figure 7 shows a photo and a thermography of an indoor panel, while Figure 8
illustrates the hose system forming the outdoor collector panel (green hoses were part of a sun protection
system, while purple hoses formed the chilling hoses for cooling water during night). Figure 9 shows an
overview perspective of the overall system, including the hose system and the controllers (Arduino-Boards,
Computers executing grasshopper algorithms, etc.)
Figure 6. System components: (1) Indoor panels equipped with hoses for changing the temperature / thermal
mass of the panels; (2) exterior chilling/collector panels; (3) buffer storage tank; (4)occupancy/location
sensors; (5) microcontrollers steering the overall system.
Figure 7 (left): Photo and thermography of an indoor panel;#

Figure 8 (right): Outdoor collector/chiller hoses (purple hoses)
174
Figure 9. Overview perspective of the overall system.
PERFORMANCE OF THE REALIZATION

In a test series that has been conducted in August 2018, the performance of the system was assessed, and
some calibration of the valve and pump settings have been conducted. Figure 10 illustrates the flowpatterns
of the indoor panels and outdoor panels.
Figure 10. Flow patterns in indoor panels (left) and outdoor panels (right)
The air temperature and globe temperature (radiative temperature measured with a globe thermometer) have
been measured during the test series. Figure 11 illustrates the effect of the system during the test phase (after
some days of inswing-phase): Room B, the one equipped with the system, was able constantly maintain both
a lower air and radiant temperature than room A (the “control room”). While the temperature differences
dropped between 0 and 1 K during night, during day at least 2 K temperature differences could be observed,
including some peaks that showed temperature differences up to 10 K. Thus, it can be said that in principle
the system worked fine.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESARCH

The presented evaluation of innovative architecture concepts resulted in two major outcomes: One the one
hand, an innovative database of environmentally-relevant innovative architecture concepts was generated
with a state-of-the-art tool. This database will be furtherly developed and extended, and being put to a
website. On the other hand, we translated an innovative concept to a 1:1 realization and could proof that the
idea in principle works. Needless to say, the realization was far from an industrial building product that could
be integrated in hundreds or thousands of buildings, and of course there are still some issues, e.g. a
calibration of the flow-patterns and algorithms, or the aspect that we supply heat energy to the outside and
eventually increase Urban Heat Island effects. However, the concept could offer mitigation for summer
overheating in office spaces with little required energy (the electricity necessary for computer and
pump/valve operation could be supplemented by Photovoltaics mounted on the same façade).
175
Figure 11. Temperature difference between rooms A and B in air temperature and mean radiant temperature
(via globe thermometer) during test days in August 2018.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research presented in this cobtribution has generously received funding by the Austrian Research
Promotion Agency FFG (Proj.No.: 854709). In addition to the authors, A. Koupaie and V. Sandor
contributed to the project.
REFERENCES
[1] Sommer, B., Moncayo, G., Pont, U. (2014): "Ecological ballet - a design research towards
environmental-reactive, adaptive architectural design"; in: "Proceedings of the 10th European
Conference on Product and Process Modelling (ECPPM2014), Vienna, Austria, 17-19 September
2014", A. Mahdavi, B. Martens, R.J. Scherer (Hrg.); Taylor & Francis - Balkema, 1/1/Boca
Raton|London|New York|Leiden (2014), ISBN: 978-1-138-02710-7; S. 215 - 220.
[2] Sommer, B., Moncayo, G. Sommer-Nawara, M., Pont, U. (2015): "SolSeduction - A phyto-solar ball
room"; in: "Real Time - Extending the Reach of Computation - Proceedings of the 33rd International
Conference on Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe", B.
Martens, T. Grasl, G. Wurzer (ed.); eCAADe & Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, TU Wien,
Volume 1 & 2 (2015), ISBN: 9789491207082 Titel anhand dieser ISBN in Citavi-Projekt übernehmen;
697 - 705.
[3] Grasshopper: www.rhino3d.com
[4] Local Warming – project by Carlo Ratti, Architectural Biennale, Venice 2014. Documented at
https://carloratti.com/project/local-warming/ (last checked August 2019)
[5] Schaudienst, F., Vogdt, F.U. (2017): Fanger’s model of thermal comfort: a model suitable just for men?;
presented at 11th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics, NSB2017, 11-14 June 2017, Trondheim,
Norway; in Energy Procedia 132 (2017) 129 – 134.
176
PCMS IN BUILDINGS: COMPATIBILITY WITH CONTAINER MATERIALS
AND ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Karel Struhala1, Sylva Bantová2, and Milan Ostrý3

1
Department of Building Structures, BUT, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Veveří 331/95, 602 00 Brno,
Czech Republic, Email: struhala.k@fce.vutbr.cz
2
Czech Republic, Email: bantova.s@fce.vutbr.cz
3
Czech Republic, a, Email: ostry.m@fce.vutbr.cz
ABSTRACT
Contemporary architecture emphasizes energy efficiency and utilization of renewable energy sources. Main
issues connected with these sources are instability of the energy supply and temporal mismatch between
energy demand and supply. The solution for both these issues is suitable energy storage technology. This
creates opportunity for utilization of latent heat storage (LHS) in phase change materials (PCMs). LHS
technologies are already in use for example in solar thermal collectors. However their wider application is
limited by lack of credible information on the properties of PCMs and their interactions with other materials.
The aim of this paper is to reduce the lack of knowledge in this field. It presents results of long-term
experiment evaluating the compatibility of selected organic and inorganic PCMs and metals (possible
container materials). This experiment tried to find suitable material pairs that would ensure flawless
functionality of the LHS system without corrosion, leakage or other defects. The experiment was followed
by evaluation of the environmental impacts of hypothetical application of the tested materials. The results of
this environmental assessment were also compared with a reference case representing traditional heat storage
options to provide further insight regarding suitability of real-life applications of the tested materials. The
results indicate that stainless steel is the most stable of the tested metals, which makes it most suitable PCM
containers. However the environmental assessment suggests otherwise. Environmental impacts of the
evaluated steel-PCM combinations are the highest. In fact all evaluated metal-PCM combinations have
higher environmental impacts than the reference case. This discourages their application in sustainable
construction industry.
INTRODUCTION
One of the main issues limiting widespread utilization of renewable energy sources in contemporary
architecture is mismatch between energy demand and supply. This issue can be solved with suitable energy
storage technology, [Alva, 2018]. One of the progressive technologies in this field works on principles of
latent heat storage (LHS). It combines the ability of any material to store heat depending on its density
(sensible heat storage, SHS) with the heat storage capacity related with melting and solidification of a
material. Materials utilized in this role are therefore known as phase change materials (PCMs).
The ability of PCMs to melt or solidify at relatively low temperatures limits their application in construction
industry due to the need for a suitable container. Many solutions are available on the market: metals, plastics,
©2020 K. Struhala. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-029 177
composites, etc. However there is a lack of credible information regarding their performance: durability,
thermal parameters or environmental impacts related with their production, use and disposal. The aim of this
paper is therefore reduction of the lack of knowledge. The paper presents a multi-criteria evaluation of
selected PCMs in combination with metals that could be used in the containers. This evaluation includes
comparison of corrosion of the metals caused by the exposure to PCMs and evaluation of the environmental
impacts of a hypothetical application of these PCMs and metals.
THE EXPERIMENT: TESTING COMPATIBILITY OF METALS AND PCMS

Long-term experimental testing was applied to evaluate compatibility of selected PCMs and metals (potential
container material). Three PCMs were selected for the testing: two organic (paraffin-based Linpar 17 and
Linpar 1820) and one inorganic (salt-hydrate-based Rubitherm SP25). They were selected due to their
availability and existing applications in the building industry. These PCMs were combined with metals
commonly used as their container material: aluminium (AW 1050 H111), copper (CW024A) and stainless
steel (EQ308L). This selection aimed at increasing knowledge regarding long-term durability and
functionality of LHS systems.
Testing procedure followed work of [Ferrer et al., 2015] or [Oró et al., 2013]. It comprised following steps:
- Preparation of the samples, where the samples were marked, sealed and cleaned. Afterwards they
were inserted in the test beakers with PCMs (in a way that ensured maximum exposition of the
samples to the PCMs), which were placed in a small environmental chamber (see Figure 1, left).
- Cyclic testing, The testing comprised of four four-hour stages: First stage was increasing
temperature in the climate chamber to 40 °C. This temperature was maintained during the second
stage. Than it was lowered to 15 °C during the third stage and maintained at this level during the
fourth stage. This process was repeated for 16 weeks. At the end of each week a set of samples was
removed from the beakers, cleaned, visually checked and weighted (see Figure 1, right).
- The evaluation of the data from cyclic testing. Corrosion rate (CR) [Moreno et al., 2014] evaluating
weight differences of the metal samples before and after exposure to PCMs effects was utilized as
the criterion for evaluating compatibility between particular PCMs and metals. It was calculated
according to the following equation:
-
CR = , (1)
. -
where CR was corrosion rate in mg∙cm-2∙year-1, m(t0) was the initial mass in mg, m(t) was the final mass in
mg, A was the area of the sample in cm2 and (t0 – t) was the experimental time in years. CR expressed the
extent of metal corrosion relative to the area of the sample and recalculated for a one-year period.
Figure 1. (Left) Beakers with metal samples immersed in PCMs in the climate chamber. (Right) Illustration
of the progress of corrosion: copper samples removed from the beakers with inorganic PCM Rubitherm SP25
after one, two, three and four months of cyclic testing (from left to right).
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Figure 2. Dependence of Corrosion rate of tested metals on duration of the testing for Rubitherm SP25 (left)
and Linpar 17 (right) PCMs.
Figure 2 shows the result of the experiment: CR rates of metals exposed to inorganic Rubitherm SP25 and
organic Linpar 17 PCMs. Results of exposure to Linpar 1820 are not presented as they were significantly
lower compared to Linpar 17. Initial assumption was that the exposure of metal samples to PCMs would
affect their shape, surface flatness, weight and perhaps their colour. This assumption was confirmed in case
of aluminium (partially) and copper. Stainless steel samples have shown no visual changes and only
negligible weight changes after removal from the beakers with PCMs (see Figure 2). Small CR fluctuation in
inorganic PCM Rubitherm SP 25 (Figure 2, left) was probably caused by a measurement error (due to
accuracy of measuring equipment).
Corrosion of aluminium samples was most pronounced in Rubitherm SP25 (see Figure 2, left). There its CR
reached up to 0.8 mg∙cm-2∙year-1. However the most interesting was the fact that whole surface of the
samples was covered by white corrosion after two months of the experiment. This phenomenon was not
observed in other PCMs.
Copper samples were the most influenced by immersion in the PCMs. They suffered blue corrosion after
more than one month of exposure to the PCMs. The effect of the corrosion is visible in Figure 1 (right),
which shows copper samples that were exposed to Rubitherm SP25. The right-most sample was exposed to
the PCM for 104 days and the corrosion covered approx. 40 % of its surface. This corresponds to the high
CR values that reached up to 8 mg∙cm-2∙year-1 in Rubitherm SP25.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
The experiment was followed by environmental assessment. Its aim was evaluation of environmental
impacts of the tested metal-PCM combinations. This assessment included all three metals, but only one
PCM: Rubitherm SP25, which was selected based on availability of environmental data (see below). The
environmental impacts of the metal-PCM combinations were not evaluated alone in this paper. The materials
were incorporated into a hypothetical interior (heat storage) partition to provide more insight into their actual
performance. Four partitions (labeled P1 – P4) were therefore evaluated in this part of the research. P1 (see
Figure 3, left) is a common 0.15 m thick non-bearing partition made of solid bricks, cement mortar and
plaster. Thanks to its sensible heat storage potential it serves as a good reference case for partitions P2-P4
including Rubitherm SP25 (using LHS principle). Partitions P2-P4 (see Figure 3, right) share the same light-
weight structure: metal frame, mineral wool (acoustic insulation) and plasterboard panels. They differ only in
the material of the PCM containers: aluminium (P2), copper (P3) and stainless steel (P4). All four partitions
were designed so they share the same acoustic and heat storage parameters.
179
Figure 3. Schemes of the partitions compared during LCA: Traditional brick partition (P1) on the left and
partitions with PCM (P2, P3, P4) on the right.
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) method specified in EN 15804 [CEN. 2011] was utilized for the
environmental assessment in the research. Therefore the assessment follows standardized structure dividing
the life cycle of the partitions into four stages (Product stage, Construction process stage, Use stage and End
of life stage) and 16 modules: Product stage (modules A1 Raw material supply to A3 Manufacturing) and
Construction process stage (modules A4 Transport and A5 Construction-installation process) are included in
this assessment completely. Use stage is represented only by module B4 (Replacement). Environmental
impacts in other modules of this stage are considered negligible (B1 Use, B2 Maintenance, B3 Repair),
inapplicable (B6 Operational energy, B7 Operational water) or overlapping with module B4 (B5
Refurbishment) for the purpose of the assessment. All four modules describing End-of-life stage (C1
Deconstruction-Demolition to C4 Disposal) are also included. However environmental impacts in module C3
(Waste processing) are merged into module C4 due to input data limitations.
The LCA was performed in GaBi software. Almost all data on environmental impacts of materials and
processes considered in the assessment were based on datasets available in ecoinvent database in the
software. The exception is data on the evaluated Rubitherm SP25 PCM, which were based on a recently
published research paper [Horn, 2018]. Utilization of this data also limited the impact categories: [Horn,
2018] shows environmental impacts of the PCM in Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Primary Energy
(PE). Therefore the same impact categories are utilized to evaluate environmental impacts in this paper.
Other boundary conditions considered in the LCA in this research included:
- Functional unit: 1m2 of the evaluated partitions.
- 50 year reference service life of the partitions based on Czech design practice. It was assumed that
the bricks and mortar in P1 would be able to function for the whole period. Other materials (plaster
in P1, whole P2-P4 compositions) would suffer from wear and tear (e.g. corrosion of PCM
containers). Therefore one replacement (LCA module B4) of these materials was considered during
the 50-year period based on the producers’ information.
- Position of hypothetical building site was set to the centre of Brno. All transport distances
considered during LCA (material or waste transport) were calculated from this location.
- Landfilling as only End-of-Life scenario. The reason is that landfilling is commonly considered a
worst-case scenario (especially compared to reuse or recycling). Other waste management scenarios
should therefore have lower environmental impacts.
LCA results are summed in Figures 4 and 5. Both figures show overall environmental impacts related with
the life cycle of evaluated partitions in GWP (left) and PE (right). Figure 4 divides them according to
standardized LCA modules. Furthermore the environmental impacts in module B4 are divided into several
“sub-modules” corresponding with other LCA modules to increase clarity. In contrast, Figure 5 shows
environmental impacts aggregated per individual materials.
180
Figure 4. Total environmental impacts of the evaluated partitions divided according to EN 15978 framework.
Figure 5. Total environmental impacts of the evaluated partitions divided per individual construction
materials.
The results show that the reference brick partition P1 is the least environmentally demanding in the
comparison. It has 17-38% lower environmental impacts in GWP and 65-107% lower environmental impacts
in PE compared to PCM-based P2, P3 and P4 partitions. Figures 4 and 5 indicate two main reasons for the
difference. First reason is higher replacement rate (lower durability) considered for the light-weight
partitions with PCM (P2-P4). It is most pronounced in the left chart in Figure 4. The chart shows that P1 has
16-29 % higher initial environmental impacts (modules A1-A5) in GWP compared to P2-P4. However the
initial advantage of PCM-based partitions is turned over due to the amount of replacement materials added
during their use (module B4). Moreover, this is connected to the second reason for the “failure” of PCM-
based partitions: High environmental impacts of both the evaluated PCM and the metal containers. Figure 5
shows that environmental impacts of the plasterboard partition serving as the basis of P2-P4 are 47 % (GWP)
or 22 % (PE) lower than environmental impacts of the brick partition P1. On the other hand, solely the
181
combination of PCM with stainless steel container has environmental impacts comparable to the P1 (15%
lower in GWP, 29% higher in PE).
CONCLUSIONS
The research presented in this paper aimed at multi-criteria evaluation of suitability of selected metals in the
role of PCM containers. First part of the research was the experiment evaluating the corrosion of metals
exposed to PCMs. The experiment has shown that tested metals suffer little weight changes and no visual
changes in organic PCMs such as Linpar 17. Calculated variations in CR (see Figure 2, right) were very low.
They were probably caused by measurement errors (due to accuracy limits of the measuring equipment). In
contrast, the metals exposed to inorganic PCMs have shown relevant weight and visual changes (see Figure
1, right and Figure 2, left) reflected in higher CR values. Overall the experimental results indicate that tested
metals (excluding stainless steel) are not suitable as containers for long-term storing of PCMs (especially
inorganic) due to danger of corrosion. The worst performing combination was inorganic PCM Rubitherm
SP25 and copper. The best was organic PCM Linpar 17 and stainless steel.
The results of the environmental assessment further confirm that evaluated hypothetical application of PCMs
in metal containers is not suitable replacement of traditional construction materials. The reasons are
relatively high environmental impacts of the containers (especially steel) and their lower durability compared
to the traditional construction materials, such as bricks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation under project No.19-20943S “Compatibility of
plastics and metals with latent heat storage media for integration in buildings”.
REFERENCES
[1] Alva, G.; Lin, Y.; Fang, G. An overview of thermal energy storage systems. Energy 2018, 144, pg.
341-378.
[2] Ferrer, G.; Solé, A.; Barreneche, C.; Martorell, I.; Cabeza, L. F.; Corrosion of metal containers for use
in PCM energy storage. Renewable Energy 76, 2015, 465 – 469.
[3] Moreno, P.; Miró, L.; Solé, A.; Barreneche, C.; Solé, C.; Martonell, I.; Cabeza, L. F.; Corrosion of
metal and metal alloy containers in contact with phase change materials (PCM) for potential heating and
cooling applications. Applied Energy 2014, 125, pg. 238-245
[4] Oró, E.; Miró, L.; Barreneche, C.; Martorell, I.; Farid, M. M.; Cabeza, L. F.; Corrosion of metal and
polymer containers for use in PCM cold storage. Applied Energy 2013, 109, 449-453.
[5] CEN (2011): Sustainability of construction works – Environmental product declarations – Core rules
for the product category of construction products (EN 15978). Brussels: European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), 2011
[6] Horn R. et al: Life Cycle Assessment of Innovative Materials for Thermal Energy Storage in
Buildings. Procedia CIRP 69/2018, pg. 206- 211
182
IMPACT OF THE INSTALLED INLET VENTILATION UNIT IN THE WINDOW ON
ITS OVERALL AERODYNAMIC AND THERMAL PROPERTIES
Daniel Szabo1, Boris Bielek2, Josip Klem3

