Hydraulics of Structures
INTRODUCTION
The need to measure and control flows under either
open channel or pipe flow conditions has been a con-
cern for engineers dating back hundreds of years.
Whether the desire was to measure irrigation water
being applied to dry croplands or control rampaging
streams, structures provided potential solutions. Struc-
tures vary from very small weirs to large spillways with
energy dissipators and include both inlet and outlet
devices. The tremendous variability in physical size,
flow capacity, and materials contribute to difficulties in
designing structures.
HYDRAULICS OF FLOW CONTROL DEVICES
Introducfton
Flow control devices may operate as either open
channel flow in which the flow has a free water surface
or pipe flow in which the flow is in a closed conduit
under pressure. Although the hydraulic principles are
similar for each, the application of these principles for
describing the hydraulics of flow control devices varies
considerably. Simple flow control devices date back at
least to the ancient Egyptians who sought to control
the Nile River's yearly flooding. Although the struc-
tures have changed in terms of materials and the
144
engineer's understanding of why they work, many of
the devices utilized today are remarkably similar to
those that were in place hundreds of years ago.
A basic understanding of the hydraulics of flow
control devices provides a basis for developing ade-
quate design. As head increases on a structure, the
flow that is discharged through the structure increases.
Typical head-discharge relationships for idealized flow
controls are shown in Fig. 5.1. Each of these relation-
ships illustrates that discharge increases proportionally
to the head on the flow control device. An example of
a flow control structure is a principal spillway. An
engineer uses a principal spillway as part of a dam
design to control the rate at which water is discharged.
Weirs as Flow Control Devices
Probably the simplest and least expensive flow con-
trol device available for installation in a channel is a
weir, which is simply an obstruction placed in a chan-
nel so that the flow is constricted as it goes over a crest
(see Fig. 5.l). The crest is the edge of the weir over
which the water flows. As the water level rises above
the crest, the flow rate increases dramatically. Weirs
can have a crest that is generally thin, or sharp crested.
Sharp-crested weirs are constructed from sheet metal
or similar thin material so that the flow over the weir,
or nappe, springs free as it leaves the upstream face of
Hydraulics of Flow Control Devices 145

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Figure 5.1 Typical head-discharge relationships (Kao, 1975).

the weir. Broad-crested weirs are sometimes used
where a structure previously existed or where debris
may damage a sharp-crested weir. Broad-crested weirs
are discussed in a subsequent section.
Sharp-crested weirs can have several shapes, includ-
ing rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, or a combina-
tion of these, to provide the desired sensitivity at the
required flow capacity. A weir is classified according to
the shape of its notch. Triangular (also called V-notch)
weirs have greater control under low flow conditions
than do rectangular weirs and are often used where
precise flow measurement is desired. Conversely, rec-
tangular weirs have large capacity but have less sensi-
tivity for flow measurement. A weir can vary in physical
size from quite small to very large. Consequently, the
controlled discharge can vary substantially. The dis-
charge across a rectangular weir is defined by the
equation
(5.1)
where Q is discharge in cubic feet per second, C is the
weir coefficient (dependent upon units and weir shape),
146
L is weir length in feet, and H is head in feet. For a
circular inlet, such as the riser on a drop inlet, L is the
circumference of the pipe.
Values of C can be found in hydraulic references for
many shapes. Values of C from 3.0 to 3.2 are generally
used for a rectangular weir. The length L is the total
length over which flow crosses the weir. If the weir
coefficient and weir length are known, discharge is a
function of head only. Head is the difference in eleva-
tion between the lowest point on the weir crest and the
water surface elevation plus the velocity head. To avoid
having to estimate velocity head, H should be mea-
sured at a location at least three times the maximum
design head upstream of the weir at a point where the
velocity head is negligible. The crest should be located
at least two times the maximum head above the chan-
nel bottom in order to reduce the likelihood of sub-
mergence. Submergence (tailwater approaching the
crest of the inlet section) can significantly decrease the
capacity of the structure. The designer is cautioned to
consider this possibility since it necessitates the use of
different equations or field calibration of the weir
under the submerged conditions. If the downstream
channel is not adequate to handle the design flow, flow
may be retarded and lead to submergence. Flow should
spring clear of the downstream portion of the weir so
that an air pocket forms beneath the nappe. Air is
continuously removed from this pocket by the over-
flowing jet. The pressure in this pocket should be kept
constant or the weir will have undesirable characteris-
tics. French (1985) stated two such characteristics. As
air pressure in the pocket decreases, the curvature of
the overflowing jet increases, and the value of the
coefficient of discharge will increase also. Alternatively,
if the supply of air is irregular, the jet will vibrate. Flow
over the weir will become unsteady, which can lead to
failure of the structure.
Triangular weirs have angles ranging from 22S to
90° with 90° being most prevalent (see Fig. 5.1). The
basic equation for discharge through a triangular weir,
neglecting the velocity of approach and with no sub-
mergence, is
Q = C tan(8/2)H 5/ 2 , (5.2a)
where 8 is the notch angle. For an angle of 90°,
tan 8/2 is 1.0; hence
Q = CH S/ 2 . (5.2b)
For a 90° triangular weir, C is typically 2.5.
Example Problem 5.1 Weir flow
A 24-in. circular, vertical riser constructed from corru-
gated metal pipe (CMP) serves as the inlet for the principal
spillway of a detention structure. Estimate the discharge if
5. Hydraulics of Structures
the head on the riser is 1 ft and weir flow exists. Assume the
weir coefficient C equals 3.0.
Solution: Weir flow control will occur at low head. The
governing equation (using C = 3.0) will be
Q = 3.0LH 3 / 2 ,
where the length L is the circumference of the pipe, which
equals 1T D or 1T (2 ft) or 6.3 ft. Therefore substituting L
yields the equation for discharge as a function of head as
Q = 18.9 H 3 / 2 • (a)
With a head of 1 ft, the discharge Q under weir flow would
be 18.9 cfs.
Grant (1978) presents an eloquent discussion of
weirs, flumes, and open channel flow measurement. He
discusses general requirements that lead to precise
flow measurement using weirs. These criteria include
construction techniques, installation, and head mea-
surement. Grant (1978) also provides detailed informa-
tion on the selection of weirs and other control devices,
and he includes equations for other angles of triangu-
lar weirs, as well as other shapes.
Orlftces as Flow Control Devices
An orifice is an opening through which flow occurs.
Orifices can be used to control flow, as in the case of
the drop inlet shown in Fig. 5.2, or they can be placed
either in a pipe or at the end of a pipe to measure flow.
As water flows through the opening, it can be mea-
sured because its discharged velocity through the open-
ing is a function of head on the orifice. Orifices provide
a simple means to measure pipe flow. The equation for
orifice flow is
Q = C'A(2gH)1/2, (5.3)
where C' is the orifice coefficient, A is the cross-sec-
tional area of the orifice in square feet, g is the
gravitational constant, and H is the head on the orifice
as shown in Fig. 5.2. The leading edge of an orifice can
be rounded or sharp. C' is 0.6 for sharp-edged orifices.
Values for other shapes are provided in Fig. 5.1 and
Hoffman (1974). Streeter (1971) presents a discussion
of the theory from which Eq. (5.3) is derived. Equation
(5.3) is developed in a less rigorous format in Soil
Conservation Service (1984).
Example Problem 5.2 Orifice flow
Estimate the discharge through a 24-in. circular, vertical
riser such as described in Example Problem 5.1 if the head is
1 ft and the riser is functioning as an orifice.
Hydraulics of Flow Control DevIces
Elevation of Water in Reservoir
1\
\
Elbow & Transition
....
,
Figure 5.2 Energy losses for flow in a drop inlet spillway considering bend losses and entrance
losses separately.
Solution: The discharge under orifice flow will equal
Q = C'a(2gH)1/2.
The area of 24-in. pipe is 3.14 ft2. Assuming a value of 0.6 for
C' since the riser is corrugated metal pipe and substituting
values including the gravitational constant, we have
Q = 0.6(3.14)v'2(32.2)H ,
which reduces to
Substituting a head equal to 1 ft into the equation yields
Q = 15.1 cfs for orifice flow.
Pipes as Flow Control Devices
A drop inlet spillwayconsists of a vertical pipe called
a riser and a nearly horizontal pipe called a barrel.
This spillway can serve as a flow control device, even
when operating under pipe flow. A schematic showing
energy losses with pipe flow is given in Fig. 5.2. When
the water level shown in Fig. 5.2 rises to a point such
that the pipe flows full, the total head causing flow is
given by H' (as shown in Fig. 5.2) instead of H as it
was for weir and orifice control. This head is dissipated
as entrance head loss, transition head loss, bend head
loss, friction head loss, and velocity head. Frequently,
in pipes used to drain detention reservoirs, the only
transitions and bends are at the connection between
the drop inlet and the bottom pipe. If head losses are
given in terms of a head loss coefficient times the
141
velocity head, y2/2g, and the transition and bend
head losses are combined into a single head loss term,
then the total head H' can be written as
y2
H'= 2g(1+Ke+K b + KcL), (5.4)
where H' is the head on the pipe as shown in Fig. 5.2,
K e is the entrance head loss coefficient, K b is the bend
head loss coefficient, K; is the head loss coefficient
due to friction, L is the length of the pipe (including
the riser), and Y is the mean velocity in the pipe. A
schematic showing the head loss terms is given in
Fig. 5.2. Since discharge through the pipe is equal to
velocity times area, Eq, (5.4) can be solved for dis-
charge as
a(2gH,)1/2
where Q is discharge and a is cross-sectional area of
the pipe. Values for K c are given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2
for circular and square pipes. Values for K, and K b
depend on the configuration of the entrance and the
bend. Typical values for K, and K b are 1.0 and 0.5,
respectively. Brater and King (1976), as well as Hoff-
man (1974), can be consulted for further details.
For risers with rectangular inlets, the bend head
losses are frequently combined with the entrance head
losses into one term. The total head dissipated through
the riser can then be written as
H' = (~;)(1 + K~ + KcL) (5.6)
 148 5. Hydraulics of Structures

