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1.An object is placed at a distance of 12 cm in front of a plane mirror.
A virtual and erect image is formed by

the mirror. Now the mirror is moved by 4 cm towards the stationary object. The distance by which the position
of image will be shifted, will be
(Mains 2023)
(a)2 cm towards mirror
(b)4 cm towards mirror
(c)8 cm away from mirror
(d)8 cm towards mirror
Correct answer- d
Hint : Consider the initial position of the image and the mirror. Determine how the distance between the
object and the mirror changes when the mirror is moved towards the object. Use the fact that the image is
formed at the same distance as the object from the mirror.
Solution : As the distance of object is same as the distance of image from the mirror, so, image is initially
formed at 12 cm from the mirror.
Now mirror is shifted towards the object by a distance of 4 cm
So, object distance from 𝑋 ′ 𝑌 ′ is 12 − 4 = 8 cm Thus, image distance is also 8 cm.
So, shifting in the position of image will be 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑃𝐼 ′ s
= 12 − 4 = 8 cm towards the mirror.

Laws of Reflection, Image Formation by Plane Mirror
2.When one light ray is reflected from a plane mirror with 30∘ angle of reflection, the angle of deviation of the
ray after reflection is
(Mains 2023)
(a)130∘
(b)120∘
(c)110∘
(d)140∘
Correct answer : b
Hint : Consider the path of the light ray before and after reflection. Determine the total change in its direction,
which represents the angle of deviation.
Solution: The angle of deviation (𝑑) is
= 180∘ − (𝑖 + 𝑟)
= 180∘ − 2𝑟 = 180∘ − 2 × 30∘ = 180∘ − 60∘
= 120∘
Laws of Reflection, Angle of Deviation
3.Two objects 𝐴 and 𝐵 are placed at 15 cm and 25 cm from the pole in front of a concave mirror
having radius of curvature 40 cm. The distance between images formed by the mirror is
(Mains 2023)
(a)40 cm
(b)160 cm
(c)60 cm
(d)100 cm
Correct answer : b
Hint : Apply the Mirror Equation to find the image distances; subtract the image distances to
determine the distance between the images.
Solution ∶ 𝑅 = 40 cm, 𝑓 = 𝑅/2 = −20 cm
𝑢𝐴 = −15 cm, 𝑢𝐵 = −25 cm
By the mirror formula,
1 1 1
− = − ⇒ 𝑣𝐴 = 60 cm
20 𝑣𝐴 15
1 1 1
Now, −20 = 𝑣 − 25 ⇒ 𝑣𝐵 = −100 cm
𝐵
Distance between the images formed by the mirror
= |𝑣𝐴 | + |𝑣𝐵 | = 60 + 100 = 160 cm

Reflection of Light by Concave Mirrors, Distance Between Images in Concave Mirrors
4.The light rays from an object have been reflected towards an observer from a standard flat mirror,
the image observed by the observer are
A. Real
B. Erect
C. Smaller in size than object
D. Laterally inverted
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below.
(Mains 2023)
(a)B and C only
(b)B and D only
(c)A, C and D only
(d)A and D only
Correct answer : c
Hint : Apply the principles of image formation by plane mirrors to determine the characteristics of
the observed image in terms of its size, orientation, and location.
Solution : A plane mirror always form a erect, virtual, and laterally inverted image, so option (c) is
correct.
Reflection of Light, Characteristics of Image formed by a Plane Mirror
5. An object is placed beyond the centre of curvature 𝐶 of the given concave mirror. If the distance of
the object is 𝑑1 from 𝐶 and the distance of the image formed is 𝑑2 from 𝐶, the radius of curvature of
this mirror is
(Mains 2021)
2𝑑1 𝑑2
(a)
𝑑1 + 𝑑2
2𝑑1 𝑑2
(b)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2
𝑑1 𝑑2
(c)
𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝑑1 𝑑2
(d)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2
Correct answer : b
Hint : Use the Newton's formula for concave mirror to relate the object distance, image distance, and
focal length. Then, use the relation between focal length and radius of curvature to find the radius of
curvature.
Solution : If the distance of object (𝑥1 ) and image (𝑥2 ) are not measured from optical centre, but
from first and second principal foci, then according to Newton's formula, 𝑓 2 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 where 𝑓 is the
focal length
∴ 𝑓 2 = (𝑓 + 𝑑1 )(𝑓 − 𝑑2 )
or 𝑓 2 = 𝑓 2 + 𝑓𝑑1 − 𝑓𝑑2 − 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑑1 𝑑2
or 𝑓(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) = 𝑑1 𝑑2 or 𝑓 =
𝑑1 −𝑑2
2𝑑1 𝑑2
∴ Radius of curvature, 𝑅 = 2𝑓 = 𝑑
1 −𝑑2
Ray Optics, Reflection from Concave Mirrors
6.Two plane mirrors 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 are at right angle to each other as shown. A point source 𝑃 is placed
at 𝑎 and 2𝑎 meter away from 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 respectively. The shortest distance between the images
thus formed is (Take √5 = 2.3 )
(Mains 2021)
(a)2.3𝑎
(b)2√10𝑎
(c)4.6𝑎
(d)3𝑎
Correct answer : c
Hint : Consider the reflection from both mirrors and the perpendicular distance from each image to
the other mirror to determine the shortest distance.
Solution : The image is formed at the same distance as that of the object.
Shortest distance between the images
= √(4𝑎)2 + (2𝑎)2 = 𝑎√20 = 2𝑎√5 = 4.6𝑎