1
Department of Building Construction, STU Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Radlinského 11,
810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: daniel.szabo@stuba.sk
2
810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: boris.bielek@stuba.sk
3
810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: josip.klem@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The article deals with the issue of ventilation of modern low-energy buildings, where on the one hand there
are hygienic requirements for the required air exchange in the building and on the other hand the
requirements of energy efficiency of buildings. A frequently used system in Slovakia in the present is a
hybrid vacuum ventilation with air inlet through the ventilation unit situated in the window construction or in
the facade construction and with air exhaust through the shaft with exhaust fan. The subject of the article are
the supply ventilation units installed in the window construction. On the examples of two particular above-
window ventilation units, it performs their laboratory experimental aerodynamic quantification, expressed in
volumetric air flow depending on the pressure difference, necessary for designing of the ventilation system.
The laboratory experiment also assesses the influence of the ventilation unit on the overall thermo-technical
properties of the window, expressed by the heat transfer coefficient.
INTRODUCTION
When designing and realization current low-energy buildings, there are two basic requirements. On the one
hand, it is the energy efficiency of buildings with the aim of significantly reducing the energy requirement
for their operation, and on the other hand, it is the hygiene requirements of the required air exchange in
buildings. The largest heat losses in buildings are those due to heat transmission and unregulated ventilation.
We can eliminate those losses by increasing the thermo-technical properties of the envelope of the building
and by increasing its airtightness. This leads to the need of transforming of the uncontrolled ventilation by
infiltration into controlled ventilation systems (optimally by using heat recovery from the exhaust air to
preheat the supply air in the heat recovery unit).
CONTROLLED VENTILATION SYSTEM

The ventilation system can be regulated on two ways. First way of regulation of the ventilation system is
with the influence of a subjective factor - a man based on his subjective feeling and preferences, either by
mechanical opening or closing, or by motor regulation of air supply and exhaust. Second way of regulation
of the ventilation system is without subjective factor influence by automatic regulation based on evaluation
of indoor climate quality, humidity, CO2, chemical properties of air or detectors for the presence and
movement of persons. The automatic ventilation control system is more efficient in achieving a balance
between hygiene requirements and the energy efficiency of buildings.
©2020 D. Szabo. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-030 183
Szabó et al, Impact of the installed inlet ventilation unit in the window on its overall aerodynamic and thermal properties
If the dynamics of the movement of the ventilated air is based on natural forces (a combination of wind
effect and natural convection), we are talking about natural ventilation. If the movement of the ventilated air
is ensured by fans, this is forced mechanical ventilation. Due to the inconstancy of natural forces, it is
difficult to ensure the necessary air exchange by natural ventilation. A suitable solution seems to be its
combination with forced ventilation, which comes into operation when natural forces are not able to provide
the necessary dynamics of air movement. Then we talk about hybrid ventilation.
At present, a frequent solution of hybrid ventilation is the supply of air to the living room via the air inlet
dampers installed in the window construction or in the perimeter wall, ideally above the heating device. The
movement of air from living room to rooms where the deteriorated air is extracted (usually bathroom and
toilet) should be made possible by a design solution in the form of a threshold-free door or interior slots
installed in the door or partition wall. The suction itself is ensured naturally, by the shaft effect with the help
of a solar chimney or a ventilation head. If necessary, to ensure the required air exchange, the fan is activated
when at the exhaust shaft - Fig. 1. In the heating season, the heat from the exhaust air can be used by mean of
forced ventilation using a heat pump for heating of the DHW.
Figure 1. Diagram of hybrid shaft ventilation. 1- supplied outdoor air, 2- interior grille in the door or wall,
3- extracted air, 4- waste air, 5- active element of mechanical ventilation (fan), 6- self-regulatory air inlet
ventilation unit, 7- ductwork
INLET VENTILATION UNITS

To the most important elements of the controlled ventilation belong the already above mentioned inlet vent
flaps – Fig.2, which aerodynamic, acoustic, thermal-technical properties, and design significantly affect the
functioning of the controlled ventilation system. Because of this reason, the selection of the appropriate inlet
vent flaps is important for the proper dimensioning of the controlled ventilation system.
SUBJECT OF MEASUREMENT
In the laboratories of the Faculty of Civil Engineering of Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava we
tested inlet vent flaps installed on the window frame structure. Specifically, there have been measured inlet
vent flaps type Renson INVISIVENT EVO AK Basic and AKD MAX from Belgian firm Renson attached
through the anchoring clips and compression tapes on the 6-chamber window profile Rehau Geneo PHZ
glazed by triple glazing system 4-16Ar-4-16Ar-4 and 12-12Ar-6-12Ar-8 which we got for our measurements
from the company Sulko in cooperation with the company Rehau – Fig.3, Fig.4. In the large pressure
chamber – Fig.5, was measured air permeability expressed by the volumetric air flow Qv (m3/h), which are at
various pressure differentials able to release inlet vent flaps. In the large climate chamber – Fig.6, were
measured thermal properties expressed by the heat transfer coefficient Uw (W/(m2.K)).
184
A B C
D E F
Figure 2. Variants of the installation of the inlet ventilation flaps. A - in the wall, B - in the glazing, C - in the
frame, D - above the frame, E - integrated with the shading device, F - in the pitched roof in the loft.
Figure 3. Vertical section of 6-chamber window profiles REHAU Geneo PHZ with installed inlet vent flap,
the left Renson INVISIVENT EVO AK Basic and right Renson INVISIVENT EVO AKD Max.
1 - air supply from the exterior, 2 - internal overpressure relief flap, 3 – integrated noise reduction,
4 - interior closable reclining (5 positions) flap, 5 – entry of air into the interior.
185
Figure 4. Exterior view of the inlet vent flap installed on the window frame where you can see the inlets of
the vent flap type Renson Invisivent AKD Max (left) and Renson Invisivent AK Basic (right).
Figure 5. Scheme and view of large pressure chamber and view of the window with inlet vent flap installed
to the masking panels in a large pressure chamber. 1 – test sample, 2 – mounting frame, 3 – large pressure
chamber, 4 – barometer, 5 – four-way valve, 6 – fan.
Figure 6. Scheme and view of large climate chamber. A - fixed climate chamber with programmable
conditions of outdoor climate, B - mobile climate chamber with programmable conditions of indoor climate,
C - small mobile climate chamber - Hot box with programmable conditions of indoor climate, B + C -
protected warm chamber, D - masking panel of known physical properties, E – measured sample.
This type of inlet vent flaps can be fitted on PVC, wood or aluminium window profile constructions of depth
from 50 to 184 mm and a maximum length of 6 m. This flap has five positions for opening and thus for the
air flow control. From the fully closed position the flap can be gradually folded up to the last fifth position
that is already fully opened position. The air flow through this inlet vent flap can be controlled mechanically
186
or remotely by motor. The internal overpressure relief flap that automatically closes itself at an elevated
pressure difference prevents the draft feeling occurrence by the influence of the increased air velocity –
Fig.3.
Advantage of the AKD Max ventilation flap compared to AK Basic may also be that from the outside it can
be covered by the contact insulation system, as the intake of the vent flap is located from the bottom. This
application does not weaken the architectural expression of the facade. On the other hand, inlets have smaller
areas that are capable, at the same pressure difference, release less the air volume compared to the vent flap
AK Basic.
OBJECTIVE OF MEASUREMENT
The objective of measurement was to evaluate the measured values of the air permeability of the inlet vent
flaps and to assess how their installation worsened thermal properties of the window.
METHODOLOGY OF MEASUREMENT
Our measurement methodology was based on the two combinations of windows Rehau Geneo PHZ and inlet
vent flaps Renson Invisivent EVO.
• The combination K1: We decided to install inlet vent flap Renson Invisivent EVO AKD Max on the
window profile Rehau Geneo PHZ glazed by triple glazing system 12-12Ar-6-12Ar-8, which, according
to the manufacturer should reach the level of sound reduction index Rw = 47 dB – Fig.3. This combination
is interesting from this point of view for use in the facades of buildings close to the sources with higher
levels of external noise. In the large pressure chamber we measured the air permeability at the pressure
difference Δp = 2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100 Pa in the opened and closed position of the ventilation flap.
In the climate chamber we measured window thermo-technical properties without and also with the
installed inlet vent flap on the window, so we could assess to what extent the installation of the
ventilation flap deteriorates window thermo-technical properties, expressed by the value of heat transfer
coefficient Uw (W/(m2.K)).
• The combination K2: We installed the second inlet vent flap Renson Invisivent EVO AK Basic on the
window profile Rehau Geneo PHZ glazed by common triple glazing system type 4-16Ar-4-16Ar-4 with a
value of sound insulation index Rw = 34 dB - Fig.3. This combination should be suitable for use in the
environment with normal levels of external noise. In the large pressure chamber, in this case, it was
possible to measure air permeability at pressure difference of Δp = Pa 2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100 only
in the closed position of the inlet vent flaps. In the opened position, the ventilation flap has a larger area
of inlet openings, it was possible to measure the air permeability at pressure difference of Δp = 1,2,4,8
and 10 Pa only in the first position of the smallest tilt flap. In the second tilt position we could measure
values regarding to the increased airflow only for the pressure difference of Δp = 1 and 2 Pa. In 3, 4 and 5
fully-open position, we were able to measure the air permeability values only at a differential pressure of
Δp = 1 Pa. We also assessed the impact of the inlet vent flap on thermo-technical properties of the
window Uw measured in the climate chamber.
RESULTS OF AIR PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS

The results of measurements of air permeability in the opened position of inlet vent flaps are expressed in
volumetric air flow Qv (m3/h) at a pressure difference of Δp (Pa) and displayed in graphs – Fig.7, Fig.8 and
Fig.9. The inlet vent flap Renson Invisivent EVO AKD Max of length of 1.18 m we measured at a
differential pressure of Δp = 2 Pa air flow rate Qv = 5,6 m3/h, at Δp = 4 Pa => Qv = 7,5 m3/h and at Δp = 8 Pa
=> Qv = 10,6 m3/h. In order to ensure the necessary air exchange rate of approximately 90 m3/h for 4-
member family in a 2-bedroom apartment, it would be necessary to install in the rooms total of 9 units or 8.5
m length of this type of ventilation flap (90 m3/h / 10,6 m3/h = 8,5). For relatively small area of inlets, only 8
187
x 200 = 1600 mm2 it reaches air flow rate 10,6 m3/h at the pressure difference of 8 Pa, but on the other side,
its manufacturer claims excellent thermo-technical properties have the value of U = 1,2 W/(m2.K) [2].
Figure 7. The measured volumetric air flow of combination K1 consisting of inlet vent flap Renson
Invisivent EVO AKD Max in the open position and installed on window profile Rehau Geneo PHZ glazed
by triple glazing system type 12-12Ar-6-12Ar-8.
Figure 8. The measured volumetric air flow of combination K2 consisting of inlet vent flap Renson
Invisivent EVO AK Basic in the open position No.1 and installed on window profile Rehau Geneo PHZ
glazed by triple glazing system type 4-16Ar-4-16Ar-4.
Figure 9. The measured volumetric air flow of combinations No.2 consisting of inlet vent flap Renson
Invisivent EVO AK Basic in the open position No.2,3,4,5 = completely open, and installed on window
profile Rehau Geneo PHZ glazed by triple glazing system type 4-16Ar-4-16Ar-4.
The inlet vent flap, type Renson Invisivent EVO AK Basic due to a larger area of the inlet opening of value
up to Aeqv ≈ 13 500 mm2/m was able to let through a larger volume of air flow even at the small pressure
differences – Fig.8. Therefore, we had to distinguish the position of the opening flap for which we were able
to measure the volumetric air flow as follows. In the first position of the opening the flap has been measured
at the pressure difference of Δp = 1 Pa air flow rate Qv = 10,5 m3/h, at Δp = 2 Pa => Qv = 16,3 m3/h, at Δp =
188
4 Pa => Qv = 23,9 m3/h, at Δp = 8 Pa => Qv = 33,7 m3/h and at Δp = 10 Pa => Qv = 38,6 m3/h – Fig.8. In the
second position of the opening the flap was measured at the pressure difference of Δp = 1 Pa air flow rate Qv
= 27,9 m3/h and at Δp = 2 Pa => Qv = 39,3 m3/h – Fig.9. In the third position of the opening we were able to
measure the volumetric air flow only at pressure difference of Δp = 1 Pa in the value of Qv = 40,1 m3/h –
Fig.9. In the fourth and fifth position (the maximum opening position for the ventilation flap), we measured
at the pressure difference of Δp = 1 Pa the same value volumetric air flow Qv = 40,2 m3/h – Fig.9. The
manufacturer of this inlet vent flap declares thermal properties of U = 2,0 W/(m2.K) [2].
RESULTS OF THERMAL MEASUREMENTS