ble 5.1 Head LossCoefficients for CircularConduitsFlowingFull"

Head loss coefficient. K c' for circular pipe flowing full

Kc = 5087 n2/D413
(Note: Pipe diameter, D, is in inches)

Manning's coefficient ofroughness, n

~pe
meter Flow area 0.010 0.0 II 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025
in.) (ft 2)

6 0.196 0.0467 0.0565 0.0672 0.0789 0.0914 0.1050 0.1194 0.1348 0.1510 0.1680 0.1870 0.2060 0.2260 0.2470 0.2690 0.2920
8 0.349 0.0318 0.0385 0.0458 0.0537 0.0623 0.0715 0.0814 0.0919 0.1030 0.1148 0.1272 0.1400 0.1540 0.1680 0.1830 0.1990
o 0.545 0.0236 0.0286 0.0340 0.0399 0.0463 0.0531 0.0604 0.0682 0.0765 0.0852 0.0944 0.1041 0.1143 0.1249 0.1360' 0.1480

2 0.785 0.0185 0.0224 0.0267 0.0313 0.0363 0.0417 0.0474 0.0535 0.0600 0.0668 0.0741 0.0817 0.0896 0.0980 0.1067 0.1157
1.069 0.0151 0.0182 0.0217 0.0255 0.0295 0.0339 0.0386 0.0436 0.0488 0.0544 0.0603 0.0665 0.0730 0.0798 0.0868 0.0942
1.230 0.0138 0.0166 0.0198 0.0232 0.0270 0.0309 0.0352 0.0397 0.0446 0.0496 0.0550 0.0606 0.0666 0.0727 0.0792 0.0859

6 1.400 0.0126 0.0153 0.0182 0.0213 0.0247 0.0284 0.0323 0.0365 0.0409 0.0455 0.0505 0.0556 0.0611 0.0667 0.0727 0.0789
8 1.770 0.01078 0.0130 0.0155 0.0182 0.0211 0.0243 0.0276 0.0312 0.0349 0.0389 0.0431 0.0476 0.0522 0.0570 0.0621 0.0674
:1 2.410 0.00878 0.01062 0.0126 0.0148 0.0172 0.0198 0.0225 0.0254 0.0284 0.0317 0.0351 0.0387 0.0425 0.0464 0.0506 0.0549

:4 3.140 0.00735 0.00889 0.01058 0.0124 0.0144 0.0165 0.0188 0.0212 0.0238 0.0265 0.0294 0.0324 0.0356 0.0389 0.0423 0.0459
:7 3.980 0.00628 0.00760 0.00904 0.01061 0.0123 0.0141 0.0161 0.0181 0.0203 0.0227 0.0251 0.0277 0.0304 0.0332 0.0362 0.0393
,0 4.910 0.00546 0.00660 0.00786 0.00922 0.01070 0.01228 0.0140 0.0158 0.0177 0.0197 0.0218 0.0241 0.0264 0.0289 0.0314 0.0341

7.070 0.00428 0.00518 0.00616 0.00723 0.00839 0.00963 0.01096 0.0124 0.0139 0.0154 0.0171 0.0189 0.0207 0.0226 0.0246 0.0267
9.620 0.00348 0.00422 0.00502 0.00589 0.00683 0.00784 0.00892 0.01007 0.01129 0.0126 0.0139 0.0154 0.0169 0.0184 0.0201 0.0218
18 12.570 0.00292 0.00353 0.00420 0.00493 0.00572 0.00656 0.00747 0.00843 0.00945 0.01053 0.01166 0.0129 0.0141 0.0154 0.0168 0.0182

;4 15.900 0.00249 0.00302 0.00359 0.00421 0.00488 0.00561 0.00638 0.00720 0.00808 0.00900 0.00997 0.01099 0.0121 0.0132 0.0144 0.0156
19.630 0.00217 0.00262 0.00312 0.00366 0.00424 0.00487 0.00554 0.00622 0.00702 0.00782 0.00866 0.00955 0.01048 0.0115 0.0125 0.0135

Q From Soil Conservation Service (1951).

or and 5.2. It is being used as the principal spillway for a

a(2gH,)1/2
Q= (1+K~+KcL)1/2'
where K~ is the combined entrance and bend head
loss term. By providing a smooth transition, the value
for K~ can be reduced. Typical values of K~ are given
in Table 5.3.
Frequently when the drop inlet is the same size as
the remainder of the pipe, orifice flow will control, and
the pipe will never flow full. In this case, it may be
necessary to increase the size of the drop inlet in order
to utilize the full capacity of the pipe.
Example Problem 5.3 Pipe flow
An 24-in.-diameter corrugated metal pipe (CMP) is at-
tached to the 24-in. vertical riser described in Problems 5.1
detention structure. The pipe is 60 ft long and has one 90°
bend. The top of the inlet riser is 15 ft above the bottom of
(5.7) the outlet. Assume a free outfall and estimate the discharge
under pipe flow if the water elevation 30 ft from the inlet is
1 ft higher than the top of the riser.
Solution: For pipe flow, we have
where K e = 1.0 for most entrances of interest and K b = 0.5.
Manning's n for CMP is approximately 0.024 (see Table 4.1
for a range of values for CMP). Using this value in Table 5.1,
K e = 0.042. Head for pipe flow is the distance from the water
surface to a point 0.6D above the outlet as shown in Fig. 5.2
and 5.3. H' then is given in terms of the stage, H, by
H' = H + 15 - 0.6(2.0) = H + 13.8.
Hydraulics of Flow Control DevIces 149

Table 5.2 Head Loss Coefficients for Square Conduits Flowing FuUD

K c = 29. 16n2jR4/3

Manning coefficient of roughness, n

Conduit size Aowarea
(ft) (ft2) 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016