Ray Optics, Images Formation by Plane Mirrors
7. The focal length 𝑓 is related to the radius of curvature 𝑟 of the spherical convex mirror by
(Mains 2021)
(a)𝑓 = 𝑟
1
(b)𝑓 = + 𝑟
2
(c)𝑓 = −𝑟
1
(d)𝑓 = − 𝑟
2
Correct answer : b
Hint : Relate the focal length of a convex mirror to its radius of curvature using the formula focal
length = radius of curvature divided by 2.
Solution : The relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a mirror is
𝑅
𝑅 = 2𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
2
𝑟
So, the focal length, 𝑓 = +
2
Light, Mirrors
8. A short straight object of height 100 cm lies before the central axis of a spherical mirror whose
focal length has absolute value |f| = 40 cm. The image of object produced by the mirror is of height
25 cm and has the same orientation of the object. One may conclude from the information
(Mains 2021)
(a)Image is virtual, opposite side of convex mirror.
(b)Image is real, same side of concave mirror.
(c)Image is virtual, opposite side of concave mirror.
(d)Image is real, same side of convex mirror.
Correct answer : a
Hint : Since the image is virtual and smaller and has the same orientation as the object, it can be
inferred that the mirror is convex and the image is formed on the opposite side of the mirror with
respect to the object.
Solution : Here, 𝑓 = 40 cm, ℎ = 100 cm,
ℎ′ = 25 cm
As orientation is same, the image is virtual and smaller, mirror has to be convex and image formed on
opposite side.
Geometrical Optics, Characteristics of Image Formed by a Convex Mirror
9.A spherical mirror is obtained as shown in the figure from a hollow glass sphere. If an object is
positioned in front of the mirror, what will be the
nature and magnification of the image of the object? (Figure drawn as schematic and not to scale)
(Mains 2020)
(a)Inverted, real and magnified
(b)Erect, virtual and magnified
(c)Erect, virtual and unmagnified
(d)Inverted, real and unmagnified.
Correct answer : d
Hint : Consider the geometry of the system to determine the nature and size of the image using
principles of reflection and ray diagrams. Remember that the radius of curvature of a spherical part
equals its diameter.
Ray Optics, Reflection with Concave Mirror
10.An object is gradually moving away from the focal point of a concave mirror along the axis of the
mirror. The graphical representation of the magnitude of linear
magnification (𝑚) versus distance of the object from the mirror (𝑥) is correctly given by
(graphs are drawn schematically and are not to scale)
(Mains 2020)
Correct answer : d
Hint : - For u = f, M = -1
- For u < f, M> 1, image is virtual and enlarged.
- For u > f, 0 < M < 1, image is real and diminished.
- As object moves away from focal point, |u| increases, resulting in decrease in magnification.
𝑓
Solution : The formula for magnification of concave mirror, 𝑚 = 𝑢−𝑓
𝑓 1
When 𝑚 = ∞ ⇒ 𝑢−𝑓 = 0
𝑢 − 𝑓 = 0 or 𝑓 = 𝑢 = 𝑥
𝑓
When 𝑚 = 1, =1
𝑢−𝑓
⇒ 𝑢 − 𝑓 = 𝑓 or 𝑥 = 𝑢 = 2𝑓
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Magnification by Concave Mirrors
A concave mirror for face viewing has focal length of 0.4 m. The distance at which you hold the
mirror from your face in order to see your image upright with a magnification of 5 is
(Main 9th April 1st Shift 2019)
0.16 m
1.60 m
0.32 m
0.24 m
c
Consider the mirror formula 1/f = 1/v + 1/u, where f is the focal length, v is the image distance, and u
is the object distance. Also, magnification, m = -v/u. Use these principles to solve for the distance
from the face to the mirror.
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Image Formation by Concave Mirrors
Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other such that a ray of light incident on the first mirror 𝑀1
and parallel to the second mirror 𝑀2 is finally reflected from the second mirror 𝑀2 parallel to the
first mirror (𝑀1 ). The angle between the two mirrors will be
(Main 9th Jan 2nd Shift 2019)
75∘
90∘
60∘
45∘
c
The incident ray is parallel to the second mirror, so the angle of incidence on the second mirror is 0
degrees. The angle of reflection will also be 0 degrees, which means the reflected ray will be parallel
to the second mirror. The angle between the two mirrors is equal to the angle between the incident
ray and the reflected ray, which is supplementary to the angle of incidence on the first mirror.
𝛼 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 180∘ ⇒ 3𝛼 = 180∘ ; 𝛼 = 60∘

Reflection from Plane Mirrors, Multiple Reflections between Plane Mirrors
A point source of light, 𝑆 is placed at a distance 𝐿 in front of the centre of plane mirror of width 𝑑
which is hanging vertically on a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror along a line parallel to
the mirror, at a distance 2𝐿 as shown in the given figure. The distance over which the man can see
the image of the light source in the mirror is
(Main 12 2th Jan 1st Shift 2019)
3𝑑
2𝑑
𝑑
𝑑
2
a
Consider similar triangles when the man is at the extreme ends of the visible region and use the
property of congruent triangles to relate the distances.
In the given figure, △ 𝐴𝐸𝐷 and △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 are similar triangles.
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶 2𝐿
So, 𝐸𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷 ⇒ 𝐸𝐷 =
𝐿
⇒ 𝐵𝐶 = 2𝐸𝐷
Also, △ 𝐴𝐸𝐷 and △ 𝐴𝑆𝐷 are congruent triangles.
So, 𝐸𝐷 = 𝐷𝑆
Using (i) and (ii), 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑
So, the distance over which the man can see the image of the light
source in the mirror is, 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 3𝑑

Reflection of Ligh, Image Formation by Plane Mirror
A particle is oscillating on the 𝑥-axis with an amplitude 2 cm about the point 𝑥0 = 10 cm, with a
frequency 𝜔. A concave mirror of focal length 5 cm is placed at the origin (see figure). Identify the
correct statements.
(1) The image executes periodic motion.
(2) The image executes non-periodic motion.
(3) The turning points of the image are asymmetric w.r.t. the image of the point at = 10 cm.
100
(4) The distance between the turning points of the oscillation of the image is cm.
21
(Main Online 2018)
2,4
2,3
1,3,4
1,4
c
Consider the relationship between object and image distances for a concave mirror, and the effect of
amplitude on image distance when the object oscillates.
When object is at 8 cm, image distance
𝑓 × 𝑢 (−5)(−8) 40
𝑣1 = = =− cm
𝑢−𝑓 −8 + 5 3
60
When object is at 12 cm, image distance 𝑣2 = − 7 cm
100
Separation = |𝑣1 − 𝑣2 | = cm
21
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Image Formation by Concave Mirrors
You are asked to design a shaving mirror assuming that a person keeps it 10 cm from his face and
views the magnified image of the face at the closest comfortable distance of 25 cm. The radius of
curvature of the mirror would then be
(Main Online 2015)
30 cm
24 cm
60 cm
-24 cm
c
To determine the radius of curvature of the shaving mirror, consider the object distance (face
distance) and the image distance (closest comfortable distance) according to the thin lens equation.
The sign convention and the magnification formula will help you relate the object and image
distances.
Ray Optics, Mirror formula
1
A ray of light travelling in the direction (𝑖ˆ + √3𝑗ˆ) is incident on a plane mirror. After reflection, it
2
1
travels along the direction 2 (𝑖ˆ − √3𝑗ˆ). The angle of incidence is
(Advanced 2013)
30∘
45∘
60∘
75∘
a
Consider the angle formed between the incident ray and the normal to the mirror. Draw a diagram
and label the angles of incidence and reflection. Use the laws of reflection to relate the angles of
incidence and reflection.
Let 𝜃 be angle between the given rays.
𝑖ˆ + √3𝑗ˆ 𝑖ˆ − √3𝑗ˆ
( 1−3
2 )⋅( 2 ) 1
∴ cos 𝜃 = = 4 =−
𝑖ˆ + √3𝑗ˆ 𝑖ˆ − √3𝑗ˆ 1 2
| 2 || 2 |
1
𝜃 = cos −1 (− ) = 120 ∘
2
∴ Angle of incidence,
180∘ − 𝜃 180∘ − 120∘