In the large climate chamber - Fig. 6, the thermal-technical properties of both of the individual windows as
well as the windows with installed ventilation units were measured - Fig.10, Fig.11.
The measured heat transfer coefficients of the examined window samples are summarized in Table 1.
Figure 10. View from the outside (from the cold chamber) to the Rehau Geneo PHZ window with an
installed ventilation unit mounted in the mask panel of the climate chamber, the Renson Invisivent EVO
AKD Max on the left and Renson Invisivent EVO AK Basic on the right.
Figure 11. A view from the interior (from the warm chamber) to the Rehau Geneo PHZ window mounted in
the mask panel of the chamber, on the left with the installed ventilation unit and on the right window itself
without the ventilation unit.
189
Table 1. The resulting heat transfer coefficient Uw (W/(m2K)) obtained by measurement

in the large climate chamber.
Window Rehau Window without Window with Renson Ventilation unit flap
Geneo PHZ with a ventilation unit Invisivent inlet position
glazing ventilation unit closed
12-12Ar-6-12Ar-8 0,81 W/(m2K) EVO AKD Max 0,86 W/(m2K)
2
4-16Ar-4-16Ar-4 0,78 W/(m K) EVO AK Basic 0,89 W/(m2K)
The installed Rensom Invisivent EVO AKD Max ventilation system in the Rehau Geneo PHZ window with
the 12-12Ar-6-12Ar-8 glass system in the closed position degraded only minimally the thermal properties of
the window expressed by the heat transfer coefficient from Uw = 0.81 W/(m2K) to Uw = 0.86 W/(m2K),
while the window fulfills the value of Uw ≤ Uw,r1 = 1.0 W/(m2K) required by the STN 73 0540-2.
Similarly, the ventilation unit Rensom Invisivent EVO AK Basic in the Rehau Geneo PHZ window with the
4-16Ar-4-16Ar-4 glass system in the closed position degraded the thermal properties of the window
expressed by the heat transfer coefficient from Uw = 0.78 W/(m2K) to Uw = 0.89 W/(m2K), the measured
assembly in question complies with the value of Uw ≤ Uw,r1 = 1.0 W/(m2K) required by the STN 73 0540-2.
CONCLUSIONS
When designing a controlled ventilation system the important role is to select the proper inlet vent flaps. It is
necessary to take into account the actual conditions of the environment in which the building is located. Any
such installation of the inlet vent flap in the window structure affects the thermo-technical and acoustic
properties of the window. The aerodynamic design of these air intake flaps alone as well as their accessories
(silencers, pollen filters...) have a significant impact not only on their aerodynamic properties but also on
their acoustic and thermal properties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This contribution was supported by the Agency for Research and Development under Contract no. APVV-
16-0126 and by Scientific Grant Agency MŠVVŠ SR and SAV under VEGA 1/0113/19.
REFERENCES
[1] V. Majsniar (2014): Naturally controlled ventilation of buildings by ventilation units integrated into the
building façade, Bratislava: SUT-Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2014.
[2] Information on: http://deutschland.renson.be/products/Deutschland-Invisivent-Evo-AKDMAX.html.
[3] F. Allard, M. Santamouris, S. Alvarez, P. Programme (1998): Natural ventilation in building, London:
James & James Science Publishers, 1998.
[4] H. Davidsson, R. Bernardo, B. Hellström (2013): Hybrid ventilation with innovative heat recovery – a
system analysis, Buildings 2013, 3, pg. 245-257.
[5] P. Heiselberg (2006): Design of natural and hybrid ventilation, Aalborg: Aalborg University,
Department of civil engineering, 2006.
[6] M. Székyová, K. Frestl, R. Nový (2006): Ventilation and air conditioning, Bratislava: Jaga Group, 2006.
[7] P. Wouters, N. Heijmans, C. Delmotte, L. Vandaele (1999): Clasification of hybrid ventilation concepts,
Belgian Building Research Institte, HybVent Forum 99, Sydney, 1999
190
EVALUATION OF THE KUNERTS GLAZING IN SUMMER AND WINTER
CLIMATIC CONDITION IN SLOVAKIA
Daniel Szabó1, Ivan Chmúrny2

1
05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: daniel.szabó@stuba.sk
2
05 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: ivan.chmurny@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The paper focuses the measurements of heat losses and solar gains of the Kunerts glazing compared to the
ordinary insulating double glazing under actual climate condition in Slovakia. Both sample of glazing have
the same thermal transmittance Ug = 1.1 Wm-2K-1. Measurements were carried out in the Twin-Boxes in
location Bratislava. The façade in which the measured samples were installed is oriented to the south. There
was a long-term measurement in summer and winter conditions. Technical characteristics of the measured
glazing samples and measured values of temperatures, surface temperatures, heat losses or gains, and local
climatic conditions measured from the meteorological station located on the roof of the laboratory are
described.
INTRODUCTION
It is important to reduce the energy consumption in the winter period for heating and in the summer period
for air conditioning. Kunerts glazing (Kunert solar diode glazing KSD) 1 could be a means of reducing
energy consumption in both winter and summer. The condition of successful use of Kunerts glazing,
however, is the need to rotate the glazing separately for summer and winter operation. In this paper we deal
with a description of KSD glazing, measurement of its parameters in Twin-Boxes and a partial evaluation of
its possibilities for use especially for winter and summer mode compared to ordinary insulating double
glazing.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURED SAMPLES

Two types of insulating double glazing Kunerts glazing and ordinary insulating double glazing have been
measured and compared in the following compositions:
Sample no.1 Kunerts glazing:
- SGG Diamond thickness 4mm
- Spacer Swisspacer – V thickness 16mm, filling with Argon
- Stadip 44.2 / Pun+P thickness 8mm
Sample no.2 ordinary glazing (double-glazing insulating unit). This glazing is used for comparison as
reference glazing:
- SGG Planilux thickness 4mm
- Spacer Aluminium thickness 16mm, filling with Argon
- SGG Planitherm (Low-E) thickness
©2020 D. Szabo. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-031 191
Szabó, D., Chmúrny, I., Evaluation of the Kunerts glazing….
Measurements were performed with and without solar radiance. Basically is KSD a double-glazing
insulating unit with low-e coating. On one side there is a “extra clear” glass 4mm thick (also called diamond
glass), which has an antireflex coating in order to lower the reflection of solar radiation, further followed by
an air cavity 16mm thick filled with argon on 90%. On the other side of the cavity from the outer side is used
a 4 mm thick green glass coloured in mass with an increased absorbency. On the way closer to the cavity
follows PVB foil and commonly used architectural float glass 4 mm thick which is from the inner side (a
side closer to the cavity) equipped with soft low-e coating. Standard value thermal transmittance Ug = 1.1
Wm-2K-1. The principle of function of KSD glazing is in absorption of certain amount of solar energy
corresponding to absoption of the green absorptive glass. Subsequently absorbed solar radiation is reradiated
into the side where is the green absorptive glass oriented. Absorption of solar radiation is done in infrared
and visible field of solar radiation.
Figure 1. Scheme of function of KSD glazing in summer season (left)

Figure 2 Scheme of function of KSD glazing in winter season (right)
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE
The measurement is based on the concept of pavilion measuring 2. Two identical test boxes (twin-boxes)
are used for comparative measurements of heat transfer through transparent and opaque building envelope
structures. One of the test box is fitted with a reference sample. The other one is fitted with the measured
sample (KSD glazing) compared to the reference sample (Figure 3). The measurement in both test boxes is
performed under the effect of non-stationary weather conditions. This method of measurement characterizes
the heat transfer between interior and exterior of building through transparent envelope structures in much
more realistic way than measurement under stationary conditions in the laboratory.
Figure 3. View on the measured samples in twin-boxes (left)

Figure.4. Part of the equipment of the weather station (right)
192
The principal part of the measurements is to acquire the parameters of the outdoor climate. For this purpose
serves the weather station (Figure 4), which measures following parameters: air temperature, relative
humidity of air, wind direction and speed, global and diffuse solar radiation incident on a horizontal plane
and global solar radiation and long-wave heat radiation on a vertical plane.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF GLAZINGS IN SUMMER SEASON

From a large number of measurements in summer season, we chose a record from the period 6.9.-10.9.2016
to show the different properties of KSD glazing compared to the reference glazing - ordinary insulating
double glazing.
Energy flow Q1, Q2 [W]
Solar energy Ig [W  m -2]
Course of measured physical quantities
800,00
600,00
400,00
200,00 Ig
0,00 Q1
Q2
-200,00
-400,00
-600,00
-800,00
6.9.16 0:00 7.9.16 0:00 8.9.16 0:00 9.9.16 0:00 10.9.16 0:00
Time
Figure 5. Courses of solar radiation Ig in Wm-2 and heat flows through sample KSD denoted Q1 and Q2 for
reference glazing in W – summer season
From the Figure 5, it can be seen that through the KSD glazing in summer season passes through less solar
energy than through ordinary insulating glazing. The total amount of energy flow thus obtained for that
period from 6.9.2016 00:00 hrs. until 10.9.2016 00:00 hrs. was:
- KSD glazing 5965 Wh
- reference glazing 10291 Wh
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF GLAZING IN WINTER SEASON

The thermo-technical properties of KSD glazing and reference glazing were also measured in winter season.
From a large number of measurements, we chose a record from the period 25.2.-1.3.2017.
Energy flow Q1, Q2 [W]
Course of measured physical quantities
Solar energy Ig [W  m -2]
1000,00
800,00
600,00
400,00
Ig
200,00
Q1
0,00 Q2
-200,00
-400,00
-600,00
-800,00
25.2.17 0:00 26.2.17 0:00 27.2.17 0:00 28.2.17 0:00 1.3.17 0:00
Time
Figure 6. Courses of solar radiation Ig in Wm-2 and heat flows through sample KSD denoted Q1 and Q2 for
reference glazing in W – winter season
193
The total amount of energy flow thus obtained for that period from 25.2.2017 00:00 hrs. until 1.3.2017 00:00
hrs. was:
- KSD glazing 2261 Wh
- reference glazing 2835 Wh
ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF KSD GLAZING

The specificity of KSD glazing are different values of the total energy transmittance of solar radiation by
glazing in winter and summer season. This is due to the position of the absorbent glazing in the summer
period from the outside and in winter season from the inside of glazing. Table 1 shows the declared values of
the optical and thermal properties according to the Calumen program 3 when KSD glazing is based on
products from Saint Gobain. Calculation of total solar energy transmittance (or solar factor) is defined in 4.
Table 1. Thermal and optical properties of KSD glazing
Property Summer season Winter season
Thickness 28.8 mm 28.8 mm
-2
Weight 30.8 kg.m 30.8 kg.m-2
Light transmittance 69  69 
g-value 0.39 0.61
Ug- value 1.1 1.1
From measured courses of heat flows in twin-boxes we can estimate measured values of total solar energy
transmittance (g – value). Thermal balance is based on equation (1) for steady state 5:
Q  A . (U g . i   e   g . I ) (1)
where
Q is heat flow in W,
A area of glazing unit in m2,
I, e environmental temperature in oC,
I intensity of solar radiation in Wm-2.
The equation also applies approximately to non-stationary temperature conditions, for measured courses
from Figures 5 and 6. Measured total solar energy transmittance of KSD glazing during some of days is in
Table 2.
Table 2. Measured optical properties of KSD glazing
Day g-value
7. 9. 2016 0.40
8. 9. 2016 0.38
10. 9. 2016 0.40
26. 2. 2017 0.62
27. 2. 2017 0.60
28. 2. 2017 0.60
CONCLUSIONS
In summer season, the anticipated reduced solar heat gains of KSD glazing in comparison with the reference
(ordinary) glazing were proved. The solar heat gains of KSD glazing reach approximately 58 % of the heat
gains of the reference glazing. KSD glazing significantly reduces the overheating of the interior in summer
season. Based on the measured results we can state that KSD glazing is especially suitable for summer mode.
194
In winter season KSD glazing did not reach the expected solar gain higher than the reference glazing. It
reached only 80% of the solar heat gain of the reference glazing. In winter season KSD glazing does not
have better properties than ordinary double glazing.
The measurement shows that the average surface temperatures of the corresponding sides of the measured
glasses without the effect of sunlight were practically identical.
In summer season, the anticipated reduced solar heat gains of KSD glazing in comparison with the reference
glazing were proved.
For better using Kunerts glazing (KSD) is the need to rotate the glazing separately for summer and winter
season. So we need window with the rotary sash. On the Figure 7 is the prototype of such window with
Kunerts glazing, which was tested in laboratory from view of air permeability and water tightness.
Figure 7. Rotary window with Kunerts glazing