2x2 4.00 0.01058 0.01212 0.01440 0.01653 0.01880

2t x 2t 6.25 0.00786 0.00922 0.01070 0.01228 0.01397
3x3 9.00 0.00616 0.00723 0.00839 0.00963 0.01096
3 t x 3t 12.25 0.00502 0.00589 0.00683 0.00784 0.00892
4x4 16.00 0.00420 0.00493 0.00572 0.00656 0.00746
4t x 4} 20.25 0.00359 0.00421 0.00488 0.00561 0.00638
5x5 25.00 0.00312 0.00366 0.00425 0.00487 0.00554
5} x 5} 30.25 0.00275 0.00322 0.00374 0.00429 0.00488
6x6 36.00 0.00245 0.00287 0.00333 0.00382 0.00435
6t x6} 42.25 0.00220 0.00258 0.00299 0.00343 0.00391
7x7 49.00 0.00199 0.00234 0.00271 0.00311 0.00354
n x 7} 56.25 0.00182 0.00213 0.00247 0.00284 0.00323
8x8 64.00 0.00167 0.00196 0.00227 0.00260 0.00296
8} x 8} 72.25 0.00154 0.00180 0.00209 0.00240 0.00273
9x9 81.00 0.00142 0.00167 0.00194 0.00223 0.00253
9} x 9} 90.25 0.00133 0.00156 0.00180 0.00207 0.00236
lOx 10 100.00 0.00124 0.00145 0.00168 0.00193 0.00220

"From Soil Conservation Service (1951).

Table5.3 Entrance Loss Coefficients in Drop Inlet Spillways with Rectangular

Drop InletsD

Minimum Maximum
clear water with debris
Description of Spillway K'e K'e

I. Round conduit and standard covered top riser, except

with special elbow and transition
D x l.5D Riser 0.65 0.75 b
D xW Riser 0.41 o.so-
D x3DRiser 0.25 0.35 b
Dx5DRiser 0.17 o.so-
2. Round conduit and standard covered top riser, with
round bottom and square-edged entrance to conduit
Dx3DRiser 0.6Ob 0.7ob
3. Round conduit and standard rectangular open top riser,
with round bottom and square-edged entrance to conduit
Dx 3D Riser 0.50b 0.9Qb
4. Round conduit and standard rectangular open top riser,
with flat bottom and square-edged entrance to conduit
Dx3D Riser 0.6Qb l.lob
5. Round conduit and standard square open top riser, with
flat bottom and square-edged entrance to conduit
(D + 12) x (D + 12) Riser 1.20 2.00b

QSoil Conservation Service (1969).

bEstimated values.
150
a b
Figure 5.3 Illustration of drop inlet spillwayas a flow control structure: (a) weir control, (b) orifice control, (c) pipe
flow with free outfall, and (d) pipe flow with tailwater control.
The area a of the 24-in. pipe is 3.14 ft2 (computed or found
in Table 5.0. Substituting into the pipe flow equation
3.14[2(32.2)( H + 13.8)]1/2
Q = [1 + 1.0 + 0.5 + (0.042)(60)]1/2
which simplifies to
Q = l1.25(H + 13.8)1/ 2 •
Substituting a value of H equal to 1 ft yields a Q equal to 43
cfs if pipe flow exists. To determine if pipe flow exists for a
drop inlet spillway, the discharge computed by pipe flow,
orifice flow, and weir flow would be compared. If the pipe
flow discharge is the smaller of the three, pipe flow would
occur.
Using Flow Control Structures as Spillways
A given spillway can have a variety of stage discharge
relationships, depending on the head. An example of
the impact of flow changes as a result of changing head
for a drop inlet is shown in Fig. 5.3. When the water
level is just above the riser crest (very low head), the
riser crest acts like aweir, and flow is weir controlled.
When the flow is weir controlled, the water level inside
the drop inlet is lowest near the center of the inlet. As
5. Hydraulics of Structures
the water level in the reservoir increases, water flowing
in from all sides of the inlet interferes so that the inlet
begins to act like an orifice. As the head continues to
increase, the outlet eventually begins to flow full, and
pipe flow prevails as shown in Fig. 5.3. A stage-dis-
charge curve is developed by plotting Q versus H for
each of the three relationships (weir, orifice and pipe
flow). The minimum flow for a given head is the actual
discharge used. This process is demonstrated in the
next problem.
Example Problem 5.4 Stage-discharge curve
An IS-in. diameter eMP with an 18-in. vertical riser is
being used as the principal spillway for a detention structure.
The pipe is 50 ft long and has one 90° bend. The top of the
inlet riser is 10 ft above the bottom of the outlet. Develop a
stage-discharge curve. Assume a free outfall.
Solution: Weir flow control will occur first. The governing
equation (using C = 3.0) is
For an IS-in. pipe, L is the circumference of the pipe, which
is 4.7 ft; therefore
(a)
Hydraulics of Flow Control DevIces 151

After a certain depth of flow occurs, the discharge may be These calculations can be done quite easily using a computer
orifice controlled or spreadsheet. The minimum flow for any head represents the
actual flow. A plot of the stage-discharge relationship is
Q = Ca(2gH)1/2. given in Fig. 5.4.
The area of an 18-in. pipe is 1.77 ft 2 • Assuming a value of 0.6
for C,
Q = 8.51H 1/ 2 • (b) Rockflll Outlets as Controls
For pipe flow, Eq, (5.7) is used, or Rock is by far the most abundant, and generally
a(2gH,)1/2 available, building material on earth and can often be
obtained Quite inexpensively. The major expenses asso-
Q= (I+K (c)
e+K b+KcL)1/2' ciated with rock are grading, transporting, and placing
the stone. The relative permanence of rock was recog-
Use K; = 1.0 and K b = .5. K, is determined from Table 5.1
(using an n of 0.025) as 0.07. The head is determined for this nized ages ago and rock has often been used to con-
case to be the distance from the surface to a point 0.6 struct structures that are designed for long life. Rock is
diameters above the outlet as shown in Fig. 5.2. The head H' used as a hydraulic control for many purposes such as
then is given in terms of the stage H by to construct protective channel linings and breakwa-
ters, add stability to dams, and provide energy dissipa-
H' = H + 10 - (0.6)(1.5), tion zones for reservoir outlets. Recently rockfill has
which simplifies to been used as a flow control structure. As such, infor-
mation on hydraulics of flow in rockfill is needed.
H' = H + 9.1.
Therefore Analytical Procedures for CalculatinK
Flow Hydraulics
1.77[2g(H + 9.1)]1/2
Q = ----------:-:::- The study of flow through rockfill has generally
(1 + 1.0 + 0.5 + 0.07 X 50)1/ 2 occurred at low Reynolds numbers in laboratory condi-
tions. Relatively few insitu measurements have oc-
Q = 5.80(H + 9.1)1/2. (d)
curred because of the difficulties in describing the
A stage-discharge curve is developed by plotting Q versus H stone shapes and controlling the flow so that the de-
foreach of the relationships given in Eqs. (a), (b), and (d). sired flow conditions occur. Much of the research in