𝑖= = = 30∘
2 2
Reflection of Light by a Plane Mirror, Angle of Incidence and Reflection
A car is fitted with a convex side-view mirror of focal length 20 cm. A second car 2.8 m behind the
first car is overtaking the first car at a relative speed of 15 m s−1 . The speed of the image of the
second car as seen in the mirror of the first one is
(AIEEE 2011)
1
m s−1
10
1
m s−1
15
10 m s−1
15 m s−1
b
Consider the relative speed of the two cars as the object's speed and the focal length of the convex
mirror as the radius of curvature to determine the image's speed using the mirror equation.
Ray Optics, Images Formation by Convex Lenses
In an experiment to determine the focal length (𝑓) of a concave mirror by the 𝑢 − 𝑣 method, a
student places the object pin 𝐴 on the principal axis at a distance 𝑥 from the pole 𝑃. The student
looks at the pin and its inverted image from a distance keeping his/her eye in line with 𝑃𝐴. When the
student shifts his/her eye towards left, the image appears to the right of the object pin. Then,
(IIT-JEE 2007)
𝑥<𝑓
𝑥 = 2𝑓
𝑓 < 𝑥 < 2𝑓
𝑥 > 2𝑓
b
Consider the location of the object relative to the mirror's focus and center of curvature, paying
attention to which type of image is formed (real or virtual) and its distance from the object.
On shifting the eye towards left, the image will appear to the right of the object pin if the image
distance is more than the object distance and the image is real. This happens when the object lies
between the focus and the centre of curvature, 𝑓 < 𝑥 < 2𝑓.
Ray optics in spherical mirrors, Image Formation by Concave Mirrors
To get three images of a single object, one should have two plane mirrors at an angle of
(AIEEE 2003)
60∘
90∘
120∘
30∘
b
Consider the angle of incidence of the incident ray on the first mirror and the angle of reflection of
the ray from the second mirror. Use the relation between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection.
Geometric Optics, Angle between Two Plane Mirrors

If two mirrors are kept at 60∘ to each other, then the number of images formed by them is
(AIEEE 2002)
5
6
7
8
a
Consider the total number of reflections required to form the images and use the fact that each
reflection changes the direction of light by .
360∘ 360∘
𝑛= −1= −1=5
𝜃 60∘
Image Formation by Mirrors, Multiple Images in Plane Mirrors
Two plane mirrors 𝐴 and 𝐵 are aligned parallel to each other, as shown in the figure. A light ray is
incident at an angle 30∘ at a point just inside one end of 𝐴. The plane of
incidence coincides with
the plane of the figure. The maximum number of times the ray undergoes reflections (including the
first one) before it emerges out is
(IIT-JEE 2002)
28
32
30
34
b
Relate the angle of incidence to the angle of reflection. Consider the symmetry of the system and the
angle at which the ray emerges.
Let 𝑁 = no. of reflections
2√3
∴ 𝑁𝑥 = 2√3 or 𝑁 =
𝑥
2√3 6
or 𝑁 = = or 𝑁 = 30.
0.2tan 30∘ 0.2
Geometric Optics, Multiple Reflections
A point source of light 𝐵 is placed at a distance 𝐿 in front of the centre of a mirror of width 𝑑 hung
vertically on
a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror along a line parallel to the mirror at a distance 2𝐿 from it as
shown in figure. The greatest distance over which he can see the image of the light source in the
mirror is
(IIT-JEE 2000)
𝑑/2
2𝑑
𝑑
3𝑑
d
Consider the similar triangles formed by the object and image distances from the mirror and the
object and image distances from the man's position. Use geometric similarity to relate these
distances and determine the maximum distance over which the man can see the image in the mirror.
The ray diagram denotes the passage of light.
𝐵1 is the image of source 𝐵 formed by reflection at 𝑀1 . Similarly 𝐵2 is the image of 𝐵 formed by

reflection at 𝑀2 𝑁1 𝑁2 = 𝑀1 𝑀2 = 𝑑(∵ 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 are normals)
𝐷𝐵 = 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑑/2
△ 𝑀1 𝐶𝐷 and △ 𝑀1 𝐵1 𝑁1 are similar
𝑀 𝐷 𝐶𝐷 𝑀 𝑁
∴ 𝑀 1𝑁 = 𝐵 or 𝐵1 𝑁1 = (𝐶𝐷) ( 𝑀1 𝐷1 )
1 1 1 𝑁1 1
𝑑/2 2𝐿
or 𝐵1 𝑁1 = (𝐿) =𝑑
1
Similarly 𝐵2 𝑁2 = 𝑑
∴ 𝐵1 𝐵2 = 𝐵1 𝑁2 + 𝑁1 𝑁2 + 𝑁2 𝐵2
𝐵1 𝐵2 = (𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑) = 3𝑑
Ray Optics, Laws of Reflection on Plane Surfaces
A monochromatic light wave with wavelength 𝜆1 and frequency 𝑣1 in air enters another medium. If
the angle of incidence and angle of refraction at the interface are 45∘ and 30∘ respectively, then the
wavelength 𝜆2 and frequency 𝑣2 of the refracted wave are
𝜆2 = √2𝜆1 , 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
1
𝜆2 = 𝜆1 , 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
√2
𝜆2 = 𝜆1 , 𝑣2 = √2𝑣1
1
𝜆2 = 𝜆1 , 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
√2
b
Consider the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and speed of light. Use Snell's law to
determine the relationship between angles of incidence and refraction in terms of the speeds of light
in the two media. Since frequency is a property of the source, it remains constant regardless of the
medium through which the wave travels.
sin 𝑖
𝜇= (Using Snell's law)
sin 𝑟
𝜇1 1
𝜇1 sin 45∘ = 𝜇2 sin 30∘ ⇒ =
𝜇2 √2
𝜇1 𝜆2 1 𝜆1
= = ⇒ 𝜆2 =
𝜇2 𝜆1 √2 √2
Frequency does not change on changing the medium.