However, the window with rotary sash and with KSD glazing presents some problems with air permeability
and water tightness. Future research should deal with these problems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This article was supported by Scientific Grant Agency MŠVVŠ SR and SAV under VEGA 1/0113/19, by the
Slovak Research and Development Agency under contract no. APVV-16-0126 and by University project [6].
REFERENCES
1 Kunert, H.: Insulating glass element for glazing a building. U. S. Patent number 6589613, 2003
2 Szabó, D.: Summer and winter operation of KSD glazing in twin-boxes. Proceeding of ATF 2017, 5th
conf. of Applied Technology, Zagreb, 2017
3 Calumen® II – Simulation program to calculate key performance of glass, Saint Gobain, 2012
[4] EN 410: 1998 Glass in building. Determination of luminous and solar characteristics of glazing
5 Chmúrny, I.: Windows Energy Labelling in Slovakia. Advanced Materials Research, vol. 1020, pp. 597-
600, doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1020.597
[6 University scientific park of STU Bratislava. ITMS: 26240220084. Available from:
http://www.stuba.sk/sk/pracoviska/projektove-stredisko/projekty-strukturalnych-fondov-
eu/projekty/univerzitny-vedecky-park-stu-bratislava.html?page_id=7295
195
HYGROTHERMAL MONITORING OF A DOUBLE-SKIN
VENTILATED COLD FLAT ROOF
Dóra Szagri1, Balázs Nagy1, Dániel Bakonyi2
1
Department of Construction Materials and Technologies, Budapest University of Technology and
Economics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Műegyetem rkp. 3. K.I.85., 1111 Budapest, Hungary,
Email: szagri.dora@epito.bme.hu, nagy.balazs@epito.bme.hu
2 Department of Building Constructions, Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Faculty of Architecture, Műegyetem rkp. 3. K.II.40., 1111 Budapest, Hungary, Email:
dbakonyi@epsz.bme.hu
ABSTRACT
In Central-Europe, a large proportion of people live in prefabricated tower blocks (most commonly
called as panel buildings) which were built in the past 30-50 years. These buildings are now obsolete
in terms of their energy performance and their condition has deteriorated, therefore they need to be
refurbished, which action already started in the past couple of years. One of the most common
building construction of tower blocks is the double-skin ventilated cold deck flat roof, which consist
of the inner reinforced concrete roof panel, some thermal insulation (expanded polystyrene or mineral
wool), a ventilated air layer and the reinforced concrete outer shell which holds the bituminous
waterproofing membrane. In our research, we investigated these roofs during a refurbishment of a
tower-block building with blown-in glass wool thermal insulation in Budapest, Hungary. We
examined the real built-in hygrothermal performance of the double-skin flat roof with blown-in
thermal insulation, and how thermal insulation capability changes during the year in these structures.
The insulation was designed to not fully fill the ventilated air layer, therefore the cold roof continued
to function as a ventilated/slightly ventilated roof. During the refurbishment, the external reinforced
concrete shell of the roof was drilled by using a core drill in specified locations and then the glass
wool was blown-in. During the process, we have set up a hygrothermal monitoring system in the roof.
We placed temperature and relative humidity measuring sensors between the layers of the roof
construction at four distinct places in the roof, as well as on the internal and external sides. The
measurement procedure lasted for a year. The weather data for the calculations and simulations were
obtained from a nearby weather station. In our paper, we analyse the monitoring measurement results,
as well as demonstrate the building physical aspects of the refurbishment process and show the real
hygrothermal performance of the materials built-in the roof construction.
INTRODUCTION
Residential buildings have been manufactured using industrialized technology in Hungary from the
1960s to the 1980s, which means around 500 000 tower-block flats [Birghoffer and Hikisch, 1994].
Most of the buildings need to be renovated not only aesthetically but also technically. The heating
energy consumption of these buildings is unacceptably high, partially because of the poorly sealed
and often single-layer glazed windows, partially because of the reduced thickness of thermal
insulation [Ertsey, 2009]. Over the past year, the building energy regulation has undergone enormous
changes, getting more and more strict [Szalay and Zöld, 2014; Horváth, 2017]. Based on the cost-
optimized requirement level, the thermal transmittance of flat roofs is limited to 0.17 W/(m2·K).
©2020 D. Szagri. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-032 196
Szagri et al., Hygrothermal monitoring of a double-skin ventilated cold flat roof
These old buildings are not even close to this limit, so it is essential during renovations to meet this
requirement. In the design of tower-block buildings, many different structures were applied: the
typical flat roof design was the straight order flat roof, but there were also reverse-ordered structures,
which were more or less successful. Double-skin cold roofs used in the design of pitched roofs have
also been tested in flat roof versions due to their many favourable properties. Double skin flat roofs
are excessively advantageous in terms of waterproofing, thermal insulation and humidity
characteristics [Zingre et al., 2015; Shen et al., 2017]. In this structure, the lower skin consists of the
load-bearing ceiling structure and the thermal insulation on it. Moisture escaping from the inner
heated space enters the air gap above them, where it is removed by ventilation. The waterproofing
layer is placed on the upper skin, separated from the thermal insulation. In the case of the air gap, the
air inlets and outlets should be distributed so as not to create an unventilated corner. A more thorough
examination of the operation and efficiency of ventilation has not yet been carried out in Hungary,
which is why Knauf Insulation Company decided to carry out the posterior thermal insulation of a
double-skin flat roof with blown glass wool, and at the same time launch monitoring measurements
in the roof, in a similar way to an experiment a few years ago [Nagy, Szagri, and Bakonyi, 2019].
With these measurements, it can be examined how the renovated roof structure behaves in terms of
building physics, and to examine the effectiveness of the air gap created in the roofs. The
measurement data can be the basis for further dynamic simulation procedures.
MATERIALS
In the original structure, above the 15 cm reinforced concrete slab was an 8 cm EPS thermal insulation
layer, which was already replaced by stone wool in some places. The blown insulation was placed
over these layers in the 20-25 cm air gap to improve the flat roof’s thermal performance under the U
= 0.17 W/(m2·K) limit. This type of thermal insulation is specifically designed to quickly and easily
insulate loft spaces that are often difficult to access. The product is a non-flammable, lightweight
solution with minimal load on a given structure and it has excellent thermal properties: its thermal
conductivity usually varies between 0.034-0.045 W/(m·K) [Bozsaky, 2017]. It is also suitable for
insulation of new buildings as well as for the renovation of older pitched roof homes, where rafters
or attic slabs are often not insulated. The product is blown using mechanized technology: the material
is transported through the conveyor pipe to the insulation area so that working conditions are not
affected by the weather. In our case, to place the pipe used for blown insulation, the waterproofing of
the upper skin had to be disrupted with a core drill in several places and therefore it was also possible
to examine the layer order based on core samples (Figure 1). The resulting holes were later equipped
with vapour vents to help remove moisture from the cavity. This final design and the appropriate
thickness of the additional insulation already ensures that the energy requirements are met. There is
an air layer of 0-2 cm above the insulation, which is not uniform in thickness due to the blown-in
insulating technology.
Figure 1. Hole drilling process, core sample from the roof

197
METHODOLOGY
The temperature and relative humidity of the structural layers were measured in four cross-sections
at 10-minute intervals. The temperature and relative humidity sensors were Sensirion SHT 75 type
with a temperature measurement tolerance of ±0.5 K and a humidity tolerance of ±2 %. The 1st cross-
section was located next to a ventilated chimney, the 2nd was next to the attic on the shorter side of
the building, the 3rd was in the middle of the roof and the 4th one was on the longer side. The sensors
were placed in 3 different points in the cross-section: the 1st sensor was above the blown-in insulation
in the air gap, 2nd was between the blown-in insulation and the EPS insulation and the 3rd one was
under the EPS. The sensors and their placement are shown in Figure 2 as the implementation of the
blown thermal insulation through the pre-drilled holes. In addition to the structural measurements,
we carried out further measurements to analyse the internal and external conditions. The temperature
and relative humidity were measured in the top floor apartment, as well as internal surface
temperatures. Measurements began in December 2015 and lasted approximately 1 year until March
2017, considering the more recently experienced extremely cold winter. In total, more than 1 million
values were recorded during the measurements, which required a reduction for further analysis.
Figure 2. Sensor placement in the roof structure, insulating process
During the data processing, hourly averages were made from the measurement results and erroneous
values were filtered out, therefore these new data are also suitable for subsequent dynamic
simulations. After comparing and analysing the data, it is possible to examine in more detail the
constantly changing thermal conductivity of the blown glass wool insulation. The value of the thermal
conductivity of the layer can be determined according to ISO 10456:2007 based on the temperature
and relative humidity values measured during the experiment:
∙ ∙ , (1)
where 2 is the adjusted thermal conductivity, 1 is the declared value of thermal conductivity, ,
and are the temperature, moisture and age conversion factors, is temperature conversion
coefficient, 2 and 1 represents the temperature difference between the first and second set of
conditions, is moisture conversion coefficient, 2 and 1 are moisture content in case of the first
and second set of conditions. In this structure, the fT value was considered with 0.0062 1/K, while the
fΦ was 4. The moisture storage function gives the connection between the relative humidity in the
material and the moisture content, which was considered according to MSZ 24140:2015.
198

Results obtained after data cleaning are shown in Figure 3, in our case the 1st and 2nd sensors are the
most important to examine the insulation and the air gap, thus these points are described in detail.
a) 50
40
30
℃ 20
10
0
-10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
Time [week]
1. location - 1. sensor 1. location - 2. sensor 2. location - 1. sensor
4. location - 1. sensor 4. location - 2. sensor External temperature
b) 25 c) 50
20 45
15 40
10 35
℃ ℃
5 30
0 25
-5 20
-10 15
1 2 3 4 5 27 28 29 30 31
Time [week] Time [week]
Figure 3. a) temperature distribution in different measurement points during a year, b) temperature

distribution in January, c) temperature distribution in July
Figure (a) shows the temperature in the case of both of the sensors in every measurement location
compared to the external temperature. It can be observed that the values per sensor show quite similar
tendency, there is no big difference between the results. The average temperature value of the sensors
over the whole measurement period was 18.6, 17.6, 18.3, 17.4 °C (1. sensor – 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
location) and in case of the second sensor 21.7, 23.3, 23.6 and 21.9 °C respectively. So, the difference
between the extremes were less than 10%. Figures (b) and (c) highlight the difference between the
two months. While the former is highlight the first month of the year, the latter shows July. The red
and blue lines represent the envelope of the measurement results, while the middle green line
represents the mean values. When comparing the two months, it is clear that the higher temperature
fluctuation in the summer is more visible in the sensor data, and between the two extreme values are
less scattered sensor data. In general, the temperature at the first measurement point was always
higher than the external temperature, the difference is most pronounced during the summer months
when it reached 20 °C. In the case of relative humidity values the results were plotted in the same
layout (Figure 4). In this case, the difference between the mean values is also around 10%, during the
measurement no critical values have appeared, the maximum relative humidity throughout the
structure remained below 90%, except for location 4 below the exterior concrete layer (1st sensor)
where it was 95%. Nowhere was a concentration of moisture visible, practically everywhere the
moisture content changes with the outside air. In the case of a sensor located in the air gap above the
insulation (1st sensor), the RH is quite low in the summer (c), with only a few cases of outlier values,
which can be explained by heavy rainfall. The difference between the extremes is also small, whereas
in the winter period the area between the envelope curves is much larger, in these months, the RH
measured at the 1st sensors are very close to the external values. The relative humidity between the
existing EPS insulation and the posterior blown insulation was between 29% and 34% in average, in
this point, 62% was the highest value experienced, which is not a problem from building physical
point of view.
199
a) 100
90
80
70
60
% 50
40
30
20
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
External RH 1. location - 1. sensor 1. location - 2. sensor Time [week]
b) 100 c) 100
80 80
60 60
% %
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 27 28 29 30 31
Time [week] Time [week]
Figure 4. a) relative humidity distribution in different measurement points during a year, b) RH
distribution in January, c) RH distribution in July
In the case of the internal measurements, it can be observed that upper floor flats have very warm and
dry air, with relative humidity almost constantly below 20%. This is advantageous for thermal
insulation because it barely transmits moisture through the slab to the thermal insulation, but at the
same time is especially unhealthy. Also, it should be noted that temperatures in the summer period,
often above 30°C, are particularly unfavourable, from this point of view, the overheating of the
building should be a priority, mechanical cooling is strongly recommended in the apartment.
0.056 0.056
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity
0.054 0.054
0.052 0.052
[W/(m·K)]
[W/(m·K)]
0.050 0.050
0.048 0.048
0.046 0.046
0.044 0.044
0.042 0.042
0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature [℃] Time [week]
4th meas. loc. 2nd meas. loc. 4th measurement location 3rd measurement location
3rd meas. loc. 1st meas. loc. 2nd measurement location 1st measurement location
Figure 5. Left: the relationship between thermal conductivity and temperature, right: change in the
thermal conductivity over a year
The thermal conductivities, shown in Figure 5 were calculated using Eq. 1 and shows the effect of
the higher temperature. The tested blown-in insulation responds more strongly to the change in
temperature than to the change in RH, therefore, the thermal insulation capability of the blown-in
200
glass wool layer is worse in the hot cooling season than in the moist and cold heating season. Based
on the measured temperature and RH data the adjusted thermal conductivity of the insulation was
0.049 W/(m·K) for every measurement location, which was 9% higher, than the declared thermal
conductivity of the material based on a yearly average. In the heating season from October 15 to April
15, it was 4.3% higher, but in the other half of the year, this difference was 13.5%. The loss of
performance of the thermal insulating material also entails the increase of the thermal transmittance
of roof construction compared. An interesting aspect of the study may be the measurement of
ventilation by sensors, but this has not been possible in the current research.
SUMMARY
Measurements were made to determine how the temperature and humidity inside the structure change
after the renovation. At measurement locations 1 and 4, a much smaller delay can be observed in the
change of internal temperature, presumably, there is a joint gap in the lower skin. At present, there is
no problem from this due to the low internal moisture load, but the phenomenon observed at two out
of the four examined points indicates that panel gap problems are common, therefore in the future,
the convective moisture load must be taken into consideration during the design process. The results
of the measurements showed that the renovation was adequate from building physical point of view
and there was no condensation anywhere in the structure, though we must note that the built-in
thermal conductivity of the glass wool insulation layer was almost 10% higher than its declared value.
Using the results, we are able to calibrate our dynamic simulations in the future to further analyse the
structure and we may also consider other possible retrofit materials and methods. The research results
can also help to reduce the gap between designed and real-life performance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge Knauf Insulation Kft. for supporting our research. Supported by
the ÚNKP-19-3 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology.
REFERENCES
[1] Birghoffer P. and Hikisch L. (1994): The renovation of prefabricated tower block buildings. [in
Hungarian]. Műszaki Könyvkiadó.
[2] Ertsey A. (2009): Sustainable Renovation of Housing in the Urban Environment. Periodica
Polytechnica Architecture 40 (1): 19, pg. 19-27.
[3] Szalay Zs., András Z. (2014): Definition of Nearly Zero-Energy Building Requirements Based
on a Large Building Sample. Energy Policy 74 (November), pg. 510–21.
[4] Horváth T. (2017): Épületenergetikai Szabályozásunk Körvonalai És Előzményei. Magyar
Építőipar 67 (5), pg. 156–65.
[5] Zingre Kishor T., Wan Man P., Wong Swee K., Toh Winston B. T., and Lee Irene Y. L. (2015):
Modelling of Cool Roof Performance for Double-Skin Roofs in Tropical Climate. Energy 82,
pg. 813–26.
[6] Shen L., Zhao Q., Li Z., and Zhao J. (2017): Thermal Performance of Double-Layer Black Tile
Roof in Winter. Energy Procedia 122, pg. 247–52.
[7] Nagy B., Szagri D. and Bakonyi D. (2019): Hygrothermal Analysis of Mineral Wool Insulated
Building Constructions Based on In Situ Measurements. Applied Mechanics and Materials 887,
pg. 605–12.
[8] Bozsaky D. (2017). Thermal insulating materials [in Hungarian]. TERC Kft.
[9] ISO 10456:2007: Building materials and products -- Hygrothermal properties -- Tabulated design
values and procedures for determining declared and design thermal values
[10] MSZ 24140:2015: Power Engineering Dimensioning Calculuses of Buildings and Building
Envelope Structures
201
INTERDISCIPLINARY DISCUSSIONS ON
SUSTAINABLE USE OF WOOD STRUCTURE AND FIRE RISK
- SITUATIONS IN JAPAN AND AUSTRIA -
Atsuko TANI1
1
Department of Architecture, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Vienna, Austria,
E-mail: tanijimu@lily.sannet.ne.jp
ABSTRACT
Wood is globally expected to be used for construction material for urban buildings because of its low
environmental impact. For sustainable use of wood, three aspects of sustainability – environment, society,
and economy – should be fulfilled. Currently, wood is required strict legal restrictions due to fear of social
fire risk increase, and individual building owners have to bear additional costs for the requirements.
Present building regulations deal with the worst fire scenario and require equivalent fire performance of
wood to non-combustible materials. The probability of social fire risks and financial burden about the
damage have not been discussed enough. That is one reason for strict legal restrictions on wood.
As legislative restrictions are decided by discussions among authorities of the area. Since each area has its
traditional way of use on wood, the decisions tend to be influenced by their local "common sense". The
probability of social risk and cost burden must be interdisciplinarily discussed to realize appropriate risk
management for sustainable use of wood.
This paper deals with an international comparative study about legal and statistical tendencies concerning the
responsibility of individual buildings about the use of wood in urban contexts.
INTRODUCTION
Wood is globally expected to be used for construction material for urban buildings because of its low
environmental impact. For sustainable use of wood, three aspects of sustainability – environment, society,
and economy – should be fulfilled. Currently, wood is required strict legal restrictions due to fear of social
fire risk increase, and individual building owners have to bear additional costs for the requirements.
The overview of the complexity is illustrated in Figure 1, and each keyword in the figure are explained in the
following sections.
©2020 A. Tani. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-033 202
Figure 1: Sustainable Concept and Relative Issues
203
LEGAL PARADIGM SHIFT (FIGURE 1. UPEER)