30

25

20

'Ii
•
0
It
15
-------- orifice

......... weir
10
- - - pipe

5 ---outflow

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Stege feet
Figure 5.4 Stage-discharge curve for Example Problem 5.4.
152
this area has dealt with solution of groundwater and
well problems. An example of this work is that of
Stephenson (1979) who sought to correlate research of
flowjhead loss relationships for porous granular media
over a wide range of Reynolds numbers (10- 4 to 10 4 ) .
His work, using uniform rock sizes, showed that head
loss is proportional to the flow velocity squared. Based
on this effort, the head loss equation can be solved
analytically for many cases in which the flow is fully
developed turbulent flow.
The analysis of flow in rock media with uniform
diameters utilizes a variation of the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
dh 1 ~2
(5.8)
dl =': 2g'
where dh j dl is the gradient of head through the rock
fill, I is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, d is the
average diameter of the rock, Vp is the velocity in the
pores, and g is acceleration of gravity. This is a varia-
tion of Eq. (4.21). In the form used by Stephenson
(1979) for rock fill, the constant 2 is left out of the
equation and a macro-velocity is substituted for pore
velocity. The macro-velocity is the velocity one would
have if the flow through the pores were distributed
uniformly over the entire cross section (see discussion
in Chapter 11) and is related to the pore velocity by the
porosity, or
(5.9)
where V is the macro-velocity and { is the porosity.
Folding the constant 2 in Eq, (5.8) into the I term, the
modified Darcy-Weisbach equation becomes
dh 1 V2
(5.lOa)
dl =Ikde g'
where Ik is the modified friction factor. Stephenson
(1979) proposed that the friction factor could be
given by
const
Ik = ~ + I" (5.10b)
e
where It is the friction factor for fully turbulent flow
and R, is Reynolds number given by
Vd
R e =gIl
-
. (5.11)
Stephenson proposed that It equals 1, 2, or 4 for
smooth polished stone, semirounded stone, or angular
stone, respectively.
Recent work performed by Herrera (1989) and sum-
marized in Herrera and Felton (1991) sought to define
5. Hydraulics of Structures
the hydraulics of flow through a rockfill of varying
gradation using sediment-free water. They used the
standard deviation of the particle diameter, (7', as the
measure of gradation instead of intrinsic permeability
or simple porosity as had previous workers '. A set of
equations to predict the head loss was developed based
upon a friction factor-Reynolds number relationship.
Six different models were evaluated using 16 rockfill
structures, with 96 tests conducted using three replica-
tions. The equations were found to predict the actual
head loss data to an average error of 8%.
The standard deviation was found to be better than
porosity alone as a predictor for describing the hy-
draulics of flow. In the original equations proposed by
Herrera (1989), porosity was included as a parameter.
In a later paper by Herrera and Felton (1991), porosity
was deleted, since it was approximately constant at a
value of 0.46 throughout all of the tests. In order to
allow the relationships to be used for a wide range of
conditions, porosity has been included in the equations
described in this chapter. The best set of working
equations for describing the hydraulics of flow and for
design, considering the Herrera and Felton data, are
proposed to be the following [this is Model 3 in Her-
rera (l989)]
1. Reynolds number equation given by
(d - u)V
R, = ,,{ (5.12)
2. Friction factor given by
gde dh
Ik = ---vz dl (5.13)
3. The friction factor-Reynolds number relationship
given as
(5.14)
IThe average diameter, d, and the standard deviation, a, can be
obtained after a sieve analysis using the relationships
Id.w
d=-'-'
IWj
and
= I(d - d j ) 2 Wi ] 1/2
U [ IWj ,
where all summations are from 1 to n, n is the number of sieve
groupings from a sieve analysis, d, is the average diameter of the
rock obtained by averaging the sieve opening of two succeeding
sieves, and Wj is the percentage by weight of the rocks assigned a
diameter d j •
Hydraulics of Flow Control Devices 153

ROCKFILL Hence
HYDRAULIC PROFILE
q 1.0
V= - = - = 0.217 mysec,
have 4.6
o 0 2. Calculate Reynolds number. From the problem, a =
0.001 m, d = 0.02 m, II = 1.0 X 10- 6 m2/sec, and g = 0.4;
hence Eq. (5.12) becomes

(d - u)V (0.02 - 0.001)(0.217)

R = = = 10308.
e IIg 1.0 X 10 6(0.4) ,

3. Calculate friction factor using Eq. (5.14):

ell -1
Figure 5.5 Definition sketch rockfill equations.
1600
fk = - R
e
1600
+ 3.83 = - - + 3.83 = 3.98.
10,308

4. Calculate head loss from Eq, (5.13):

4. The h 2 - have relationships (see Fig. 5.5) given by

(5.15) or

and

(5.16)
5. Calculate upstream and average depth from Eqs.
(5.15) and (5.16):
where d is average diameter of rock fill (m), ~ is
porosity, tr is standard deviation (m), v is kinematic hi = h 2 + dh = 0.78 + 5.98 = 6.76
viscosity (mysec), have is the average water profile h2 + hi 0.78 + 6.76
inside the rockfill, h 2 is exit depth of the water in the have = 2 2 = 3.77.
rockfill, hI is the upstream depth, dh is static head
drop as flow moves through the rockfill, dl is the flow 6. Additional trial calculations: Since 3.77 is less than the
length through the rockfill, tk is the friction factor, R, assumed value of 4.6, additional trials are necessary. One
approach would be to use 3.77 as the new trial value. This,
is Reynolds number, and V is average bulk velocity
however, leads to oscillating values. An alternate approach is
equal to q/h ave' where q is the discharge per unit to use a second trial that is an average of the original value
width of rockfill. Herrera suggested that a value of 0.46 and the calculated value. Some oscillation occurs with this
be assigned to ~ in design calculations for a graded approach, but the calculated values converge. By combining
rockfill constructed by dumping. Eqs. (5.12)-(5.16) using the values given in the problem, dh
Procedures for using the rockfill relationships are and have can be related by
given in Example Problem 5.5. 1.08 122.1
dh=-+-- (a)
have hive

and
Example Problem 5.5 Flow hydraulics
through a rockfill 1.08 122.1
hi = h 2 + dh = 0.78 + - - + -2- (b)
have have
A rockfill dam is composed of rock having an average
diameter d of 0.02 m, porosity g equal to 0.4, standard Using these relationships, calculations can be quickly made.
deviation a of 0.001 m, and length dl equal to 1.0 m. Water Assuming that the new trial value, h ave• new , is the average of
with a kinematic viscosity II of 1 x 10- 6 mysec is flowing the previous trial value and the previous calculated value,
through the rock at a rate q of 1.0 cmsym width. Down-
stream conditions control the exit depth of the water h 2 at have. trial + have,cal 4.6 + 3.77
have,new = -......;....-::----'-- 2 = 4.18.
0.78 m. Find the upstream height hi' 2
Solution: From Eq, (b), using have,new = 4.18 for have' hi = 8.02 and
1. Assume a trial have equal to 4.6 m. The average bulk or 8.02 + 0.78
macro-velocity equals q/h ave, where q is flow per unit width. have. new = 2 = 4.40.
154 5. Hydraulics of Structures

The new value of 4.40 is still different from the previous From Eq. (a),
value of 4.18; hence additional trials are necessary as shown
fk = (47,500)(0.064) = 3040.
below.
From Eq. (5.15),
Trial have.trial have.new 1600
3.77
fk = 3040 + 3.83 = 4.36.
I 4.6
2 4.18 4.40 Additional trials are shown below using Eq, (a), (b), and (c).
3 4.29· 4.22 Calculated fk is used as trial fk in the next step.
4 4.26 4.27
Trial Calculated
OK
Trial No. It It
I 3.83 4.36
Thus, have = 4.27. For this value, dh = 6.95 and hI = 7.72.
Restated, this means that a head of 7.72 m on the rocldill 2 4.10 4.37
with a thickness of 1 m will discharge 1 m3/sec/m of width if 3 4.24 4.38
the downstream depth is 0.78 m. 4 4.31 4.38
Note that this problem illustrates a limitation of rocldill 5 4.35 4.39
structures. A head of cover 7 m is required to discharge 1
OK
cmsym. Such a structure would not be feasible. Example
Problem 5.6 illustrates a more typical application of these
structures. Hence, for hI = 0.5 m, fk = 4.38, V = 0.06 mysec, have =
0.5/2 = 0.25 m, q can be solved from q = haveV = 0.0150
m Z/sec. For a width of 2 m,
Example Problem 5.6 Stage discharge equation Q = 2q = (2)(0.0150) = 0.030 m3/sec.