Wave optics, Refraction and Snell's law
The critical angle for a denser-rarer interface is 45∘ . The speed of light in rarer medium is 3 ×
108 m/s. The speed of light in the denser medium is
5 × 107 m/s
3.12 × 107 m/s
2.12 × 108 m/s
√2 × 103 m/s
b
Consider the relationship between critical angle, index of refraction, and the speeds of light in the
two media. Use Snell's law to establish an equation involving the critical angle, index of refraction,
and speeds of light.
1
𝑖𝐶 = Critical angle ⇒ sin 𝑖𝐶 =
𝜇
𝜈 1 1
= = sin 𝑖𝐶 = sin 45∘ =
𝑐 𝜇 √2
𝑐 3 × 108
⇒𝑣= = m/s = 2.12 × 108 m/s
√2 √2
Ray Optics, Critical Angle
An ice cube has a bubble inside. When viewed from one side the apparent distance of the bubble is
12 cm. When viewed from the opposite side, the apparent distance of the bubble is observed as
4 cm. If the side of the ice cube is 24 cm, the refractive index of the ice cube is
(Main 12 2th April 1st Shift 2023)
4
3
6
5
2
3
3
2
d
Consider the change in apparent distance due to refraction at the boundary of the medium and the
total deviation the ray undergoes at the opposite boundary to determine the refractive index of the
medium.
From one side
𝑥/𝜇 = 12 cm
From opposite side
(24 − 𝑥)/𝜇 = 4 cm …..(ii)
Divide (i) by (ii), we get
𝑥/𝜇 12 𝑥
= ⇒ = 3 ⇒ 𝑥 = 18
(24 − 𝑥)/𝜇 4 24 − 𝑥
18 3
𝜇= =
12 2
Refraction of Light, Apparent Depth
A vessel of depth ' 𝑑 ' is half filled with oil of refractive index 𝑛1 and the other half is filled with water
of refractive index 𝑛2 . The apparent depth of this vessel when viewed from above will bc
𝑑(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
2𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑑𝑛1 𝑛2
(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
𝑑𝑛1 𝑛2
2(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
2𝑑(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
𝑛1 𝑛2
a
- The apparent depth of the vessel is different from the actual depth due to the refraction of light.
- The refractive index of a material represents how much light bends when passing through it.
- To calculate the apparent depth, consider the shift in depth caused by each liquid separately.
- Use the formula Apparent depth = Actual depth / Refractive index.
- Combine the shifts caused by both liquids to determine the overall apparent depth.
Apparent shift due to liquid of refractive index 𝑛1 is
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
𝑑1 = (1 − ) Similarly, 𝑑2 = (1 − )
2 𝑛1 2 𝑛2
Thus, apparent depth of the vessel
𝑑𝑎 = 𝑑 − (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
= 𝑑 − [ (1 − ) + (1 − )]
2 𝑛1 2 𝑛2
𝑑 1 1
= 𝑑 − [𝑑 + (− − )]
2 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑑 1 1 𝑑(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
= − (− − ) ; 𝑑𝑎 =
2 𝑛1 𝑛2 2𝑛1 𝑛2
Apparent Depth, Apparent Shift
A microscope is focused on an object at the bottom of a bucket. If liquid with refractive index 5/3 is
poured inside the bucket, then microscope have to be raised by 30 cm to focus the object again. The
height of the liquid in the bucket is
(Main 3𝑙st Jan 2nd Shift 2023)
12 cm
18 cm
50 cm
75 cm
d
Consider the change in apparent depth due to the different refractive indices of air and liquid. Apply
the formula for apparent depth to relate height and refractive index.
Let before the pouring liquid the height = ℎ cm
After pouring liquid total height = (ℎ′ + 30)cm
ℎ
where, ℎ′ = 𝜇 (Apparent height)
Now, using
1
𝑑 = ℎ − ℎ′ = ℎ (1 − ) = 30
𝜇
3 5 × 30
ℎ (1 − ) = 30; ℎ = = 75 cm
5 2
Ray Optics, Refractive Index
Which of the following statement is correct?

(Main 25 th July 1st Shift 2022)
In primary rainbow, observer sees red colour on the top and violet on the bottom.
In primary rainbow, observes sees violet colour on the top and red on the bottom.
In primary rainbow, light waves suffers total internal reflection twice before coming out of water
drops.
Primary rainbow is less bright than secondary rainbow.
a
Consider the path of light rays through a water droplet. Understand the relationship between the
angle of incidence, the angle of refraction, and the wavelength of light in the context of dispersion.
In primary rainbow, the red colour at the top and violet at the bottom.
Geometrical Optics, Formation of a Rainbow
Time taken by light to travel in two different materials 𝐴 and 𝐵 of refractive indices 𝜇𝐴 and 𝜇𝐵 of
same thickness is 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 respectively. If 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 5 × 10−10 s and the ratio of 𝜇𝐴 to 𝜇𝐵 is 12.
Then, the thickness of material, in metre is (Given 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 are velocities of light 𝐴 and 𝐵 materials
respectively.)
(Main 25 5th July 1st Shift 2022)
5 × 10−10 𝑣𝐴 m
1.5 × 10−10 m
5 × 10−10 m
5 × 10−10 𝑣𝐵 m
a
Consider the relation between refractive index, speed of light, and thickness to express time taken by
light to travel through the materials. Utilize the given ratio and solve for the thickness.
𝜇𝐴 → 𝑡1 ; 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 5 × 10−10 s
𝜇𝐴 1
⇒ 𝜇𝐵 → 𝑡2 ; =
𝜇𝐵 2
Let the thickness is 𝑠.

As, 𝑠 = 𝑣𝐴 ⋅ 𝑡1 , 𝑠 = 𝑣𝐵 ⋅ 𝑡2 , 𝑣𝐴 𝑡1 = 𝑣𝐵 𝑡2
𝑣𝐴 𝑡2
=
𝑣𝐵 𝑡1
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣𝐴 = , 𝑣𝐵 =
𝜇𝐴 𝜇𝐵
𝑣𝐴 𝜇𝐵 2
= 𝑠 = ( Put in (i))
𝑣𝐵 𝜇𝐴 1
𝑡
so, 𝑡2 = 2; 𝑡2 = 2𝑡1
1
so, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 5 × 10−10
2𝑡1 − 𝑡1 = 5 × 10−10
𝑡1 = 5 × 10−10 s
so, 𝑠 = 𝑣𝐴 × 𝑡1 = 5 × 10−10 𝑣𝐴 m
Refractive Index and Velocity of Light Relation Between Time and Thickness of Different Materials
Light travels in two media 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 with speeds 1.5 × 108 m s−1 and 2.0 × 108 m s−1
respectively. The critical angle between them is
(Main 26 th July 2nd Shift 2022)
3
tan−1 ( )
√7
2
tan−1 ( )
3
3
cos −1 ( )
4
2
sin−1 ( )
3
a
Consider Snell's law and the condition for total internal reflection to determine the critical angle.
Remember that the critical angle occurs when the angle of refraction is 90 degrees.
Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection, Critical Angle
Light enters from air into a given medium at an angle of 45∘ with interface of the air-medium
surface. After refraction, the light ray is deviated through an angle of 15∘ from its original direction.
The refractive index of the medium is
(Main 29 9th July 2nd Shift 2022)
1.732
1.333
1.414
2.732
c
Consider Snell's law and the geometry of the situation. The refractive index is the ratio of the speed
of light in the two media.
Consider the situation shown in figure.
From, snell's law
Medium
1 × sin (90∘ − 45∘ ) = 𝜇 × sin (30∘ )
⇒ sin 45∘ = 𝜇 × sin 30∘
1 1
= 𝜇 × ; ⇒ 𝜇 = √2 = 1.414
√2 2
Snell's Law, Refraction and Refractive Index
A light wave travelling linearly in a medium of dielectric constant 4, incidents on the horizontal
interface separating medium with air. The angle of incidence for which the total intensity of incident
wave will be reflected back into the same medium will be
(Given relative permeability of medium 𝜇𝑟 = 1 )
(Main 25 th June 1st Shift 2022)
10∘
20∘
30∘
60∘
d
Remember that total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle. Use Snell's law to relate the angles of incidence and refraction. Consider the change in
amplitude and phase of the reflected and refracted waves. Apply the boundary conditions at the
interface to determine the conditions for total internal reflection.
Here, 𝜀𝑟 = 4, 𝜇𝑟 = 1,
Refractive index,
𝑛 = √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 = √1 × 4 = 2. It is the case of total internal reflection, so let angle of incidence is 𝜃.