Since the 1990s, building regulations have been shifted from prescriptive to performance-based codes. As
legislative restrictions in national building regulations are decided by discussions among authorities of the
area. Since each area has its traditional way of use on wood, the decisions on prescriptive regulations tended
to be influenced by their local “common sense”.
The Inter-jurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration Committee (IRCC) is consisted of 12 member countries,
including Japan and Austria, and provides several documents about discussions on performance-based
regulations. The key topics are: impact on material trade [Brassington, 2000], existing buildings by
prescriptive regulation and new buildings by performance-based regulation [Bergeron, 2008], policy and
experience in member countries [Meacham, 2010], sustainable system [Meacham, 2016], and socio-scientific
aspect [Straalen, 2017].
In these documents, a confliction between environmental benefit and fire risk concerning the use of wood is
pointed out that finding a suitable balance between sustainability and fire safety objectives can be
particularly complex. Current paradigms of building regulations are optimized to non-combustible materials
and the performance of fire-resistive wood-based structures is regulated as alternation of non-combustible
materials.
Present building regulations deal with the worst fire scenario and require equivalent fire performance of
wood to non-combustible materials. From the ecological viewpoint, wood is expected as sustainable material
as it fixes CO2 while growing. As wood is combustible because of the carbon content in the material, it is
recognized that social risk in its usage seems more serious than non-combustible material in the event of a
fire. The scale of three sustainable aspects must be interdisciplinarily discussed to realize appropriate risk
management for sustainable use of wood.
The overview of the conflict between environmental and social aspects of wood is illustrated in Figure 1.
The red curved arrow on the left side of Figure 1 connects the cause of fires and the existing built
environment. (See next section.) The blue curved arrow on the right side of Figure 1 connects environmental
benefit and risk. (See the second next section.)
ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW (FIGURE 1. MIDDLE)

The combustibility of wood is recognized as a disadvantage of the material compared to non-combustible
materials, such as steel or concrete. From the viewpoint of the material life cycle, advantages of wood are:
the reproduction of material (25-50 years) can be controlled by manpower; scrap wood can be used for
thermal recycle; it is biodegradable after landfill disposal. Non-combustible materials are burnt by fossil
fuels during production processes, but wood can be fuel after its lifetime (30-100 years). Thus, it is not
appropriate to compare materials only concerning combustibility.
From the viewpoint of building life cycle, the lightweight of wood can be beneficial for transportation with
lower weight limit trucks, fast-clean construction, and reducing dead loads of buildings.
204
RISK MANAGEMENT (FIGURE 1. LOWER)

Fire regulation deals with technical issues about the reduction of damages about fire scenarios after the
ignition of fire occasions among four countermeasures given in Figure 1. In this section, the frequency of fire
and causal relationship of fire occasion are discussed.
In this paper, the causal relationships of fire factors are classified by place and type. (See Table 1.)
Concerning the place of factor, internal factors (, which are related to the activity of users inside of
buildings) are treated as responsible areas of buildings, and external factors should be discussed separately.
About type of fire factor, human factor/damage separately from physical factor/damages of building fires. In
this consequence: human factor/damage means issue related to human behavior and activities separate from
shape/type of building; and that physical factor/damage means issue related to type/shape of buildings.
Human damages should be reduced, and physical damages can be compensated for economical solutions.
From Japanese census fire statistics, the tendency of human/physical damages is analyzed by cause and
building type/shape in Figure 2 and 3. Both X-axes indicate fatality rates per fire, and Y-axes indicate
average damaged area per fire. Figure 2 shows that human factors of fire causes are related to fatality rate
and physical factors are related to physical damages. Figure 3 shows that types of buildings (residential or
non-residential) are related to fatality, and shapes of buildings (multi-story or open-space) are related to the
damaged area.
Table 1: Factors of Fires

Factors
Concrete Cause Characteristic
Place Origin
External (Outside of building） (Arson, war, etc.) (Incident > other laws)
Human
Tobacco, fire play, etc. Incident by activity/habit
Internal (Inside of building) Mixed Heating- and cooking devices, etc. Incident related to building equipment
Electric- and Phone lines, etc. Trouble related to things in building
Physical
External (Outside of building) (Natural disasters, etc.) (Accident > other laws)
Figure 2: Average Fatality and Damaged Area per Fire by Cause (left)
205
Figure 3: Average Fatality and Damaged Area per Fire by Building Type/Shape (right)
Concerning the probability of damage on one building, incident rates of fire in averaged size office (ca.
1,500m2) and housing (ca. 100m2) are less than once per 500 years. In the case of earthquakes, these are
classified by power and frequency of incident. An earthquake once per 500 years means rarely occurring
during the lifespan of buildings. The fire fatality rate in one house is around one person per 100,000 years,
and the fatality rate in one office is two digits less than in one house. The fatality rate from office fires is
quite low compared to housing and can be negligible. The most critical discussion will be human-damages in
housing. The two major causes of fire fatality in housings are tobacco and heating system. [TANI, 2015]
[MLIT, 2010]
According to an analysis of tobacco fire (our human fire cause), structural material does not influence on
fatality rate. [TANI, 2016] The average damaged area in wooden detached houses is wider than non-wooden
housing due to the difference in building equipment. Building age of wooden houses are older tan non-
wooden houses, and old houses with dangerous open fire heating system seem influence to the higher
damage. [TANI, 2016]
SITUATION IN JAPAN AND AUSTRIA

Prescriptive to performance-based building regulation was enforced in 2000 in Japan and revised in 2015 and
2019. In Austria, enforcement of performance-based regulation was 2007 and was revised in 2011, 2015, and
2019. Requirements on fire resistance of wooden structural elements are similar in both regulations: it is
tolerant of small or low-rise housings but strict to high-rise buildings. Even residential buildings are risky
building types according to statistical tendency.
Both Japan and Austria invested a similar volume of budget to construction from 1980 to 2010, according to
statistics on investment in construction works per Gross Domestic Production. [United Nations, 2012] In this
period, 60% of Japanese and 20% of Austrian building stocks were newly constructed. [MLIT, 2010]
[Statistik Austria , 2011] This means that Japan invested more for new constructions and Austria invested
more for renovations of existing buildings. The penetration of the central heating system in Austria was 55%
in 1981 and became 92% in 2011 [Statistik Austria, 2011], and in the same period, the Austrian fatality rate
from burn becomes a half. [World Health Organization, 2016] Austrian investments for thermal conditions
seem to reduce the probability of fire as a result.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper discussed on sustainable use of wood and fire risk related to wood-based structure. There is a key
confliction between low environmental impact and social risk from the combustibility of wood.
According to statistical analysis on the frequency of fire occasion is quite low, e.g. less than 500 years in one
average-sized building. About causal relation of fire risk: human damage (fatality) related to human activity;
use of wood does not seem to increase; physical damage of fire seems to be related to the shape of building
and type of building equipment.
Wood-base structures will be recycled as fuel for biomass energy after the lifespan. If we simply compare
numbers, wood-based structures are used as fuels around 5-10 times more frequent than resist fire. Only
from the viewpoint of ecological use of wood, combustible structural elements are reasonable.
If we intend to use wood as fuel, it is better to avoid some methods: inseparable combination with other non-
combustible materials; or inflammable chemical treatment. It is possible to control the combustibility of
wood by engineering effort. However, since current regulations require excessive performance on wood, and
it increases costs substantially to fulfill the requirements.
In Austria, high thermal insulation and low energy consumption buildings are popular. The penetration of
housing central heating seems the key reason for the reduction of the fire fatality rate. Sometimes, high
thermal performance reduces fire resistance. If we intend to reduce the root of fire, it is better to give priority
to thermal performance.
206
REFERENCES
Bergeron, D. (2008). CODES FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS: DIFFERENT APPROACHES FOR
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. Retrieved 8 21, 2019 from Inter-Jurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration
Committee: http://www.ircc.info/Doc_page.html
Brassington, T. O. (2000). Performance-Based Codes Impact on International Trade. From Inter-
Jurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration Committee: http://www.ircc.info/Doc_page.html
Meacham, B. J. (2010). Performance-Based Building Regulatory Systems - Principles and Experiences.
Retrieved 3 25, 2013 from Inter-Jurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration Committee:
http://www.ircc.info/Doc_page.html
Meacham, B. J. (2016). Sustainability and Resiliency Issues and Objectives in Performance Building
Regulations. From Inter-Jurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration Committee:
http://www.ircc.info/Doc_page.html
MLIT. (2010). The Report for Meetings about Building Stock Statistics (Kenchiku Sutokku Kentou-kai
Houkokusho) (in Japanese). Retrieved 1 6, 2011 from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Tourism: http://www.mlit.go.jp/toukeijouhou/chojou/kakodata.html
SEKIZAWA, A. (1995). International Comparison Analysis on Fire Risk Among the United States, The
United Kingdom, and Japan. National Research Institute of Fire and Disaster Report, 53-61.
Sekizawa, A., & Notake, H. (2006). Risk Analysis of Residential Fire Death under the Highly Aged Society.
Fier (Kasai), 56 (6), 9-14.
Statistik Austria. (2011). Dwellings by construction period principal residence and province
(Hauptwohnsitzwohnungen nach Bauperiode und Bundeslan, in German). Retrieved 7 18, 2011 from
http://www.statistik.at
Statistik Austria. (2011). Main residence apartments 2011 by type of heating, building size and construction
period (Hauptwohnsitzwohnungen 2011 nach Art der Heizung, Gebäudegröße und Bauperiode, in German).
Retrieved 9 12, 2013 from Statistik Austria: http://www.statistik.at
Straalen, B. J. (2017, 3 30). A socio-technical system framework for risk-informed performance-based
building regulation. Building Research & Information.
TANI, A. (2016). Analysis of Confounding Factors of Human Damages in Fires at Wooden Housings and
Application of the Results- Basic Research for Mutual International Joint Research between Japan and
Austria -. Japan Association for Fire Science Engineering.
TANI, A. (2015). Fire Risk Analysis of Wood-Based Base Buildings - for joint development of wood-based
open building system between Japan and Austria -. ETH Conference; THE FUTURE OF OPEN BUILDING;
September 9-11, 2015. Zurich: ETH-Zürich.
TANI, A. (2016). Wood-Based Multi-Story Buildings and Fires in Social Contexts in Japan and Austria –
Comprehensive Discussions on Risk Management. Proceeding of World Conference on Timber Engineering
2016. World Conference on Timber Engineering.
United Nations. (2012). GDP/breakdown at constant 2005 prices in US Dollars (all countries). Retrieved 3
4, 2014 from United Nations: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/Index
World Health Organization. (2016). WHO Mortality Database. Retrieved 6 4, 2018 from World Health
Organization: http://apps.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/mortality/whodpms/
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I appreciate to advise and support on my doctoral study from Dr. Iris MACH at JASEC (Japan Austria
Science Exchange Center), Vienna University of Technology.
207
CASE STUDY OF APPLICATION OF CAPILLARY ACTIVE THERMAL
INSULATION SYSTEMS USED AS AN INTERIOR INSULATION FOR
HISTORICAL BUILDINGS
Šimon Vacek1, Radovan Kostelník2

1
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: simon.vacek@stuba.sk
2
68 Bratislava, Slovakia, Email: radovan.kostelnik@stuba.sk
ABSTRACT
The trend of reducing energy consumption and the impact of human activities on nature, has increased
significantly in recent years. This trend is also noticeable in civil engineering industry. It has an impact not
only on new, but also on restored or adapted buildings. Buildings such as monuments or historical buildings
are also included in this category. It’s necessary to realize that in case of these types of buildings, there are
other values which are more important than technical parameters which should be considered. Mainly it is
the social, artistic and craftsmanship value of these buildings. In connection with these types of buildings, the
application of interior thermal insulation is usually suggested method to improve thermal parameters of walls
and reduce energy consumption. Application of these systems appears to be the most appropriate way to
preserve values mentioned above. Modern material research also takes place in this area and brings new
developed materials such as capillary active isolation systems. Capillary active insulations solve some of the
problems connected with the addition of a thermal insulation on the inner side mentioned in [14]. This paper
brings hygro-thermal analysis of four types of mentioned systems applied on massive one-layer masonry
made of fireclay bricks, what is most common wall type of historical buildings in Slovakia. These types are
thermal insulation plaster, multi-layer system predominantly made of wood-fiber and active layer, calcium
silicate system and system made of polyurethane boards with grid of holes filled with capillary active
material.
Key words: capillary active insulation systems, historical buildings, interior thermal insulation
INTRODUCTION
This paper serves as base for experimental measurement. It should help to find appropriate systems to be
applied in experiment and help to assess their real potential in in-situ application. Paper monitors the
behavior of application of interior capillary active thermal insulation systems [1,2,3] applied on the external
masonry walls shown in figures (Figures 1 and 2). The first model (OC) is original masonry wall. The
second (IP) consider the application of thermal insulating plaster [4,5]. Another option is the application of
calcium-silicate-based contact system (CS) [6,7]. And the last two options are applications of innovative
variations of capillary active thermal insulations. One of them is multilayer board (WF) based on woodfibre
which contains inserted functional layer (Pavadentro®) (EP 1900884 A1, 2008). The last of them is
polyurethane based board which contains grid of drilled holes filled with capillary active material
(IT)(IQtherm®) [8].
©2020 S. Vacek. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-034 208
Vacek, Kostelník, Case study of application of capillary active …
MODELS
Figure 1. – Original construction and position of monitoring positions (OC)
Figure 2. – Application of thermal insulation on the interior side and position of monitoring positions
(IP/CS/WF//IT)
Monitoring positions monitors temperature and relative humidity (Figure 1,2). Two of them lay on surfaces
of the wall fragment. Monitoring point number 2 is situated in masonry, 15 cm from the inner side of
masonry to show values in position where are usually situated ends of wooden beams supporting ceiling.
These elements are sensitive to higher humidity because of decay [9,10]. In case of additional insulation
there is one more point situated on the surface of original wall but now is cover with new layers. Position is
important for comparing with original wall.
COMPUTATION ANALYSIS
The computational model was created in the WUFI®Pro.5.3 software (Wärme- und Feuchtetransport
instationär). The translation from German: ,,Transient heat and moisture transport ”. The software was
designed for one-dimensional coupled heat and moisture transport in multi-layer components. Mathematical
and physical basis was put by Kunzel H.M in his dissertation "Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transport in
Building Components. One- and two-dimensional calculation using simple parameters.” [11]. Mathematical
209
model considers thermal conductivity, enthalpy flow through moisture movement with phase change,
shortwave solar radiation, night-time cooling by long-wavelength radiation. Heat transfer by convection
based on airflow is neglected due to one dimensional simulation. In case of moisture transport, software
calculates the water vapor diffusion and solution diffusion. Conveying water vapor by air convection is
neglected. In the case of liquid moisture transport mechanisms, the capillary conductivity and surface
conductivity are considered [12]. The physical base of capillary active thermal insulations and capillary
transport is described in [13,14,15]
All the input data important for the calculation were used from the available software library,
because of this paper is preparation for experimental measurement so there are no real input data obtain by
measurement in situ and data obtainable in our nation standards such as STN 730540-3 [16] doesn’t include
necessary values. The climate data (reference climate year) that entered in the calculation was used from the
software database too. Interior climate is defined by our national standards STN 730540-3 [16].
SIMULATION INPUT DATA
The original wall consists of single layer masonry wall made of fire clay bricks and mortar. The masonry is
protected against exterior climate by lime plaster on the outside and finished with same plaster on the inside.
Application of insulation is achieved by adding new layers on the inner side of the wall. The new surface
finish is final coat of paint. All insulating systems except insulating plaster consist of three basic layers.
These layers are adhering, insulation panel, finishing. All systems have same thickness of insulation. It is 8
cm because that is technological limit thickness of insulating plaster applied in two steps each 4 cm. All
simulation material input data are shown in table below (Table 1). Material parameters that enters simulation
are time dependent (dependent on water content, temperature and humidity) and values listed in table below
are constant.
Table 1. – Simulation input material data
Input material data