If the rock fill in Example Problem 5.5 is 2 m wide and is Other values are tabulated below.
used as the spillway from a sediment pond, determine the
stage discharge relationship up to an upstream depth of 2 m, hi V have q Q
(m) I (m/sec) (m) (mZ/sec) (m 3)
using depths of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 m. Assume that the k
downstream slope is such that the downstream depth is
0.5 4.39 0.0600 0.25 0.0150 0.0300
negligible.
1.0 4.22 0.0862 0.50 0.0431 0.0862
Solation: This is also a trial and error computation process.
1.5 4.15 0.1065 0.75 0.0800 0.1600
For a given value of hI' a value of dh can be estimated from
2.0 4.10 0.1234 1.00 0.1234 0.2468
Eq, (5.16), since h z is assumed to be approximately zero.
Knowing dh, the unknowns in Eq, (5.14) are fk and V. In
making the calculations, a value of fk is assumed, starting A plot of Q vs hI would constitute a stage-discharge rela-
with a value of 3.83 (from Example Problem 5.5) and checked tionship for a negligible downstream depth.
by iteration. Under these conditions, Eqs. (5.12) to (5.14) can
be simplified to

R = (0.02 - 0.001)V = 47 500V The procedure shown in Example Problem 5.6 ap-
(a)
e (1.0 X 10- 6)(0.4) , plies only to those conditions when the downstream
depth is negligible. For conditions where downstream
and flow occurs, the depth, h z would be a function of flow.
(9.8)(0.02)(0.4 Z ) dh dh In this case, it would be necessary to calculate h z for
fk = VZ T
= 0.03136 VZ . (b) each discharge, using one of the flow equations in
Chapter 4.
Since the downstream depth, h z is assumed to be negligible,
Graphical Procedure for Rockfill Flow Hydraulics
(c)
The procedures presented above require detailed
For an hI or dh of 0.5 m and an assumed !k of 3.83, Eq. (b) computations. Computers and spreadsheets facilitate
can be solved for V or these computations considerably. When quick esti-
mates are needed, graphical procedures are helpful. By
(0 .03136)(0 .5) ]I/Z utilizing Eq. (5.12) through (5.16), the graphical rela-
V= [ = 0.064.
3.83 tionships shown in Fig. 5.6 were developed for predict-
Hydraulics of Flow Control Devices 155
Also, since dl is 1 m,
dh = 7.5q o.653
• or

I _ [dh ] 1/0.653
q- -
7.5
Since the downstream depth is assumed to be negligible, dh
is equal to h 1• The results are tabulated below along with a
1L-..................:..;.,u,_....... .:....:..-.....:..:.:J summary of the predicted values from Example Problem 5.6.
0.01 0.1 1 Also included is a tabulation of values calculated using the
diameter d (m) procedures in Example Problem 5.6, but with the assumption
of a porosity of 0.46 and a standard deviation of half the
average diameter, or 0.01 m. These were the standard condi-
0.7 I I I I I I II I I I filII tions used for developing Fig. 5.6.
---+-+-H-HH ----~-+++41-H
I I I I I I" I I I I IIII
----..--I--.......
I I I IIIII
-t-H~ ----...--+- ....... +-4-1-4+
I I I I IIII
----t--++t++H ---+-+++-1-1-1+ Discharge q (m2/sec)
I
----r--~-~~"'1
I I IIIII I I I
I
........
IIII

.~
____ _ I I I 1111
----~-~~.~~ Upstream Example New
~
_
-
I
.
.
.
t
.
.
.
.
u
~
... ..&.
I IIIIII I I I I 1111
depth Problem 5.6 computation
V I I
--t---"'-I-~-t-H'"
, I
111111
1 I I III
I I I I 1111
----...--+--+-+-t-f-t~ hi (m)
Graphical
procedure ~=O.40, 0=0.001 ~=O.46. 0=11/2
____ I I I I I I II
L_~.J_J..J..J.J.1

----t---~-~~~+H I I I I 1111
I I I f I III I I I I 1111
----,.--r--r-"T..,~.,
I I I I....
I
----r--r-r-T"'T
I I I I IIII 0.5 0.0158 0.0150 0.0162
I __ I
____ L. I
L-_~~-'...t_l
____ L._~-+- .... -1-1.
I I I IIIII I I I I IIII
---+-+-H-l-{-H ----l--+-{-f~+H
1.0 0.0457 0.0431 0.0474
I I I IIIII I I I 11111
0.8 1.5 0.0850 0.0800 0.0887
0.01 0.1 1
2.0 0.1321 0.1234 0.1379
diameter d (m)
Figure 5.6 Constants for the rockfill head loss equations.
The results indicate that the graphical procedure gives good
agreement with the analytical procedure. It is important to
note again that conditions deviating greatly from the stan-
ing the average gradient through rockfill, dh/dl. These dard conditions utilized for Fig. 5.6 could cause the proce-
relationships can be used to develop head loss as a dure to be in error.
power function of flow, or
(5.17)
Single- and Multistage Risers
where a and b are constants dependent on rock size
and flow path length, dl. The discharge q is flow per Stage-discharge relations for outlet structures are
unit width of rockfill and has units of cmsyrn. The based on the physical characteristics of the outlet
gradient, dh/dl, is dimensionless. An example showing structure. Outlet structures can have many different
the use of this equation is given in Example Prob- entrance and exit conditions. Outlet structures may
lem 5.7. consist of a single weir or orifice, multiple weirs or
orifices, or weirs and orifices used in conjunction with
each other. Traditionally, basins have been designed to
control the runoff from a long return event (i.e., 100-
Example Problem 5.7 Use of graphical method
year event). A basin sized for a long return event tends
for rockfill outlets
to overcontrol more frequent events (i.e., 2-year events).
Utilize the graphical method in Fig. 5.6 to calculate the If the design is based on frequent events, the structure
stage discharge relationship in Example Problem 5.6. Assume tends to undercontrol long return events. These obser-
a porosity of 0.46. Compare the results to those obtained in vations have led to regulations that require two or
Example Problem 5.6. more stage risers. The development of stage-discharge
curves for single-stage risers follows the procedures
Solution: The solution with the graphical method elimi-
that were discussed previously. Two-stage risers can
nates the trial and error involved in the process. From Fig.
5.6, a = 7.5 and b = 0.653; hence consist of any combination of orifices, weirs, and pipes.
Most common is a riser consisting of an orifice for low
dh/dl = 7.5q o.653 . flow (more frequent) events and a weir for high flow
156
(less frequent) events. Orifices are often staggered
around the circumference of the riser.
A multistage riser may be created by having more
than one row of orifices on a riser. The size or number
of orifices may change from one level on the riser to
another. Equations used for estimating the discharge
for weirs and orifices have been presented previously in
this chapter.
Broad-Crested Weirs
A broad-crested weir supports the flow in the longi-
tudinal direction (direction of flow) so that the nappe
flowing across the weir does not spring free from its
upstream face as shown in Fig. 5.1. Broad-crested weirs
are usually calibrated in the field or by using a model.
They tend to be structurally stronger than sharp-crested
weirs, and they are particularly useful in locations
where sharp-crested weirs suffer maintenance prob-
lems. An example is a forest area where large limbs or
logs may crash into a sharp-crested weir and cause
damage. Streeter (1971) described the discharge rela-
tionships for broad-crested weirs and showed that
Qt = 3.09LH 3 / 2 , (5.18)
where Qt is the theoretical discharge from a broad-
crested weir of width L operating with a head of H.
Streeter also noted that calibration using a broad-
crested weir produced an equation of the form
Qx = 3.03LH 3 / 2 , (5.19)
where Qx is the discharge based on experimental data
for a broad-crested weir having a well-rounded up-
stream edge. The two equations agreed within 2%.
Streeter also indicated that viscosity and surface ten-
sion have a minor impact on the discharge coefficients
of weirs. Equations (5.18) and (5.19) are inadequate for
design of emergency spillways or road overtopping
since they do not consider the effects of flow length
across the crest of the spillway.
Roadway overtopping occurs when the headwater
rises to the elevation of the roadway. Flows under
these conditions are similar to that of a broad-crested
weir with the roadway serving as the weir. The flow
across the roadway is defined by
(5.20)
where Q o is the overtopping flow rate (ft 3/sec), Cd is
the overtopping discharge coefficient, L is the length
of the roadway crest (ft), and Hw,. is the upstream
depth (ft), measured from the roadway crest to the
water surface at a location upstream of weir drawdown
5. Hydraulics of Structures
(ft). The overtopping discharge coefficient Cd is de-
fined as Cd = ktCr , where C, is the discharge coeffi-
cient and K, is the submergence factor. The coeffi-
cients are given in Fig. 5.7. Road overtopping locations
are characterized by a sagging vertical curve such that
the length and elevation of the roadway crest are
difficult to quantify. Federal Highway Administration
(1985) suggested two methods of characterizing the
sagging vertical curve.
For culvert designs that accompany road overtop-
ping, it may be adequate to represent the sagging
vertical curve by a single horizontal line. The length of
this line is then taken to be the length of the weir.
The second design method involves breaking the
sagging vertical curve into a series of horizontal seg-
ments. Flow across each segment is then calculated for
a specified headwater using Eq. (5.20). Flows from
each segment are then accumulated to obtain the total
flow across the roadway. The elevation and consequent
head H for each horizontal segment is that of the
segment, not an average.
While calculation of the flow over the roadway is
relatively simple, the difficulty is that. this only repre-
sents a portion of the design flow if there is a culvert
through the road fill and this culvert continues to carry
flow. To determine the head for a given discharge, a
trial and error procedure is required to determine the
flow passing through the culvert and the amount flow-
ing across the roadway. If the head is given and a
discharge is to be calculated, the total discharge is
simply the sum of that across the roadway and that
through the culvert.
HYDRAULICS OF CULVERTS
Culverts are conduits that are commonly used to
pass drainage water through embankments. They are
employed beneath access or haul roads and perpendic-
ular to roadside ditches. The selection of a culvert size
to convey flow adequately is presented in this section.
The design of ditch relief culverts is similar to that of
trickle tubes and is discussed in a subsequent section.
Recommended spacing of ditch relief culverts is a
function of road gradient.
Culvert Classes
Chow (1959) divided culvert flow into six categories
as shown in Fig. 5.8. Each of these categories is de-
scribed along with methods for predicting flow for each
type. Chow indicated that the entrance of an ordinary
culvert will not be submerged if the outlet is not
submerged unless the headwater is greater than some
Hydraulics of Culverts 157