1 1
sin 𝜃 > 𝑛 ; sin 𝜃 > 2; Hence, 𝜃 > 30∘
Total Internal Reflection, Brewster's Angle
The difference of speed of light in the two media 𝐴 and 𝐵, (𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 ) is 2.6 × 107 m/s. If the
refractive index of medium 𝐵 is 1.47 , then the ratio of refractive index of medium 𝐵 to medium 𝐴 is
(Given speed of light in vacuum 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m s−1 )
(Main 25 5th June 1st Shift 2022)
1.303
1.318
1.13
0.12
c
Refractive index is inversely proportional to the speed of light in the medium. Use the given values to
set up a ratio and solve for the refractive index ratio.
Given, 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 2.6 × 107 m/s, 𝜇𝐵 = 1.47, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s
𝑐 𝑐 1 1 1 1
𝑣𝐴 = , 𝑣𝐵 = ; 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑐 ( − ) 2.6 × 107 = 3 × 108 ( − );
𝜇𝐴 𝜇𝐵 𝜇𝐴 𝜇𝐵 𝜇𝐴 𝜇𝐵
0.26 1 1
= −
3 1.47 𝜇𝐵
𝜇𝐵 1.67
Thus, 𝜇𝐵 = 1.67; So, = = 1.13
𝜇𝐴 1.47
Reflection and Refraction of Light, Refractive Index
Consider a light travelling in air is incident into a medium of refractive index √2𝑛. The incident angle
is twice that of refracting angle. Then, the angle of incidence will be
(Main 27th June 1st Shift 2022)
sin−1 (√𝑛)
𝑛
cos −1 (√ )
2
sin−1 (√2𝑛)
𝑛
2cos −1 (√ )
2
d
Apply Snell's law of refraction to relate the incident angle, refracted angle, and refractive index.
Consider the ratio of the incident angle to the refracted angle and use trigonometric identities to
solve for the angle of incidence.
Given, refractive index, 𝜇 = √2𝑛 Angle of incidence, 𝑖 = 2𝑟
sin 𝑖
As, 𝜇 = sin 𝑟
sin 2𝑟 2sin 𝑟cos 𝑟
⇒ √2𝑛 = = = 2cos 𝑟
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑟
√2𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
or cos 𝑟 = 2
= √2 or 𝑟 = cos −1 (√2 )
Since, angle of incidence 𝑖 = 2𝑟.
𝑛
Hence, 𝑖 = 2cos −1 (√2 )
Geometrical Optics, Snell's Law
If a wave gets refracted into a denser medium, then which of the following is true?
(Main 27th June 2nd Shift 2022)
wavelength, speed and frequency decreases.
wavelength increases, speed decreases and frequency remains constant
wavelength and speed decreases but frequency remains constant.
wavelength, speed and frequency increases.
c
- Speed decreases, wavelength decreases, frequency remains the same.
- Speed increases, wavelength increases, frequency remains the same.
- Speed decreases, wavelength increases, frequency remains the same.
- Speed increases, wavelength decreases, frequency remains the same.
Wave Refraction, Speed and Wavelength Changes
The speed of light in media ' 𝐴 ' and ' 𝐵 ' are 2.0 × 1010 cm/s and 1.5 × 1010 cm/s respectively. A
ray of light enters from the medium 𝐵 to 𝐴 at an incident angle ' 𝜃 '. If the ray suffers total internal
reflection, then
(Main 29 9th June 2nd Shift 2022)
3
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
4
−1
2
𝜃 > sin ( )
3
−1
3
𝜃 < sin ( )
4
−1
3
𝜃 > sin ( )
4
d
Consider Snell's law and the critical angle for total internal reflection.
Given, 𝑣𝐴 = 2 × 1010 cm/s, 𝑣𝐵 = 1.5 × 1010 cm/s
By Snell's law,
𝑣𝐴 𝜇𝐵 sin 𝜃𝑐
= =
𝑣𝐵 𝜇𝐴 sin 90∘
𝜇 𝑣 sin 𝜃
or 𝜇𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 = sin 90𝐶∘
𝐴 𝐵
2 × 1010 1 3
⇒ 10 = ; sin 𝜃𝑐 =
1.5 × 10 sin 𝜃𝑐 4
3
For 𝜃 > 𝜃𝑐 , total internal reflection occurs, so 𝜃 > sin−1 ( ).
4
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Total Internal Reflection
A glass tumbler having inner depth of 17.5 cm is kept on a table. A student starts pouring water (𝜇 =
4/3) into it while looking at the surface of water from the above. When he feels that the tumbler is
half filled, he stops pouring water. Up to what height, the tumbler is actually filled ?
(Main 1st Sept 2nd Shift 2021)
10 cm
11.7 cm
7.5 cm
8.75 cm
a
Consider the geometry of the system and the path of light as it passes from the water to the air. Use
the principles of refraction and the geometry of the situation to determine the apparent depth of the
water and the real depth of the tumbler.
From the figure,
Let real depth is 𝐻,

𝐻 𝐻 3𝐻
Apparent depth = 𝜇 = 4/3 = 4
Also, apparent path = 17.5 − 𝐻
3𝐻
⇒ = 17.5 − 𝐻
4
7𝐻
⇒ = 17.5 ∴ 𝐻 = 10 cm
4
Refraction of Light, Apparent Depth
A ray of light passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium at an angle of incidence 𝑖. The
reflected and refracted rays make an angle of 90∘ with each other. The angle of reflection and
refraction are respectively 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ . The critical angle is given by

(Main 22 2nd July 2nd Shift 2021)
sin−1 (tan 𝑟 ′ )
tan−1 (sin 𝑖)
sin−1 (tan 𝑟)
sin−1 (cot 𝑟)
c
Consider the relationship between the critical angle and the refractive indices of the two media
involved. Use Snell's law to determine how the angle of incidence is related to the refractive indices.
Then, analyze the given equation for the critical angle to identify the relationship between the angle
of incidence and the angle between the reflected and refracted rays.
According to question,
𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ = 90∘ and 𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ + 90∘ = 180∘
𝑟 ′ = 90∘ − 𝑟 = 90∘ − 𝑖
By Snell's law
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 ′ , From eq. (i), we have
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin (90∘ − 𝑖)

𝑛2
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 cos 𝑖 ⇒ tan 𝑖 =
𝑛1
𝑛2
Also sin 𝐶 = where, 𝐶 is critical angle.
𝑛1
From eq. (ii), we get
sin 𝐶 = tan 𝑖
𝐶 = sin−1 (tan 𝑖) = sin−1 (tan 𝑟)

Snell's law and critical angle, Derivation of critical angle based on Snell's law
A ray of laser of a wavelength 630 nm is incident at an angle of 30∘ at the diamond-air interface. It is
going from diamond to air. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42 and that of air is 1 . Choose the
correct option.
angle of refraction is 53.4∘
angle of refraction is 24.41∘
angle of refraction is 30∘
refraction is not possible.
d
Consider the critical angle and its relation to the refractive indices of the two media. Compare the
given angle of incidence with the critical angle to determine the possibility of refraction.
Wavelength, 𝜆 = 630 nm
Angle of incidence, 𝑖 = 30∘
Refractive index of diamond, 𝑛 = 2.42 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2.42
Let the critical angle be 𝑐.
1 1
∴ sin 𝑐 = = ⇒ 𝑐 = 24.4∘
𝑛 2.42
The angle of incidence is more than critical angle. So, the total internal reflection will takes place.
So, refraction is not possible.