Water
Thermal vapor Typical built-in Water
Bulk Specific heat Free water
Thickness Porosity conductivity diffusion moisture absorption
Model type Material density capacity dry saturation
dry 10°C resistance (RH 80%) coefficient
factor
m kg/m3 m3/m3 J/(kg.K) W/(m.K) - kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/(m2.s^0,5)
Lime plaster exterior 0,05 1600 0,3 850 0,7 7 30 250 3
Original wall (OC) Solid brick masonry 0,6 1900 0,24 850 0,6 10 18 190 0,05
Lime plaster interior 0,03 1600 0,3 850 0,7 7 30 250 3
Original wall
Insulation plaster (IP)
Trass-lime heat insulation plaster 0,08 611 0,76 802 0,06 6,9 63 412 0,2
Original wall
Calcium-silicate system adhesive - ytong multipor 0,01 833 0,686 850 0,155 15,1 12,6 35 0,00309
(CS) insulation - ytong multipor 0,08 115 0,96 850 0,04 4,1 8,1 197 0,013
finish - ytong multipor 0,005 833 0,686 850 0,155 15,1 12,6 35 0,00309
Original wall
adhesive 0,01 1313 0,5 863 0,497 18,7 6,73 60,45 0,0052
insulation - pavadentro 0,04 166 0,91 2100 0,043 10 27,4 909 0,12
Woodfibre system (WF)
functional - mineral layer 0,005 1500 0,4 850 0,93 450 15,9 42 0,006
insulation - pavadentro 0,04 166 0,91 2100 0,043 10 27,4 909 0,12
finish - lime plaster 0,02 1600 0,3 850 0,7 7 30 250 3
Original wall
PUR+capillary active mat. adhesive - remmers IQ fix 0,01 1313 0,5 863 0,497 18,7 6,73 60,45 0,0052
system (IT) insulation - remmers IQ therm 0,08 44,5 0,98 1400 0,031 69 4,05 5,47 0,0027
finish - remmers IQ top 0,005 465 0,81 1173 0,106 8,4 50,7 105,29 0,0135
The annual variation of the outdoor temperature and incident heat flux values is estimated by available
meteorological data from software database for the city of Vienna (similar climate to Bratislava), using a
one-hour time step. The set indoor thermal comfort conditions correspond to a temperature range between
20°C and 26°C (exterior temperature dependent) corresponding to EN 15026. When the internal temperature
drops below 20°C, the heating elements are activated, using a temperature setpoint equal to 20◦C. (without
210
cooling systems). Moisture loads are set to normal according to EN 15026. Internal air humidity 40-60%
corresponds to standard loads for family house, offices or similar indoor spaces.
Wall is oriented to the north to avoid sun drying potential. Building is situated in wind exposure
category type medium (small villages or cities situated in valleys). Façade is up to 10m high and sits below
pitched roof which provide partially natural covering against rain loads what corresponds to rain exposure
factor 1 and rain deposition factor 0,35 according to ASHRAE stan. 160. Initial conditions for wall elements
are set to standard. All general simulation input data are shown in table below (Table 2).
Table 2. – Simulation input general data
Simulation input data

Type Value
Outdoor climate (reference year) Vienna - Austria
Indoor climate according to EN 15026
avg. int. temperature 20-26°C
moisture load normal
avg. int. relative humidity 40-60%
heat/moisture/air change source no
structure wall
inclination 90°
orientation North
rain load according to ASHRAE stan. 160
building height <10m
exposure category medium
rain exposure factor 1
rain deposition factor 0,5
adhering fraction of rain 0,7 (inclination dependent - wall)
exterior heat resistance wind dependent
short wave radiation absorptivity 0,4 (normal bright stucco)
ground short wave reflectivity 0,2 (standard value)
interior heat resistance 0,125 m2.K/W
initial moisture in component 80% initial rel. humidity
initial temperature in component 20°C
calculation period 1.1 2019 - 1.1 2024
time step 1h
RESULTS
The building envelope is exposed to moisture on both the external (due to climate conditions) and the
internal (e.g. due to human activity) side; as a result, a dynamic moisture equilibrium is developed, which is
affected by the intensity of the moisture loads, the temperature of the wall and the thermal and hygric
properties of the materials. Application of thermal insulation layers in building envelopes is known to have a
significant impact on the hygrothermal behavior of the wall. Thermal insulation affects the concentration and
accumulation of condensed water vapor and water inside the porous wall materials and cavities either
explicitly, by forming a water vapor barrier, or implicitly, by modifying the temperature profile across the
wall and consequently the characteristics of water vapor mass transfer through the wall. As shown in table
and charts below (Table 3, Figure 3,4), the numerical outputs confirm expected results compared to similar
experimental and numerical studies [3,5,10,11,14,17].
211
Following part shorty summarize working principle of a capillary active interior insulation system. During
the heating season, the temperature and vapor gradient induces an outward vapor transfer. If the temperature
between the glue mortar and the insulation (in case of IP just plaster) is lower than the dew point, interstitial
condensation may occur. Though, a capillary active material typically has pores in the range of 0.1 – 1 μm
which result in a large liquid conductivity in the capillary moisture range. The capillary active insulation can
absorb the liquid water and redistribute it inwards (towards the room) by a liquid flow which follows the
inwards capillary pressure gradient [2]. The capillary active materials are often characterized by a thermal
performance which is lower than found for the more traditional insulation materials. Moreover, the thermal
conductivity of these materials can be highly moisture dependent. These facts lead to higher water content in
whole fragment and layers, decrease thermal resistance of insulation and whole fragment, increase relative
humidity of the interior wall surface and air.
The last important fact is that capillary-active insulation systems are very sensitive to additional
modifications. It means that the most optimal solution is the complete system of the manufacturer, with no
further modifications mainly in three basic layers, which are adhesive, capillary-active insulation material
and plaster (in case of thermal IP just one). It is also appropriate to respect other complementary products
such as, for example, interior coatings (vapor open), individual elements for electrical installations and other
service installations.
Applying interior insulation can induce damage patterns to the existing wall structure. These patterns
are interstitial condensation, moisture accumulation, thermal bridges, damage to wooden beam ends, frost
damage, mould growth and many others. To prevent damage patterns is important to know exact behavior of
wall fragment before and after application of insulation system. Most significant parameters are water
content, relative humidity profiles and temperature profiles and their combination in case of frost damage
and mould growth. Examples of profiles from simulation are shown in figures below (Figure 3,4) The
numerical output data are listed in table below (Table 3.)
Table 3. – Numerical output data
Output data
moisture moisture total total total water water
heat flux heat flux total water water water
flux left flux left water water water content in content in
left side left side content content in content in
Model type Material side side content content content layer sim. layer sim.
(exterior) (exterior) sim. start layer min. layer max.
(exterior) (exterior) sim. end min. max. start end
MJ/m2 MJ/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
Lime plaster exterior 30 37,03 18,66 91,59
Original wall (OC) Solid brick masonry 1288,87 1282,68 -3,24 -3,24 13,2 7,59 6,05 13,2 18 8,55 7,5 18
Lime plaster interior 30 20,47 16,87 30
Solid brick masonry 18 11,05 10,36 18
Insulation plaster (IP) 767,2 757,41 -2,56 3,08 18,25 12,61 10,49 18,25
Lime plaster interior 30 27,06 23 32,12
Trass-lime heat insulation plaster 63,09 39,04 29,37 63,09
Solid brick masonry 18 13,09 12,13 18,21
Calcium-silicate system Lime plaster interior 30 34,97 23,35 43,87
511,6 500,3 -2,09 0,29 14,04 11,65 9,47 14,89
(CS) adhesive - ytong multipor 12,55 17,47 3,54 19,83
insulation - ytong multipor 8,1 5,05 1,93 8,1
finish - ytong multipor 12,55 2,46 1,84 12,55
Solid brick masonry 18 13,06 12,32 18,04
Lime plaster interior 30 28,31 26,64 36,15
adhesive 6,73 5,91 4,85 11,11
Woodfibre system (WF) 540,19 528,33 -2,22 1,11 16,09 12,77 11,02 16,98
insulation - pavadentro 27,4 18,35 17,63 27,41
functional - mineral layer 6,73 3,75 2,46 6,73
insulation - pavadentro 27,4 18,22 11,91 27,4
finish - lime plaster 30 19,35 16,65 30
Solid brick masonry 18 13,54 12,85 18
PUR+capillary active mat. Lime plaster interior 30 28,57 27,58 31,48
428,81 416,32 -1,94 0,48 14,1 11,67 10,09 15,51
system (IT) adhesive - remmers IQ fix 6,73 6,19 5,42 7,63
insulation - remmers IQ therm 4,05 3,11 2,64 4,05
finish - remmers IQ top 50,7 16,97 13,47 50,7
212
Temperatur at monitoring positions number 2,3,4

during year 1.1 - 31.12
25.0
20.0
Temperature (°C)
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0
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Time (hours)
2(OC) 2(IP) 2(CS) 2(WF) 2(IT) 3(OC) 3(IP)

3(CS) 3(WF) 3(IT) 4(IP) 4(CS) 4(WF) 4(IT)
Figure 3. – Temperature at monitoring positions 2,3,4 during last year of simulation
Rel. humidity at monitoring positions number 2,3,4

during year 1.1 - 31.12
90.00
80.00
Rel. humidity (%)
70.00
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50.00
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30.00
0
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Time (hours)
2(OC) 2(IP) 2(CS) 2(WF) 2(IT) 3(OC) 3(IP)

3(CS) 3(WF) 3(IT) 4(IP) 4(CS) 4(WF) 4(IT)
Figure 4. – Relative humidity at monitoring positions during last year of simulation
213
CONCLUSION
Application of interior thermal insulation systems appears to be the most appropriate and, in some cases, the
only way to preserve artistic and craftsmanship values of monuments and historical buildings. The main
principle of capillary-active thermal insulation working mechanism is described above. It also important to
consider that there is risk induced by addition of interior thermal insulation. Capillary active thermal
insulation systems bring solutions for some of them but on the other hand bring some one ones. Table below
lists main advantages and disadvantages compared to standard insulation systems (non-capillary active)
(Table 4.).
All of systems works on the same physical principles. That fact leads to similar results with small
differences. Optimal solution for maximal improvement of thermal resistance is IT system. This system is
based on hard PUR board. PUR has the lowest thermal conductivity from tested variations and system
capillary activity is based only on grid of drilled holes filled with capillary active material. On the other
hand, this system shows adverse water content values and relative humidity profiles compared to other
systems. In comparison to other studies IT system shows even worse values. WF system is the only one that
can be consider for ecologic and its results are comparable to other systems. In case of CS systems, there is
still huge amount of calcium-silicate material variations on the market. Compared to other studies [17], there
are different results between calcium silicate types. Interesting in this case appears, filling of the calcium
silicate board with non-capillary active high-performance thermal insulation such as PUR, PIR or vacuum
insulation. The insulation plaster is the only solution for curved shapes such as walls and vaults. Insulation
plaster has the highest thermal conductivity but show the most similar relative humidity and temperature
profiles with original wall. There is still a possibility to improve its properties by mixing it with better
insulating material such as aerogel.
Table 4. Main advantages and disadvantages of capillary active systems
Advantages Disadvantages
-Increasing of thermal conductivity
-Allows drying of wall inwards the interior
coefficient due to liquid water transport
-Increasing of relative humidity on the
-Allows to avoid of surface condensation
interior surface
-Similar moisture profiles as original wall -Increasing of the relative humidity of the
(advantage in case of built timber beams interior air
ends) -Sensitive to system modifications
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is supported by the Ministry of education, science, research and sport of the Slovak Republic
through the grant scheme of the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava for supporting of young
researchers No. 1666
214
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[2] Vereecken E, Roels S. 2016. Capillary active interior insulation: a discussion. Energy Efficiency and
Comfort of Historic Building, Belgium, Brussel. 191-197.
[3] Scheffler G, Grunewald J. 2003. Material development and optimization support by numerical
simulation for capillary-active inside insulation material. Research in Building Physics. Lisse: A.A.
Balkema Publishers: 463-469.
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applications: Evaluation methodology for a real cost-performance. Energy and Buildings 77. ISSN
0378-7788. 40-47.
[5] Bianco I et. al. 2015. Thermal insulating plasters as a solution for refurbishment historic building
envelopes: First experimental results. Energy and Buildings 95. ISSN 0378-7788. 96-91.
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concrete. Proceedings 5th International AAC Conference. Bydgoszcz, September 14-17. 323-336.
[7] Kreft O, Straube B, Schoch T. 2011. Internal thermal insulation with light weight autoclaved aerated
concrete. 5th International Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Conference. Bydgoszcz, Poland, September
14-17. 251-256.
[8] Remmers IQ-Therm – The intelligent interior insulation – The unique capillary thermal insulation,
[online],[14.7.2018].http://www.remmers.co.uk/fileadmin/user_upload/brochures/interior_insulation/
796_-_iqtherm/796_GB_iQ-Therm.pdf
[9] Stopp H, Strangfeld P, Toepel T, Anlauft E. 2010. Messergebnisse und bauphysikalische