~----------.--­
HW,
J .4Jf.:;;m;;;rn;:;:;m;:;:;m;:;;rrr;;~ _-----ll.-

tFl----L,:-----of-

J.l0
' ....n
I V """"
-~
l-
/
...t ~
~
C, J.OO
V
...V
2.10 1.00
.....

~ Ir
0.18 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
HW,. It
PA
'G
A DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT FOR 0.110

~
\
HW, /L, > 0.15

-
J.l0 GRA"O. .....,
PAWO 0.10

\\\
~
J.OO
.......
2.10
/ ~~
C, 2.10
/ 0.70

2.70
/
/ 0.10

2.50
V
o 1.0 2.0 J.O 4.0 0.50
HW" It 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.. 1.0

h.1 HW,
B DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT FOR C SUBMERGENCE FACTER
HW, /L,~ 0.15
Figure 5.7 Discharge coefficients for roadway overtopping (Federal Highway Administration, 1985).

critical value, H*. The value of H* may vary from 1.2
to 1.5 times the culvert height as a result of entrance
geometry, barrel characteristics, and approach condi-
tions. A critical headwater height equal to 1.5 times the
culvert height (diameter for circular culverts) is reason-
able for preliminary analysis.
Type I-Outlet Submerged The pipe will flow full.
Discharge is calculated using Eq. (5.5).
Type 2-0utlet Not Submerged, H> H*, Pipe Flowing
Full This corresponds to a hydraulically long condi-
tion. Figures 5.9 or 5.10 can be checked to provide an
estimate of whether proper conditions are met for
corrugated pipes and concrete pipes, respectively. From
Fig. 5.8, the headwater height H must be greater than
the critical height H*, and tailwater depth should be
less than the height of the culvert. Calculate discharge
from Eq. (5.5).
Type 3-0utlet Not Submerged, H> H*, Pipe Not
Flowing Full This corresponds to the hydraulicallyshort
condition. Check Figs. 5.9 or 5.10 to see if the proper
conditions are met for the pipe to be classified as type
3 by locating the intersection of the bed slope and
ratios in the appropriate figure. From Fig. 5.8, the
headwater height H must be greater than the critical
height H*, and tailwater depth should be less than the
height of the culvert. Discharge is inlet controlled and
158 5. Hydraulics of Structures

FLOW THROUGH NONPRISMATIC CHANNEL SECTIONS

Type Profile

(1) OUTLET SUBMERGED

H>d
V.<d
Full Flow

(2) OUTLET UNSUBMERGED

H>H*
V.<d
Full Flow, long pipe

(3) OUTLET UNSUBMERGED

H> H*
V.<d
Partly Full, short pipe

(4) OUTLET UNSUBMERGED

H> H*
V.>Yc
Subcritical Flow

(5) OUTLET UNSUBMERGED

H>H*
V,<Vc
Subcritical Flow
Control at Outlet

(6) OUTLET UNSUBMERGED

H > H*
V,<Vc
Supercritical Flow
Control at Entrance
Figure 5.8 Types of culvert flow (Chow, 1959).

a b
0.08 0.08
•

~
0.06 0.06
to<'~
5 0 0 .04 5 0 0 .04

0.02 0.02
-& - 0.01
0 0
0 5 10 15 L 20 25 JO 35 0 5 10 15..L..2O 25 JO 35
1) 0
C d
0.08 0.08

0.06 0.06
5 0 0 .04 5 0 0 .04

0.02 0.02
i- 0.02 i- 0.03
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 JO 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 J5
.l. .l.
0 0
Figure 5.9 Criteria for hydraulically short and long culverts rough corrugated pipes. Type 3 is short and Type
2 is long (Carter, 1957).
Hydraulics of Culverts 159

0.09

0.08
H§ c
~
rID .w/O-O.04
0.07 10
q
0
,---- ---------
I / Figure 5.12 Typical inlet control flow condition (after Federal
~ I HighwayAdministration, 1985).HW, headwater; lW, tailwater, W.S.,
0
(f)

LJ
0.06

0.05
-.
Q
~ I
I water surface; dc' critical depth.

Q. I 0.03
9
(f) I
0.04 a. Submerged
I if
6CD I WATER
0.03 I 0.02
I 'TYPE 2 CONTROl.
SECTION
0.02 I (LONG) DO\WolSTREAII
I 0.01
0.01 I 0
I
0
0 10 20 30

~
Figure 5.10 Criteria for hydraulicallyshort and long concrete pipes
(Carter, 1957). Figure 5.13 Typical outlet control flow conditions (after Federal
HighwayAdministration, 1985).HW, headwater, lW, tailwater; W.S.,
water surface; H, losses through culvert.

can be determined by using dimensionless plots devel-

oped by Mavis (1942) as shown in Fig. 5.11.
Types 4-6-0utlet Unsubmerged. H < H* Under
these conditions, the pipe flows as an open .channel.
The discharge for a given head depends on the pipe
slope, entrance geometry, pipe roughness, and pipe
size. To accurately predict discharge, it is necessary to
develop a flow profile through the pipes. The exact
shape of the profile will depend on the depth of flow at
the outlet.
The factors that influence energy and hydraulic grade
lines in culvert discharge are illustrated in the culvert
schematic shown as Figs. 5.12 and 5.13 (inlet and outlet
control, respectively). These factors are used to deter-
mine the type of control for the discharge. The flows
shown are either full flow, partly full flow, or free
surface flow.