Total Internal Reflection, Critical Angle
A ray of light entering from air into a denser medium of refractive index 4/3, as shown in figure. The
light ray suffers total internal reflection at the adjacent surface as shown. The maximum value of
angle 𝜃 should be equal to
√7
sin−1
4
√7
sin−1
3
√5
sin−1
3
√5
sin−1
4
b
Consider the conditions for total internal reflection.
Use Snell's law to relate the incident angle, angle of refraction, and refractive indices of the two
media.
Determine the maximum value of the incident angle that allows for total internal reflection.
At maximum angle 𝜃, ray at point 𝐵 goes in gazing emergence, at all less values of 𝜃, TIR occurs.
At point 𝐵, using Snell's law for total internal reflection
4
sin 𝜃 ′′ = 1 × sin 90∘
3
3 √7
sin 𝜃 ′′ = ⇒ cos 𝜃 ′′ =
4 4
𝜃 ′ = 90 − 𝜃 ′′
4
Similarly at 𝐴, 1 × sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 ′
3
4
sin 𝜃 = sin (90∘ − 𝜃 ′′ )
3
4 4 √7 √7
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ′′ = × =
3 3 4 3
√7
∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
3
Geometrical Optics, Total Internal Reflection
The critical angle of a medium for a specific wavelength, if the medium has relative permittivity 3 and
4
relative permeability 3 for this wavelength, will be
(Main 8th Jan 1st Shift 2020)
15∘
30∘
45∘
60∘
b
Consider the relationship between critical angle, refractive index, relative permittivity, and relative
permeability. Use the formula sin(critical angle) = 1/refractive index.
𝜇𝑟 = 4/3, 𝜀𝑟 = 3
1 1 1
sin 𝜃𝑐 = = = ⇒ 𝜃𝑐 = 30∘
𝑛 √𝜀𝑟 𝜇𝑟 2
Geometrical Optics, Critical Angle
A vessel of depth 2ℎ is half filled with a liquid of refractive index 2√2 and the upper half with
another liquid of refractive index √2. The liquids are immiscible. The apparent depth of the inner
surface of the bottom of vessel will be
ℎ
√2
3
ℎ√2
4
ℎ
3√2
ℎ
2(√2 + 1)
b
Consider the path of light from the bottom to the eye, applying Snell's law at each boundary to relate
the angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
Real depth
Apparent depth =
Refractive index
ℎ ℎ 2ℎ+ℎ 3ℎ√2
𝑑= + 2√2 or 𝑑 = 2√2
= 4
√2
Refraction Through Plane Surfaces, Apparent Depth
There is a small source of light at some depth below the surface of water (refractive index = 4/3 ) in
a tank of large cross sectional surface area. Neglecting any reflection from the bottom and
absorption by water, percentage of light that emerges out of surface is (nearly) [Use the fact that
surface area of a spherical cap of height ℎ and radius of curvature 𝑟 is 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ]
34%
17%
21%
50%
b
Based on the critical angle for total internal reflection, consider the fraction of light that emerges out
of the surface as a function of the angle of incidence at the liquid-air interface. Utilize the
relationship between the solid angle and the area of a spherical cap to determine the percentage of
light that escapes.
The portion of light escaping into air from the liquid will form a cone. As long as the angle of
incidence on the liquid - air interface is less than the critical angle, i.e., < 𝜃𝑐 , the light rays will
undergo refraction and emerge into the air.
For 𝑖 > 𝜃𝑐 , light rays will suffer TIR. So, these rays will not emerge into air. The portion of light rays
emerging into air from the liquid will form a cone of half angle = 𝜃𝑐 .
1 3
Here, sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝜇 or sin 𝜃𝑐 = 4
liq
3 2 √7
∴ cos 𝜃𝑐 = √1 − ( ) =
4 4
Solid angle
contained in
this cone is,
Ω = 2𝜋(1 − cos 𝜃𝑐 )
∴ Percentage of
light that emerges only from liquid
Ω
= × 100%
4𝜋
2𝜋(1 − cos 𝜃𝑐 ) (1 − cos 𝜃𝑐 )

= × 100% = × 100%
4𝜋 2
4 − √7
= × 100% = 16.93% ≈ 17%
8
Geometrical Optics, Total Internal Reflection
In figure, the optical fiber is 𝑙 = 2 m long and has a diameter of 𝑑 = 20𝜇m. If a ray of
light is incident on one end of the fiber at angle 𝜃1 = 40∘ , the number of reflections it makes before
emerging from the other end is close to (refractive index of fiber is 1.31 and sin 40∘ = 0.64 )
55000
66000
57000
45000
c
Consider the path length of the light ray and the critical angle of the fiber to determine the number
of reflections. Use the refractive index of the fiber and the diameter to calculate the angle of each
reflection.
Required number of reflections,
𝑙
𝑛=
𝑑cot 𝜃2
Also, sin 40∘ = 𝜇sin 𝜃2
sin 40∘ 0.64 64

sin 𝜃2 = = =
1.31 1.31 131
√(131)2 − (64)2 114

cot 𝜃2 = =
64 64
2 × 64
𝑛= ≈ 56140
20 × 10−6 × 114
Geometrical Optics, Reflection and Refraction
A ray of light 𝐴𝑂 in vacuum is incident on a glass slab at angle 60∘ and refracted at angle 30∘ along
𝑂𝐵 as shown in figure. The optical path length of light ray from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is