Lösungsansätze zur Problematik der Holzbalkenköpfe in Aussenwänden mit Innendämmung
(English verison). Bauphysik 32(2): 61-72.
[10] Morelli M, Svendsen S. 2013. Investigation of interior post-insulated masonry walls with wooden
beam ends. Journal of Building Physics 36. ISSN 1744-2583. 265-293.
[11] Kunzel H. M. 1995. Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transport in Building Components : dissertation
thesis. Stuttgart : Fraunhofer institut für bauphysik. ISBN 3-8167-4103-7. 63 . [online], [14. 7.
2018].
https://www.ibp.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ibp/de/documents/Publikationen/Dissertationen/hk_disse
rtation_etcm45-30731.pdf
[12] WUFI®Pro.5.3 Manual, Department of Hygrothermics at the Frauhofer IBP (2010) . [online], [8. 9.
2019]. https://wufi.de/download/WUFI_Pro_4_Manual.pdf
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[13] Binder A, Zirkelbach D, Kunzel H. 2010. Test Method to Quantify the Wicking Properties of
Inslation Materials Designed to Prevent Interstitial Condensation. USA : ASHRAE. [online], [14. 7.
2018]. https://web.ornl.gov/sci/buildings/conf-archive/2010%20B11%20papers/26_Binder.pdf
[14] Vereecken E, et. al. 2015. Interior insulation for wall retrofitting – A probabilistic analysis of energy
savings and hygrothermal risks. Energy and buildings 89. ISSN 0378-7788. 231-244 .
[15] Scheffler G, Grunewald J. 2003. Material development and optimization support by numerical
simulation for capillary-active inside insulation material. Research in Building Physics. Lisse: A.A.
Balkema Publishers: 463-469.
[16] National standard, STN 730540-3 : 2012, Thermal protection of buildings. Thermal performance of
buildings and components. Part 3: Properties of environmental and building products.
[17] Koronthalyová O, Matiašovský P. 2003. Thermal conductivity of fiber reinforced porous calcium
silicate hydrate-based composites. Journal of Thermal Envelope and Building Science 27.ISSN
1097-1963. 71-89s.
216
THE MODULAR SWIMMING HALL BUILDING DESIGNS BY F.F.
GRÜNBERGER – AN INQUIRY INTO THE BUILDING
PERFORMANCE OF VIENNA’S DISTRICT BATHS
Karoline Walal1, Ulrich Pont1, and Ardeshir Mahdavi1
1
Department of Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria, Email of corresponding
author: ulrich.pont@tuwien.ac.at
ABSTRACT
In the year 1968, the municipality of Vienna, Austria decided on a concept regarding the construction of so-
called district baths (public indoor swimming halls). The design of many of the public swimming pools
constructed in that period was done by Friedrich Florian Grünberger, an architect, who was considered to be
an expert on to swimming hall facilities. His entire oeuvre encompassed swimming pool facilities in many
countries of central Europe. Moreover, the majority of his Viennese buildings still exists and is in usage, and
form the backbone of the swimming sport facilities in Vienna. This contribution reports on the finding of a
recently finished master thesis that focused on the energy performance of swimming halls, in detail of the
modular swimming halls designed by Grünberger. Thereby, the original bath designs and retrofit measures
that have been applied in recent years were considered. Given the high complexity of swimming pool halls,
the energy saving potential of such facilities requires a holistic assessment that includes (i) the building’s
envelope, (ii) the complex HVAC and operational technology required by the usage, and (iii) the indoor
thermal comfort requirements by the customers in the swimming halls. One of the bath halls has been looked
upon a bit more in detail (Floridsdorfer Bad). Here, the improvements over time could be studied in detail.
The contribution reports onto the current energy usage by the building, contracting models for energy saving,
as well as typical policies and potential fallacies of public swimming pool hall retrofit.
INTRODUCTION
In the 1960ies the government of the city of Vienna decided to improve its offer for the Viennese inhabitants
regarding indoor swimming pool capacities. After the WWII many of the former sport facilities have been
found destroyed or dysfunctional. Moreover, the post-war society demanded a high degree of leisure time
and sport facilities. Thus, the city published the Bezirkshallenbäderprogramm (district indoor swimming
pool program), which did foresee for 333 inhabitants of Vienna 1 m² of indoor swimming pool water surface.
Given that Vienna had around 1.5 Million inhabitants at the time, this concept can be considered as
ambitious by today. Cost constraints required the swimming pool halls that were intended to be constructed
in many Viennese districts to be cost-efficient. The architect who was commissioned as planner was the
Austrian architect Florian Friedrich Grünberger (1921 – 2007), who was known as domain specialist for
social housing and recreational facilities. While Grünberger built the first post-war indoor swimming pool of
Vienna (the Floridsdorf indoor swimming pool) even before the Bezirkshallenbäderprogramm was
published, this and other realizations cumulated in his Europabadkonzept, an inexpensive and very versatile
designs for medium-size public swimming pool halls. Later realizations in Vienna were based on this
Europebadkonzept. Figure 1 illustrates a plan of the prototypic Europabad, as published by Grünberger
himself [1]. This spatial programme can be considered as versatile and stills form the basis for many
©2020 K. Walal. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-035 217
Walal et al.: The modular swimming hall building designs…
swimming pool spatial configurations of today. Grünberger can be considered as widely forgotten, although
the majority of swimming pool halls in Vienna are connected with him as planner.
Figure 1. F.F: Grünberger’s Europabad plan (based on [1])
VIENNESE BATHING DEVELOPMENT AFTER WORLD WAR II

In post-second-world-war Vienna, 7 of 72 public baths could be found completely destroyed, while 23 were
severely damaged. Due to the fact that many residential buildings lacked sanitary basics, the reestablishment
of public baths was of high priority for the post-war Viennese government. In 1946, 43 of the urban baths
(both swimming pool halls and small Tröpferlbad institutions, majorly public showers) were reestablished.
The future-oriented bath concepts was published on 2nd of December 1968. This concept stated that within 7
years 14 swimming shall be built, and a budget of half a billion Schilling (around 120 Million Euros as of
2019). The concept was strongly coupled with urban development concepts of the time, and targeted an ideal
distribution of swimming pool halls, and a supply of 1 m² of indoor swimming pool water surface per 333
inhabitants. A follow up to the Bezirksbäderconcept was the Bestandsbäderconcept (redevelopment concept
of baths) that was published in 1974, and suggested retrofit measures for existing swimming pool halls, as
well as the in-part shut down of shower-only public facilities (which at that time already were widely
outdated). To sum up, both concepts suggested the general retrofit of 4 swimming pool halls, and the new
construction of large swimming pool halls (e.g. Stadthallenbad bei Roland Rainer) as well as medium-sized
swimming pool halls (Bezirkshallenbäder). The latter halls were all planned and built by F.F. Grünberger,
and included baths in the Viennese district / regions of Hietzing, Döbling, and Simmering (first phase), as
well as Donaustadt, Brigittenau, and Großfeldsiedlung (second phase). Additionally, the bath of Ottakring
(an already existing building) was supplemented with a Grünberger swimming pool hall. All of the
mentioned baths included at 25m by 12.5 m swimming pool, a 12.5 by 8 m teaching pool, a 6 m² children’s
pool, and the possibility to heat the water in the pools up to 28 to 30 degrees Celsius. Moreover, swimming
pools featured amenities such as gender-divided sauna facilities and gastronomy that could be accessed both
218
from the pools and from outside. The swimming pools were opened for public use in 1978 (first phase baths)
and between 1982 and 1984 (second phase baths). All of these medium-sized baths are still in use as of
today, and form the backbone of the Viennese swimming pool hall supply. However, other baths designed by
Grünberger, such as the Dianabad have been put out of Service and being demolished. Needless to say,
swimming pool halls in general are buildings of increased energy demand in comparison to other buildings
(required high air temperatures, heating up of water, etc.). Furthermore, they require an increased level of
maintenance and, after a set of years of operation, intensive retrofit. In between all of the Grünberger baths
have been subjected to retrofit.
From a perspective of construction, many of Grünberger’s buildings feature reinforced-concrete
constructions, roofed by laminated-timber-beam-carried flat roof (Figure 2 shows the swimming pool halls
of Hietzing, Döbling, and Ottakring) and extensive natural light distribution by post-and-beam facades and
clerestory windows. This construction form allowed for a rather short and inexpensive construction phase
and a high degree of prefabrication.
Figure 2. Indoor pools Hietzing, Döbling, Ottakring (all pictures taken from [2])
ASPECTS OF BUILDING PHYSICS IN INDOOR SWIMMING POOL HALLS

Swimming pool halls can be considered to be challenging regarding a number of building physics related
aspects:
 The indoor temperature in swimming pool halls has to be maintained on a high level, given the
majorly undressed users. Moreover, people leaving the water and having a wet skin will demand
high air temperatures to feel an acceptable thermal comfort. Different literature sources [3][4]
suggest – to provide thermal comfort – indoor air temperatures between 30 and 34 °C in swimming
hall areas, as well as that the room temperatures shall be 2 to 4 K above the pool water temperature
(water temperatures are suggested to be between 28 and 32 °C for recreational pools, and a bit lower
for athletes).
 Additionally, moisture / relative humidity may be considered as a challenge within swimming pool
halls. While the relative humidity in indoor swimming pool halls regularly can be found to be
between 40 and 60% it should not be forgotten that these are already large amounts of water that are
stored in air at these temperatures. Given that constant evaporation happens above the water body,
ventilation is an important aspect. Moreover, the thermal insulation of exterior building components
is of highest importance. In the area of lower indoor surface temperatures (e.g. thermal bridges), the
high humidity levels might cause condensation and/or mould growth.
 Indoor swimming pool halls not only require a complex HVAC-system (Heating-ventilation-air
condition), but also have special requirements for emergency ventilation, given that chlorine is used
in the pool halls for reasons of hygienics.
 Appropriate lighting levels are required inside the swimming pool halls, both regarding natural light
during day, and artificial lighting during night times. Together with appropriate materials, good
lighting conditions reduce the danger of slip-and-slide accidents in the swimming pool halls
significantly.
219
 Swimming pool halls regularly suffer from rather uncomfortable acoustic conditions, given that most
construction materials have a hard, water-prood surface, which is in most cases highly noise-
reflecting.
THE IMPACT OF RETROFIT: THE CASE STUDY FLORIDSDORFER BAD

The required retrofit after a certain time of usage that is required by sport facilities and indoor swimming
pool halls in particular, provides good chances for significant reduction of energy usage and related
emissions. Between 2000 and 2017 twelve deprecated public swimming pool halls have been subjected to a
thermal retrofit, including most of the Grünberger baths. The operator of the swimming pool halls, the
Viennese government agency MA44, received for the retrofit efforts energy-saving awards.
The Floridsdorfer Bad was the first of Grünberger’s swimming pool halls in Vienna, and is one of the larger
swimming pool halls of his oeuvre. Figure 3 shows the complex (birdsview and indoor view), while Figure 4
illustrates the clever plan-layout of the Floridsdorfer Bad (Ground Floor).
Figure 3. Floridsdorfer Bad (left birdview, right indoor view; all pictures taken from [2])
In the year 2000 the operator of the Viennese Baths, the magistrate department 44, wrote out a public
competition for a contracting partner. The contractor thereby was foreseen as to take over the energy
management of the buildings to implement energy saving measures. Thereby, the Floridsdorfer Bad received
a contractor in 2008 (a company named ENGIE). Retrofit measures conducted since then include the
implementation of a roof-mounted solar collector system as supplement for water temperating (1050 m²).
Moreover, the ventilation system of the bath was renewed and equipped with a heat exchanging unit. Several
small scale interventions pertaining to fire safety, universal design, and all-over user satisfaction have been
carried out as well. Additionally, the overall swimming-pool related technology was renewed. These
measured resulted in significant savings, which are shown in Table 1.
Interestingly, barely any building envelope related measures have been conducted, such as exchange of
windows or addition of any insulation panels to enclosures of the envelope. In qualified interviewers with the
contractors it was stated that the contractors do not feel that a building envelope retrofit would provide a fast
pay off. Moreover, they stated doubts about the suitability of building retrofit to reach performance goals for
swimming pool halls, given the large role the technical systems play in such buildings.
To examine the potential of the thermal envelope retrofit in view of energy savings, a normative calculation
for the Heating demand and other KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) was conducted. This was done for the
status quo of the building envelope, and then for a set of retrofit measures. For the status quo calculation, the
original building constructions from the building plans of the time realization were used as a basis, as well as
plans of the extension originating from the 1990ies (Gym / Fitness). U-Values of the windows could be
found to be well above today’s requirements (which is 1.4 W.m-2.K-1 in Austria), ranging from 1.6 to 3.58
W.m-2.K-1. In contrast, many of the opaque components features already halfway acceptable U-Values,
220
which is an indicator that Grünberger was well aware about the necessity of a highly-insulating building
envelope. Table 2 illustrates the results of the energy certification of the status quo calculation.
Figure 4. Plan layout of the Floridsdorfer Bad (taken from [5])
Table 1. Energy saving measures’effect in the Floridsdorfer Bad (Comparison between consumption before
contracting and in contracting year 8)
Domain Prior to contracting Contracting year 8 Unit Relative
change
District heating 6.500 4.267 MWh.a-1 -34%
Natural gas consumption 26.200 25.200 m³.a-1 -4%
Electricity 1748 1379 MWh.a-1 -21%
-1
Water 130.000 43.390 m³.a -67%
Table 2. Results of the Status Quo Energy Certificate Calculation

Indicator Value Unit
Heating demand on location HWBSK 129.01 kWh.m-2.a-1
Heating energy demand on location HEBSK 479.33 kWh.m-2.a-1
Primary Energy Demand (PEBSK) 727.66 kWh.m-2.a-1
Carbon Dioxide emissions (CO2SK) 137.20 kg.m-2.a-1
221
The heating demand of 129.01 kWh.m-2.a-1 does not seem to be a very high value, given the usage of the
building. However, the KPIs Heating Energy demand, Primary Energy Demand, and the operation connected
CO2-emissions illustrate a rather bad performance of the building.
To assess the improvement potential of the building due to envelope optimizations, two scenarios have been
evaluated: Scenario 1 features the change of all transparent components of the building to highly-energy
saving windows with an UWin-Value of 1.0 W.m-2.K-1. Scenario 2 builds upon Scenario 1 and additionally
changes all U-values of opaque components to the minimum requirements of Austria as of 2019. Table 3
illustrates the results of these efforts
Table 2. Results of the Status Quo Energy Certificate Calculation

Indicator Base Case Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Unit
HWBSK 129.01 (100%) 120.18 (93.15%) 51.35 (39.80%) kWh.m-2.a-1
HEBSK 479.33 (100%) 462.22 (96.43%) 323.57 (67.50%) kWh.m-2.a-1
PEBSK 727.66 (100%) 707.64 (97.22%) 545.47 (74,96%) kWh.m-2.a-1
CO2SK 137.20 (100%) 133.16 (97.06%) 100.44 (73,21%) kg.m-2.a-1
It can be observed that the sole change of windows of these building would not change that much (the KPIs
then drop only by 3 to 7%), while a full retrofit of transparent and opaque retrofit results in drops of 25 to
60% of the KPIs. As such, it can be said that an envelope optimization seems only feasible if
comprehensively conducted.
CONCLUSION & FUTURE RESEARCH