Inlet Control
Inlet control occurs when the section that controls
flow is located at or near the entrance to the culvert.
Discharge is dependent only on the geometry of the
inlet and the headwater depth for any particular cul-
H vert size and shape. The inlet will continue to control
1)2
flow as long as water flowing through the barrel of the
culvert does not impede flow. If control is at the inlet,
downstream hydraulic factors such as slope, length, or
surface roughness will not influence capacity. However,
roughness does influence the critical slope at which
inlet control occurs (American Concrete Pipe Associa-
tion, 1985). Smooth culverts placed on a very flat slope
Q/"'9
~ 5/2
0 can have inlet control, whereas rough culverts have to
Figure 5.11 Stage-discharge relationship for a circular pipe with be installed on a much higher slope to have inlet
the control of the inlet (adapted from Mavis, 1942). control. Several types of inlet control are shown in
160
~~~20
Outletsubmerged
Inletunsubmerged
c specialized products. Additionally, they are often able
:r:Z~ttR ..~
.;-~~---------- ----~
Inlet submerged
~ 1:::
WATER SURFACE
Outletsubmerged
Figure 5.14 Types of inlet control (after Federal Highway Admin-
istration, 1985).
Fig. 5.14. Figures showing the critical depth for various
shapes, sizes, and materials are available in many hy-
draulic references. If a culvert is operating under inlet
control, it will not flow full throughout the entire
length of the pipe.
Outlet Control
Outlet control occurs when control originates at or
near the culvert outlet. In this case, discharge is depen-
dent not only on all of the hydraulic factors upstream
from the outlet including size, shape, slope, length,
surface roughness, headwater depth, and inlet geome-
try, but on tailwater depth as well.
CUlvert $election and Design
Culvert selection techniques can range from solution
of empirical formulas to comprehensive mathematical
analysis of specific situations (American Concrete Pipe
Association, 1985). The many hydraulic considerations
involved make a precise mathematical evaluation dif-
ficult and extremely time consuming. The relatively
5. Hydraulics of structures
simple empirical methods cannot account for all of
the factors that impact flow, but they can be used to
estimate flow through culverts for the conditions they
represent. Charts in Bureau of Public Roads (1965a, b)
provide a systematic design method that is based on
determining the headwater depth from the charts as-
suming both inlet and outlet control. The condition
yielding the higher headwater depth controls. Profes-
sional groups such as the American Concrete Pipe
Association (ACPA) (1985) provide excellent refer-
ences for matfy of the figures and techniques that are
used in culvert selection. They can often supply de-
tailed design specifications and design procedures for
to supply design data on loading .
Critical Depth in Culverts
When the sum of kinetic energy plus the potential
energy for a specified discharge is at its minimum,
critical flow occurs. Another way to view this is that
during critical flow, maximum discharge through a pipe
occurs with any specified total energy head. For a given
flow rate, the depth of flow and slope associated with
critical flow define the critical depth and critical slope.
If the culvert has an unsubmerged outlet, the maxi-
mum capacity of the culvert is established when critical
flow occurs (American Concrete Pipe Association,
1985).
Culvert Nomograph Procedure
The American Concrete Pipe Association (1985) has
suggested the following procedure for sizing culverts.
The basic procedure for sizing a culvert for a given
flow rate involves selecting a trial size culvert, deter-
mining whether inlet or outlet control prevails, and
then finding the headwater required for the controlling
condition. If the headwater is unacceptable (too high
or low), another trial culvert is selected and the process
repeated. The procedure is outlined below. The nota-
tion at this point utilizes HW as the head on the
culvert instead of H used earlier, in keeping with
standard terminology utilized by public agencies.
Determine Design Data.
1. Design discharge Q (cfs) for the design storm.
2. Length L (ft) of culvert.
3. Slope of culvert.
4. Allowable headwater depth HWa, (ft). This is the
vertical distance from the culvert invert (elevation of
the inside bottom of the culvert) at the inlet side of the
culvert to the maximum water surface elevation per-
missible.
Hydraulics of Culverts 161

5. Flow velocities or tailwater depth in the down- Table 5.4 Entrance Loss Coefficients (after FHA, 1985)
stream channel.
6. Size, shape and entrance type for trial culvert. A Outlet control. full or partly full entrance head loss
suggested trial size is a diameter (or height for non-cir-
cular culverts) of HWal divided by 2.
H. = K. [~:]
Find Maximum Headwater Depth for Trial Culvert Under
Inlet and Outlet Control Conditions Type of structure and design of entrance Coefficient K.

A. Inlet control Pipe. concrete

1. Given Q, D, and entrance type, select the Projecting from fill, socket end (groove end) 0.2
appropriate control nomograph to find headwater Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
depth required (Fig. 5B.1 or 5B.2). Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
a. Connect the given culvert diameter D and
Socket end of pipe (groove end) 0.2
discharge Q with a straight line. Continue the line
Square edge 0.5
to the first HW/ D scale, indicated as (1).
b. Find the HW/ D scale that represents the Rounded (radius = f, D) 0.2

entrance type used. If necessary, extend the point Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
of intersection from the first line horizontally to End section conforming to fill slope" 0.5
scale (2) or (3). Beveled edges, 33.7° or 45° bevels 0.2
c. Multiply HW/ D by D to calculate HW. Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
2. If HW is greater or less than allowable, select
another trial size until the HW is within the desired
range.
Pipe, or pipe-arch, corrugated metal
B. Outlet control
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
1. Given Q, D, entrance type, and estimated tail-
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square edge 0.5
water depth TW (feet) above the outlet invert for the
design flow in the downstream channel. Mitered to conform to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
a. Select the outlet control nomograph for the End section conforming to fill slope" 0.5
desired culvert configuration (Fig. 5B.3 or 5B.4). Beveled edges 33.7° or 45° bevels 0.2
Find the entrance coefficient K; from Table 5.4. Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
b. Find the K; on the length scale on the
nomograph.
c. Connect the K; point on the length scale to
the size of the culvert using a straight line and Box. reinforced concrete
mark the point where the straight line crosses the Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
"turning line." Square edged on three edges 0.5
d. Form a straight line with the point marked Rounded on three edges to radius of f, barrel
on the turning line and the design Q and project dimension, or beveled edges on three sides 0.2
to the head scale. Read H on the head scale. Wingwalls are 30° to 75° to barrel
2. If the tailwater, TW, elevation is lower than the Square edged at crown 0.4
top of the culvert outlet, use
Crown edge rounded to radius of f, barrel
de +D dimension, or beveled top edge 0.2
ho = 2 (5.21) Wingwall at 10° to 25° to barrel
Square edged at crown 0.5
or TW, whichever is greater, where de is the critical Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides)
depth (feet) determined from the corresponding crit- Square edged at crown 0.7
ical depth chart.
Side or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
3. If TW elevation is higher than or equal to the
top of the culvert outlet, set h o equal to TW. Find QEither metal or concrete sections commonly available from manu-
HW using facturers. From limited hydraulic test they are equivalent in operation to a
headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some end sections, incorporat-
(5.22) ing a closed taper in their design, have a superior hydraulic performance.
162
C. Compare the headwaters required from sections A
(inlet control) and B (outlet control) to determine
which is higher. The higher headwater controls and is
the flow control existing under the design conditions
for the trial size under consideration.
D. If HW is higher than acceptable and outlet condi-
tions control, select a larger culvert size and revise HW