2𝑏
2𝑎 +
3
2𝑎 + 2𝑏
2√3
+ 2𝑏
𝑎
2𝑏
2𝑎 +
√3
b
Consider the optical path length as the product of refractive index and geometrical path length. Use
Snell's law to relate the angles of incidence and refraction with the refractive indices of vacuum and
glass.
sin 𝑖 sin 60∘
From Snell's law, =𝜇⇒ =𝜇
sin 𝑟 sin 30∘
⇒ 𝜇 = √3
Required optical path length = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝜇(𝑂𝐵)
𝑎 𝑏
= ∘
+ × √3 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏
sin 30 cos 30∘
Ray Optics, Optical Path Length
A concave mirror has radius of curvature of 40 cm. It is at the bottom of a glass that has water filled
up to 5 cm (see figure). If a small particle is floating on the surface of water, its image as seen, from
directly above the
glass, is at a distance 𝑑 from the surface of water. The value of 𝑑 is close to (Refractive index of water
= 1.33 )
(Main 12 th April 1st Shift 2019)
13.4 cm
11.7 cm
6.7 cm
8.8 cm
d
Consider the combined effect of reflection by the concave mirror and refraction by the water surface.
Utilize the principle of image formation for concave mirrors and the laws of refraction.
First of all, virtual image will be formed by mirror (object is placed within focal length). Final image
will be formed due to refraction by water.
𝑅
𝑢 = −5 cm; 𝑓 = = −20 cm
2
1 1 1 20
− =− ⇒𝑣= cm(+ve)
𝑣 5 20 3
This image will act as virtual object. Let final image be formed due to refraction by water from the
surface.
20
real depth ( + 5) 35
3
𝜇= = =
apparent depth 𝑑 3𝑑
35 35 × 3 35
𝑑= = = = 8.8 cm
3×𝜇 3×4 4
Ray Optics, Refraction at a Spherical Surface
A transparent cube of side 𝑑, made of a material of refractive index 𝜇2 , is immersed in a liquid of

refractive index 𝜇1 (𝜇1 < 𝜇2 ). A ray is incident on the face 𝐴𝐵 at an angle 𝜃 (shown in the figure).
Total internal reflection
takes place at point 𝐸 on the face 𝐵𝐶.
Then 𝜃 must satisfy

(Main 12 th April 2nd Shift 2019)
𝜇1
𝜃 > sin−1
𝜇2
𝜇22
𝜃 < sin−1 √ −1
𝜇12
𝜇22
𝜃 > sin−1 √ −1
𝜇12
𝜇1
𝜃 < sin−1
𝜇2
b
Consider Snell's law at point P, where total internal reflection occurs. Note that the refractive index of
the medium below the point P is lower than the refractive index of the medium above the point P for
total internal reflection to occur.
For
the given case,
𝜇1
sin 𝑖𝑐 =
𝜇2
Also 𝜇1 sin 𝜃 = 𝜇2 sin (90 − 𝑖𝑐 )
(Using snell's law)
𝜇12
𝜇2 √1 −
𝜇22
⇒ sin 𝜃 =
√𝜇12
𝜇2 𝜇2
⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 [ √1 − 12 ]
𝜇1 𝜇2
For total internal reflection to occur,
𝜇22
𝜃 < sin−1 √ −1
𝜇12
Refraction and Internal Reflection, Total Internal Reflection
Let the refractive index of a denser medium with respect to a rarer medium be 𝑛12 and its critical
angle 𝜃𝐶 . At an angle of incidence 𝐴 when light is travelling from denser medium to rarer medium, a
part of the light is reflected and the rest is refracted and the angle between reflected and refracted
rays is 90∘ . Angle 𝐴 is given by
(Main Online 2017)
1
tan−1 (sin 𝜃𝐶 )
1
−1
cos (sin 𝜃𝐶 )
tan−1 (sin 𝜃𝐶 )
cos −1 (sin 𝜃𝐶 )
c
1. Snell's law relates the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media.
2. Critical angle is the angle of incidence above which light undergoes total internal reflection.
3. The angle between reflected and refracted rays is determined by the angle of incidence and the
refractive indices.
4. Use the given information to eliminate the angle of refraction and solve for the angle of deviation.
Refractive index of denser medium with respect to rarer medium,
𝑛𝐷 1
𝑛12 = =
𝑛𝑅 sin 𝜃𝐶
𝑛𝑅
or = sin 𝜃𝐶
𝑛𝐷
...(i)
Using Snell's law at the interface of two media,
𝑛𝐷 sin 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑅 sin 𝑟
𝑛𝑅 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐴
= = = tan 𝐴
𝑛𝐷 sin (90 − 𝐴) cos 𝐴
tan 𝐴 = sin 𝜃𝐶 ; 𝐴 = tan−1 (sin 𝜃𝐶 )
[from eqn. (i)]

Optics, Critical Angle
A hemispherical glass body of radius 10 cm and refractive index 1.5 is silvered on its curved surface.
A small air bubble is 6 cm
below the flat surface inside it along the axis. The position of the image of the air bubble made by
the mirror is seen
(Main Online 2016)
14 cm below flat surface
b
Consider the silvered curved surface as a mirror with focal length f. Apply the mirror formula to
determine the image distance of the air bubble. Then, treat the flat surface as a plane glass surface
and calculate the apparent depth of the air bubble. By subtracting the apparent depth from the
object distance, you can determine the position of the image of the air bubble made by the mirror.
Here, 𝑅 = −10 cm
Object distance from mirror,
𝑢 = −(10 − 6) = −4 cm
𝑢 = −(10 − 6) = −4 cm
𝑅 10
Focal length of mirror, 𝑓 = − = − = −5 cm
2 2
Image distance = 𝑣 = ?
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
+ =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
⇒ + =
𝑣 −4 −5
1 1 1 1
⇒ = − =
𝑣 4 5 20
𝑣 = 20 cm
Now, 𝐼1 acts as object for plane glass surface,

𝑅+𝑣 30
∴ Apparent depth = 𝜇
= 1.5 = 20 cm
Hence, the position of the image of the air bubble made by the mirror is seen 20 cm below the flat
surface.
Reflection by Spherical Mirrors, Image Formation in a Concave Mirror
A green light is incident from the water to the air-water interface at the critical angle (𝜃). Select the
correct statement.
(Main 2014)
The entire spectrum of visible light will come out of the water at various angles to the normal.
The entire spectrum of visible light will come out of the water at an angle of 90∘ to the normal.
The spectrum of visible light whose frequency is less than that of green light will come out to the air
medium.
The spectrum of visible light whose frequency is more than that of green light will come out to the
air medium.
c
Consider the dependence of refractive index on wavelength. Understand the relationship between
critical angle and refractive index. Recognize that the frequency of visible light is inversely related to
its wavelength.
1
As, sin 𝜃 =
𝜇
Also refractive index (𝜇) of the medium depends on the wavelength of the light. 𝜇 is less for the
greater wavelength (i.e. lesser frequency).
So, 𝜃 will be more for lesser frequency of light. Hence, the spectrum of visible light whose frequency
is less than that of green light will come out to the air medium.
Interference and Diffraction of Light, Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection
A point source 𝑆 is placed at the bottom of a transparent block of height 10 mm and refractive index
2.72 . It is immersed in a lower refractive index liquid as shown in the figure. It is found that the light
emerging from the block to the liquid forms a circular bright spot of diameter 11.54 mm on the top
of the block. The refractive index of the liquid is
(Advanced 2014)
1.21
1.30
1.36
1.42
c
Consider the situation as a case of total internal reflection and apply Snell's law to relate the
refractive indices of the liquid and the block using the critical angle.
Given situation is shown in the figure (not to the scale)
Suppose, 𝜇𝑙 = refractive index of liquid 𝜇𝑏 = refractive index of block = 2.72 𝐶 = critical angle
This situation is seen as if the phenomena is of total internal reflection of light.