The present contribution highlighted findings of a recently finished master thesis pertaining to the Viennese
swimming pool halls designed by Friedrich Florian Grünberger. Many of these buildings form today’s
backbone of Vienna’s swimming pool infrastructure, and thus their energy demand is of high meaningfulness
in view of the role of the public building operators owners of lighthouse projects. While the contracting as
integrated in the buildings’ operation seem to be feasible, a closer look has to be taken, why and how the
buildings’ envelopes should be worked upon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This contribution is based on a recently finished master thesis, written by Karoline Walal [5]
REFERENCES
[1] Grünberger, F.F [ed.] (1974).: F.F: Grünberger 25 Jahre Architekt; in the framework of an exhibition in
Künstlerhaus, Vienna, 1974.
[2] City of Vienna: Portal of the Viennese swimming pools: https://www.wien.gv.at/freizeit/baeder/ (last
checked: August 2019)
[3] Robatherm [ed.] (n.d.); Raumlufttechnik für Schwimmbäder; Available via
https://www.robatherm.com/de/download-broschuren. (last checked: August 2019)
[4] DIN 4108-3 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings - Part 3: Protection against moisture
subject to climate conditions - Requirements, calculation methods and directions for planning and
construction
[5] Walal, K: "Architectural & Technical Aspects of Swimming Hall Design by Friedrich Florian
Grünberger"; Supervisor: A. Mahdavi, U. Pont; Institut für Architekturwissenschaften, Department of
Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Wien, 2018.
Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Wien, 2018; final examination: 2018-06-19.
222
SIMULATION-BASED PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF
FAÇADE CONSTRUCTIONS: VACUUM GLAZING VERSUS
COMMON INSULATION GLASS
Magdalena Wölzl1, Ulrich Pont1, Peter Schober2, and Ardeshir Mahdavi1
1
Department of Building Physics and Building Ecology, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria; Email:
{magdalena.woelzl|ulrich.pont|amadavi@tuwien.ac.at}
2
Holzforschung Austria, Franz-Grill-Straße 7. 1030 Vienna, Austria; Email: p.schober@holzforschung.at
ABSTRACT
The incorporation of vacuum glazing (VG) products in different window and façade constructions is becoming
more viable. The characteristics of the VG products can be summarized as follows: (i) Due to the reduction of
conductive and convective heat transfer mechanisms, VG products provide high thermal insulation; (ii) VG
products feature low weight and small thickness in comparison to commonly used double and triple-glazing
products; (iii) VG is constituted by two parallel glass panes, which are sealed by an airtight edge seal; (iv) The
interstitial space between the panes is evacuated; (v) To maintain the parallel positioning of the glass panes,
distance pillars are situated within the interstitial space. These characteristics must be taken into consideration
when contemplating window and façade construction paradigms that employ VG products. This contribution
compares commonly used glass façade constructions (generic post-and-beam constructions with – non-
operable – fixed glazing) utilizing insulation glazing with respective façade variations that incorporate VG
products. Thereby, in a first step, the thermal performance of default façade constructions (equipped with
double or triple-glazing) was assessed via numeric thermal bridge simulation. Subsequently, we replaced the
insulation glass with a VG product. Thereby the load-bearing post-and-beam details were kept essentially the
same. Finally, we slightly modified the façade constructions based on the necessities of VG integration. In this
contribution we present the construction paradigms for VG-based facades, the adopted methodology, and the
main results of the investigations.
INTRODUCTION
This contribution focuses on contemporary used post-and-beam façade constructions and their thermal
performance. Such facades are commonly used in many contemporary building designs, and thus are based on
a set of standard constructions offered by a number of companies. In recent years, the utilization of vacuum
glazing in contemporary and historic window constructions has been extensively examined [1][2][3][4]. In
general, vacuum glazing products feature a vacuum-evacuated interstitial space between two glass panes, a
vacuum-tight edge seal, and distance pillars. This setup allows for a very good performance due to the
minimization of convective and conductive heat transfer processes. However, the vacuum glass panes require
a specific consideration of their structure in frame constructions. Toward this end, this contribution compares
the performance of vacuum glass panes with conventional double-glazing products in post-and-beam facades.
Specifically, these post-and-beam constructions have not been constructed for the specific use of vacuum glass.
Rather, we want to explore, if and to which extent typical construction technologies for facades can be utilized
for the usage with vacuum glass. Previous efforts toward vacuum-glass enabled glass facades can be found in
China (advertisement of the former vacuum glass producer SYNERGY), however, these facades have not been
subjected to European Winter conditions, and as such have not been utilized as highly-insulating facades.
©2020 M. Wolzl. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
https://doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-036 223
Wölzl et al, Simulation-based Performance Comparison of Façade Constructions
METHODOLOGY
Examined façade types. Two generic, typical post-and-beam façade constructions have been selected for
assessment. One of these constructions is based on timber profiles, while the other features steel-posts and
beams. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate these two constructions in principle (equipped with double glazing; Colours
correspond to materials denoted in Table 2).
Figure 1. generic timber based post-and-beam Figure 2. generic steel-profile based post-and-beam
façade. façade.
Scenarios. For each of the two façade typologies (timber construction, steel construction), six different
configurations have been evaluated, which vary the implementation of the vacuum glazing. Table 1 illustrates
these scenarios.
Table 1. Scenarios.
Scenario Description Illustration
Façade construction equipped with regular insulation glass (two glass panes,
ISO
Argon-filled interstitial gap; 4-12-4)
ISO + Based on ISO (same profile), but exchange of exterior glass against insulation
VG_a glass (vacuum glass pane, argon-filled interstitial gap, 8.15 – 7.85 -4)
Similar to ISO+VGa, but reduced to the vacuum glass pane (no additional
VG_a
insulation glass layer) ; Seal-prolongation on the inside
ISO + Based on ISO (same profile), but exchange of interior glass against insulation
VG_i glass (vacuum glass pane, argon-filled interstitial gap, 4-7.85-8.15)
Similar to ISO+VGi, but reduced to the vacuum glass pane (no additional
VG_i
insulation glass layer); Seal-prolongation on the outside
VG Reduced profile; profile was adapted to the vacuum glass thickness (8.15 mm)
Utilized simulation tools and settings. The numeric thermal bridge simulation tool AnTherm [6] has been
used for assessment of the different façade types and scenarios. Each of the scenarios of both construction has
been assessed based on three different simulation assumptions: (i) 2D: 2D-section (post/glass connection), (ii)
3DL: 3D undistorted (30.8 cm long part of the façade post/glass connection), and (iii) 3DL-S: 3D “distorted”
by a mounting screw (30.8 cm long part of the façade post/glass connection encompassing a M8 mounting
screw). The latter assumption is based on the typical construction that holds the glass in space via the screw.
224
The simulations have been carried out assuming -10°C outside temperature and 20°C indoor temperature as
boundary conditions. Surface resistance coefficients have been assumed to be 0.25 m².K.W-1 (Rsi) and 0.04
m².K.W-1 (Rse). Table 2 illustrates the assumed thermal conductivity values (Lambda) of materials used in the
simulation models.
Table 2. Materials and thermal conductivity values (λ-value).
Color Materials Thermal conductivity (W.m-1.K-1)
Insulation glass interstitial space (replacement λ-value) 0.032
EPDM – (Ethylenpropylendien) distance holder 0.25
Glass 1
Timber 0.13
Steel 50
0.1265
Encapsuled air (frame/post/beams)
(based on EN ISO 10077)
Polypropylene 0.22
Silicone 0.35
Vacuum (replacement λ-value) 0.00000975
Key Performance Indicators. Results from the simulation encompass the temperature factor fRsi-value, the
minimum surface temperature in degree Celsius (Tmin,i), and the two-dimensional / three-dimensional thermal
coupling coefficients, denoting the heat flow through the simulated construction joint.

The results of the simulations regarding Key Performance Indicators are provided in Figure 2 - 5. The
following aspects can be observed:
 Most of the simulations show fRsi values that are well below the recommended threshold values of 0.69
(condensate criteria) and 0.71 (mold growth criteria) as suggested in [7]. However, it has to be stated that
a critical Rsi –value for the inside surface has been assumed, which might cause these low values. Needless
to say, the real performance of the coldest points is strongly influenced by convective and radiative process,
which are not easy to capture in thermal bridge simulation.
 In part, the implementation of vacuum glass allows approaching the mentioned threshold values. However,
the post-and-beam constructions have not been optimized for the specifics of the vacuum glazing, and as
such might be influenced by the glass edge seal, which is a weak spot in the vacuum glass.
 The thermal bridge assessment characteristics of timber constructions show lower minimum indoor surface
temperatures and thus lower fRsi-values than the steel constructions. This might be due to the higher
conductivity of the steel beams, which transport heat from the inside boundary conditions to these coldest
surface spots.
 The impact of the point thermal bridge caused by the screw can only to be significantly observed at the
steel construction. In other words, the timber construction widely mitigates the effects of these point thermal
bridge.
 Concerning the fRsi-value, there can be a performance improvement observed, caused by the replacement
of the double glazing by a vacuum glass pane in the timber construction. This improvement cannot be
observed in the steel construction comparison.
 The insolation glass constructions that have been modified with a vacuum glass pane as replacement of one
of the two layers of float glass in the insulation glazing show by far the best performance concerning the
225
KPIs. While that is obvious in a section through the glass, it is interesting that this also can be observed
regarding the coldest spots of the glass/beam connection. It seems that the implementation of the vacuum
glass into the insulation glass offers a mitigation possibility for the weak spots of both glazing typologies.
 Regarding the positioning of the vacuum glazing system in scenarios VG_a and VG_i, it can be said that
the positioning does not affect the coldest point temperatures of the timber construction. In the steel
construction typology the position of the vacuum glass closer to inside (VG_i) shows a significantly better
performance than the positioning further outside (VG_a). This might be caused by the better insulation
effect of the silicone pillow that covers the glass edge seal.
Figure 2. fRsi-values of all assessed scenarios.
Figure 3. Minimum interior surface temperature values of all assessed scenarios.
Figure 4. 2D/3D thermal coupling coefficients of all assessed scenarios.
226
The different implementations of the vacuum glazing have different impact onto the thermal bridge severeness
and general surface temperatures. Figure 5 compares the 2D scenarios of both the timber and the steel
construction, once equipped with double glazing, once equipped with vacuum glass (scenario VG – reduced
dimensions). Interestingly, the timber construction temperature profiles are widely parallel in both the double-
glazed and the vacuum-glazed variant (at the post surface), while the steel construction shows in general higher
surface temperatures in the area of the post in comparison to the vacuum glass variant. This clearly indicates
that the implementation of vacuum glass has to be done synchronous to the adaptation of the framing / post-
beam system.
Figure 5. Internal surface temperature profiles for selected 2D scenarios.
Figures 6 and 7 show the temperature distribution in the timber and steel constructions equipped with double-
glazing and with vacuum glazing. It can clearly be seen that the timber constructions show higher temperatures
in the post construction. Moreover, the temperatures inside the corresponding glass constructions show typical
temperature profiles known of insulation glass and vacuum glass.
Timber/ISO/2D Timber/VG/2D
fRsi [-] 0,54 fRsi [-] 0,59
Tmin,i [°C] 6,08 Tmin,i [°c]7,78
Figure 6. Temperature distribution in timber constructions (left: ISO 2D; right VG 2D).
Steel/ISO/2D Timber/VG/2D
fRsi [-] 0,62 fRsi [-] 0,62
Tmin,i [°C] 8,69 Tmin,i [°C] 8,72
Figure 7. Temperature distribution in steel constructions (left: ISO 2D; right VG 2D).
227
CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE RESEARCH

This contribution shed light on the performance of typical post & beam facades equipped with insulation glass
and different vacuum glass implementations. Thereby, we assessed the scale of building construction joints
via numeric thermal bridge simulation. As the assessed, generic constructions were not optimized for the
specifications of vacuum glazing, but rather just equipped with vacuum glazing, typical cold surface points of
such constructions could still be observed, although the thermally superior vacuum glass was utilized. Thus,
future research and development efforts should focus on the adaptation of the post & beam façade constructions
toward improved consideration of the vacuum glass specifications.
We did not provide any U-value calculations, due to two reasons: (i) On the one hand, this contribution focused
on the thermal bridge assessment of potentially problematic construction joints, which would not be visible in
the U-values of the façade elements. (ii) On the other hand, previous experiences [8] illustrated that the existing
standards for both window and door as well as façade element assessment regarding thermal performance of
such construction still did not encompass the specifics of vacuum glazing. Any U-value calculation therefore
would be a rough estimation rather than a meaningful performance indicator of the façade panels. Needless to
say, this shortcoming in the standards is an aspect that should be changed as soon as vacuum glazing products
are more commonly used in window and façade constructions.
However, it is obvious that the implementation of the highly-insulating vacuum glass panels instead of double
(and presumably triple glazing) comes with a set of advantages: (i) The surface temperatures on the glass
surfaces is in general higher than it would be in case of double-glazing. Moreover, the surface temperatures
would be comparable to those of triple-glazing products. (ii) The required dimensions of the vacuum glass
result in very slim constructions in comparison to triple-glazed facades. Moreover, such products are even
slimmer than double-glazing products that rely on a gas-insulation layer (e.g. Argon). As such, the post-and-
beam constructions could be dimensioned for less weighty glass constructions.(iii) The handling of vacuum
glass panes could result in advantages during the building delivery process, as the glass panes are easier to be
handled than heavy-weight triple glazing. In contrast, it needs to be said that a transformation of existing post
& beam constructions to utilization of vacuum glazing shall consider their weak spots (glass edge seal) and
other characteristics (e.g. that most vacuum glass products just consist of float glass and not any security glass).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This contribution has been written in the vicinity of the third party-funded research and development projects
VIG-SYS-RENO (Proj. No: 845225), MOTIVE (Proj. No: 854690), FIVA (Proj. No: 867352), and VAMOS
(Proj. No: 878272). All of these projects have been generously funded by the Austrian Research Promotion
Agency FFG.
REFERENCES
[1] Project VIG SYS-RENO, see: http://shorturl.at/foIL5 (last checked: Aug 2019).
[2] Project MOTIVE, see: http://shorturl.at/ptFR8 (last checked: Aug 2019).
[3] Project FIVA, see: http://shorturl.at/bw457 (last checked: Aug 2019).
[4] Project VAMOS, see: http://shorturl.at/lqFW0 (last checked: Aug 2019).
[5] Hohenstein, H., Tang, J. (2015). Practical long-term experience with Vacuum Glass. Wolrd Sutainable
Energy Days- European Smart Windows Conferenve, Welst, 25th February 2015.
[6] AnTherm. www.antherm.eu (last checked: Aug 2019).
[7] ÖNORM B 8110-2: Thermal insulation in building construction – Part 2: Water vapour diffusion and
protection against condensation. 2003-07-01, Austrian Standardization Institute.
[8] Wölzl, M: "Fensterkonstrutkionen mit Vakuumglas: Simulationsbasierte Weiterentwicklung von
innovativen Fensterkonstruktionen" Master Thesis, TU Wien, Supervised by U. Pont & A. Mahdavi, Oct
2019
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EnviBUILD 2019

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

Maryna Babenko1, Tetiana Nikiforova2, Vitalii Spyrydonenkov3, Oleksandr

Fig.1. Linear versus circular economy [6].

Fig.2. Theoretical basis for effective countryside development

Fig. 2. Diagram of natural resource flows [10].

Table 1. Estimated average electric power consumption by periods, kWh

Table 2. Average power consumption by periods, kWh

Table 3. Year consumption and generation of electrical energy, kWh

[1] World Economics Forum [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Economic_Forum]

Maryna Babenko1, Mykola Savytskyi2, Boris Bielek3, Daniel Szabó4

Figure1. Detailed model of the proposed straw wall element.

LABORATORY STUDY METHODOLOGY

Figure 2. The composition and parameters of the test sample.

The test was realized in two general stages:

Table 1. The parameters of the stages of the experiment.

Exterior room Interior room

Exterior room Interior room

RESULTS OF THE STRAW WALL STUDY

Table 3. Second stage of measurements.

Figure 6. Heating periods under the external temperature regime -15°C.

Petr Blasinski1, Aleš Rubina1, Olga Rubinová1 and Marian Formánek1

MECHANISMS OF SOLID AEROSOL CAPTURE

Figure 1. Particle filtration efficiency according to size [1]

ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS - ASSESSMENT

Figure 2. Typical urban size distribution [3]

Figure 3. Typical rural size distribution [3]

MEASUREMENTS INCLUDING THE INFLUENCE OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE OF THE

Figure 4. The shape of the test track

Figure 5. Sample detail of the tested filter element

Figure 7. Sample from the results of the measured data

Figure 8. Average efficiency values of measured samples

COMPUTER NUMERICAL SIMULATION

MODELING THE AERODYNAMIC BARRIER PERMEABILITY

Permeable barrier Impermeable barrier

MODELING THE TURBULENT STEAM IN SIMULATIONS

CONDITIONS FOR WIND FLOW AND TURBULENCE

Figure 5. Simulation results

Table 1. ISO 4892-3: 2016, Table 4 - Exposure cycles.

INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL AND LAYERS ON COMPOSITE DEGRADATION

Table 2. Biocomposite sample thickness.

Table 3. Biocomposite sample thickness.

INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL AND LAYERS ON COMPOSITE DEGRADATION

Figure 2. Imperfection on the surface of PLA samples - under a microscope in 3D space

TREATMENT OF BIOCOMPOSITE LAMINATES

Figure 3. Smoothing the surface and removing imperfections

2. ANALYSIS OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM IN MODERN SMALL UNIVERSITY

3. METHODOLOGY OF EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS IN MODERN SMALL

Figure 3. Ground-plan of small university lecture hall with standpoints

4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6. Values of air temperature in all standpoints

Figure 7. Values of air relative humidity in all standpoints

Figure 8. Values of index PMV in all standpoints

Figure 1. View on the pyranometers at the platform.

QUALITY CONTROL OF MEASURED DATA

METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

Figure 2. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in winter season.

Table 2. Percentiles of Ees, winter season.

Figure 3. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in spring season.

Table 3. Percentiles of Ees, spring season.

Figure 4. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in summer season.

Table 4. Percentiles of Ees, summer season.

Figure 5. Occurrence of direct horizontal irradiance in autumn season.

Table 5. Percentiles of Ees, autumn season.