using section B for outlet control. It is not necessary to
recheck inlet control if the smaller size culvert proved
to be satisfactory in section A. It is also possible to
select another shape or inlet condition if desired and
repeat the procedure.
Determine Outflow Velocity
A If outlet control exists with tailwater, outflow
velocity equals the Q/A. If the outlet is not sub-
merged, the flow area A is usually based on a flow
depth equal to the average of the vertical dimension
(or diameter for circular pipes) and the critical depth
calculated previously.
B. If inlet flow governs, outflow velocity is approxi-
mated assuming open channel flow and using Manning's
equation as described in Chapter 4.
Example Problem 5.7 Culvert size with inlet control
(culvert nomograph method)
Determine the diameter of a circular concrete culvert
(n = 0.012) that must carry a design flow of 200 cfs if the
culvert length is 180 ft and the culvert slope is 0.02 ft/ft. The
allowable HW equals 10 ft. Assume that the culvert has a
projecting entrance, and TW equals 4 ft.
Solution:
Determine design data.
1. Q = 200 cfs (given).
2. L = 180 ft (given).
3. S = 0.02 ft/ft (given).
4. HWa1 = 10 ft (given).
5. TW = 4 ft (given).
6. Trial size D = HWal/2 = 5 ft.
Concrete culvert with n = 0.012 and projecting entrance.
Find maximum headwater depth for trial culvert under inlet
and outlet control conditions.
A. Inlet control
1. Given Q, D, and entrance type, the appropriate inlet
control nomograph to find required headwater depth is
Fig.5B.1.
a. Connect the diameter D = 5 ft (60 in.), and dis-
charge Q with a straight line. Continue the line to the
first HW ID scale, indicated as (1).
b. The HW ID scale, which represents the grooved-
end projecting entrance, is indicated as (3) so extend the
5. Hydraulics of Structures
point of intersection from the first line horizontally to
scale (3) and obtain a value of HW ID = 1.37.
c. Multiply HW I D by D = 5 ft to calculate HW =
5(1.37) = 6.85 ft. This is the HW required for inlet
control.
2. Since HW < HWal , OK.
B. Outlet control
1. Given Q = 200 cfs, D = 5 ft, grooved end projecting,
and TW = 4 ft above the outlet invert for the design flow
in the downstream channel.
a. The outlet control nomograph for the circular con-
crete culvert is Fig. 5B.3. The entrance coefficient K; =
0.2 from Table 5.4.
b. Find the K; on the length scale on the nomograph.
c. Connect the K e point on the length scale to the
size of the culvert using a straight line and mark the
point where the straight line crosses the "turning line."
d. Use the point marked on the turning line as the
pivot point and connect with the design Q. Read H =
2.80 ft on the head scale.
2. Since the TW elevation (4 It) is lower than the top of
the culvert outlet (5 ft), obtain the critical depth de from
the critical depth chart for 5-ft-diameter circular pipe with
Q = 200 cfs (Fig. 5C.0 as de = 4.10 ft. Substitute de and
D in Eq. (5.20 for h o:
de +D 4.10 + 5
ho = -2- = 2 = 4.55 ft.
Find HW under outlet control using Eq. (5.22)
HW = H + h o - SoL = 2.80 + 4.55 - 0.02(180) = 3.75.
C. Compare the headwaters required from sections A
(inlet control) and B (outlet control) to determine which is
higher. Since a higher HW is required for inlet control
(HW = 6.85 ft > HW = 3.75 ft), inlet conditions control un-
der the design conditions for the trial size under considera-
tion.
D. Since HW = 6.85 ft is lower than the allowable HW =
10.0, the culvert is adequate. If desired, a smaller culvert size
might be selected and the process repeated to check if the
smaller culvert might be satisfactory.
Culvert Capacity Chart Technique
The culvert capacity chart technique offers an alter-
native method to determine the required culvert size or
headwater depth (Portland Cement Association, 1962;
American Concrete Pipe Association, 1985). Charts for
numerous shapes, including circular, square, rectangu-
lar, and oval pipes, have been developed.
For specific conditions, a simple procedure is to use
culvert capacity charts such as shown in Fig. 5Al-5A8,
which are based on the data in Bureau of Public Roads
(l965a). The culvert capacity charts enable a simple

Hydraulics of Culverts
technique to be used for selection of culverts. The
technique is somewhat limited because the pipe must
be installed with the entrance and material as specified
for the specific charts used.
The Portland Cement Association (1975) outlined
use of these figures to obtain a direct solution of
culvert size without the inlet/outlet comparison re-
quired in the nomograph procedure discussed previ-
ously.
Determine Design Data
1. Design discharge Q (cfs) for the design storm.
2. Length L (ft) of culvert.
3. Slope of culvert.
4. Allowable headwater depth HWal (ft). This is the
vertical distance from the culvert invert at the inlet
side of the culvert to the maximum water surface
elevation permissible.
5. Flow velocities in the downstream channel.
6. Size, shape, and entrance type for trial culvert. A
suggested trial size is a diameter (or height for
noncircular culverts) of HWal divided by 2.
Find Culvert Size
1. Locate the appropriate culvert capacity chart for
the culvert size that is approximately half the allowable
headwater depth. A typical culvert capacity chart is
shown in Fig. 5A.2. Denoted on this chart are headwa-
ter values on the ordinate, discharge quantities on the
abscissa, solid curves designating inlet control, and a
dash curve indicating outlet control. Some figures con-
tained in Appendix 5A do not contain both solid and
dash curves for all culvert diameters. This is an indica-
tion that the culvert would be unsuitable for the type
of control that is missing from the nomograph. The
horizontal dotted line denotes that the accuracy of
chart values below this line are quite good, whereas
prediction accuracy decreases above this line.
2. Estimate the index number by dividing L by 100
So' This index accounts for roughness and length ef-
fects relating to pipe flow characteristics.
a. If the calculated index value for a specific prob-
lem is less than or equal to the number shown on the
solid curve for a specified culvert, the culvert will be
in inlet control and the solid curve will describe
culvert performance.
b. If the calculated index value is greater than the
solid curve value but less than or equal to the dash
curve index value, outlet control dominates and the
point denoting culvert performance can be located
by interpolation.
c. A calculated index value greater than a particu-
lar dash curve index value is indicative of full pipe
flow, and full pipe flow conditions prevail and the
culvert capacity chart should not be used. In this
Next Page
163
case, the appropriate outlet control nomograph de-
scribing full pipe flow in the nomograph procedure
should be used to estimate performance of the cul-
vert.
Determine Outflow Velocity Outflow velocity is deter-
mined in the same manner as when the nomographs
are used. Culvert capacity charts permit quick estima-
tion of headwater height given a peak flow rate and
culvert size if the specified design conditions are met.
The charts also can be used to select culvert size
needed to meet a given headwater limitation such as to
prevent roadway overtopping.
Example Problem 5.8 Culvert size with inlet control
(culvert capacity chart method)
Determine the diameter of a circular concrete culvert for
the conditions stated in Example Problem 5.7 using the
culvert capacity chart.
Solution:
Determine design data.
1. Q = 200 cfs (given).
2. L = 180 ft (given).
3. S = 0.02 ft/ft (given).
4. HWal = 10 ft (given).
5. TW = 4 ft (given).
6. Trial size D = HWal/ 2 = 5 ft.
Concrete culvert with n = 0.012 and groove end projecting
entrance.
Find culvert size.
1. Select the appropriate culvert capacity chart for the
culvert size D, which is half the allowable headwater depth,
or D = HW/W = 10/2 = 5 ft.
2. Estimate the index number, L/l00 So, which accounts
for roughness and length effects relating to pipe flow charac-
teristics:
L 180
--=----
100 So 100 (0.02) = 90.
Since the calculated index value (90) is less than the number
shown on the solid curve (700) as shown in Fig. 5A.2 for a
5-ft circular concrete culvert, the culvert will be in inlet
control, and the solid curve will describe culvert perfor-
mance. Reading up from a Q = 200 cfs yields HW = 6.6 ft.
Since 6.6 ft is less than the allowable HW of 10 ft, the culvert
will carry the design flow under inlet control.
Example Problem 5.9 Headwater height required
for culvert with inlet control
During construction in a subdivision, a groove-edged en-
trance, 42-in., 160-ft concrete culvert is placed on a 3% slope