𝜇𝑙 𝜇𝑙
sin 𝐶 = =
𝜇𝑏 2,72
11.54
2
From figure, sin 𝐶 =
11.54 2
√(
2
) +102
𝜇𝑙 5.77
⇒ =
2.72 11.545
(Using eqn. (i))
⇒ 𝜇𝑙 ≈ 1.36
Let the 𝑥 − 𝑧 plane be the boundary between two transparent media. Medium 1 in 𝑧 ≥ 0 has a
refractive index of √2 and medium 2 with 𝑧 < 0 has a refractive index of √3. A ray of light in medium
1 given by the vector 𝐴⃗ = 6√3𝑖ˆ + 8√3𝑗ˆ − 10𝑘ˆ is incident on the plane of separation. The angle of
refraction in medium 2 is
(AIEEE 2011)
30∘
45∘
60∘
75∘
b
Consider the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction and
relate it to the refractive indices of the two media and the velocity of light in them.
Here, 𝐴⃗ = 6√3𝑖ˆ + 8√3𝑗ˆ − 10𝑘ˆ
10 10
cos 𝑖 = =
20
√(6√3)2 + (8√3)2 + (−10)2
1 1
cos 𝑖 = or 𝑖 = cos −1 ( ) = 60∘
2 2
Using Snell's law, 𝜇1 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇2 sin 𝑟
√2sin 60∘ = √3sin 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 45∘

Snell's Law, Refraction at a Plane Interface
2
A transparent solid cylindrical rod has a refractive index of . It is surrounded by air. A light ray is
√3
incident at the mid-point of one end of the rod as shown in the figure.
The incident angle 𝜃 for which the light ray grazes along the wall of the rod is
(AIEEE 2009)
1
sin−1 ( )
2
√3
sin−1 ( )
2
2
sin−1 ( )
√3
−1
1
sin ( )
√3
d
Consider the relationship between critical angle and refractive indices for total internal reflection.
Use the geometry of the cylinder to determine the angle of incidence that satisfies the critical angle
condition.
If 𝜃𝑐 has to be the critical angle,
1
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1
𝜇
But 𝜃𝑐 = 90∘ − 𝜙, 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃
sin 𝜃𝑖 2
=𝜇=
sin 𝜙 √3
sin 𝜃
⇒ =𝜇
cos 𝜃𝑐
√𝜇 2−1
But, cos 𝜃𝑐 =
𝜇
√𝜇 2−1 4 1
∴ sin 𝜃 = 𝜇 𝜇
= √𝜇2 − 1 ∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 √3 − 1 = sin−1 ( )
√3
So that 𝜃𝑐 is making total internal reflection.

A ball is dropped from a height of 20 m above the surface of water in a lake. The refractive index of
water is 4/3. A fish inside the lake, in the line of fall of the ball, is looking at the ball. At an instant,
when the ball is 12.8 m above the water surface, the fish sees the speed of ball as (Take 𝑔 =
10 m/s2 )
(IIT-JEE 2009)
9 m/s
16 m/s
12 m/s
21.33 m/s
c
Consider the incident ray, refracted ray, normal, and apparent depth.
Use Snell's law to relate the angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
Calculate the apparent distance using the refractive index and apparent depth.
Use the formula for speed, distance = speed time, to find the speed of the ball as seen by the fish.
Assuming 20 m −
the fish is now touching the surface of water, apparent
distance = 𝜇 × actual distance.
i.e., 𝑋 ′ = 𝑋 × 𝜇water
⇒ 𝑣 ′ = √2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ1 ) × 𝜇water
4
⇒ 𝑣 ′ = √2 × 10 × (20 − 12.8) × = 16 m/s
3
Snell's Law, Refraction from denser to rarer medium
A light beam is travelling from region I to region IV (Refer figure). The refractive index in regions I, II,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
III and IV are 𝑛0 , 0 , 0 and 0 , respectively. The angle of incidence 𝜃 for which the beam just misses
2 6 8
entering region IV is
3
sin−1 ( )
4
−1
1
sin ( )
8
−1
1
sin ( )
4
−1
1
sin ( )
3
b
Consider the critical angle for the interface between regions III and IV. Relate the critical angle to the
refractive indices of the two regions and the angle of incidence.
As the beam just misses entering the region IV, the angle of refraction in the region IV must be 90∘ .
Application of Snell's law successively at different interfaces gives

𝑛0 𝑛0 𝑛0
𝑛0 sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃1 = sin 𝜃2 = sin 90∘
2 6 8
1 1
⇒ sin 𝜃 = 8 or 𝜃 = sin−1 8
Application of Snell's Law, Critical Angle
A fish looking up through the water sees the outside world contained in a circular horizon. If the
refractive index of water is 4/3 and the fish is 12 cm below the surface, the radius of this circle (in
cm ) is
36√5
4√5
36√7
36/√7
d
Consider the geometry of the problem and use the critical angle for total internal reflection to
determine the radius of the circular horizon.
For total internal reflection,
1 1 3
𝜇= ⇒ sin 𝜃𝐶 = =
sin 𝜃𝐶 𝜇 4
sin 𝜃𝑐 3/4
∴ tan 𝜃𝑐 = =
√1 − sin2 𝜃𝑐 √1 − 9
16
3 4 3
= × =
4 √7 √ 7
𝑅 3 36
∴ = ⇒𝑅= cm
12 √7 √7
Total Internal Reflection, Apparent Depth of a Fish
A container is filled with water (𝜇 = 1.33) upto a height of 33.25 cm. A concave mirror is placed
15 cm above the water level and the image of an object placed at the bottom is formed 25 cm below
the water level. Focal length of the mirror is
15 cm
20 cm
-18.31 cm
10 cm
c
Consider the apparent depth of the object as seen in the water. Use the relationship between object
distance and image distance for a concave mirror. Apply the laws of refraction to relate the apparent
depth to the actual depth.
Real depth
𝑂 = Object, 𝐼 = Image of object. 𝜇 =
Apparent depth
Real depth
∴ Apparent depth =
𝜇
From mirror
Object distance = 𝑢
33.25
𝑢 = 15 + = 15 + 25 = 40 cm
1.33
25
𝑣 = 15 + = 15 + 18.8 = 33.8 cm
1.33
1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑣 + 𝑢 = 𝑓 or −33.8 + −40 = 𝑓
or = −18.31 cm.
Reflection of Light at Spherical Surfaces in Lenses and Mirrors, Apparent Depth of an Object in a
Liquid
A light ray is incident perpendicular to one face of a 90∘ prism and is totally internally reflected at the
glass air interface. If the angle of reflection is 45∘ , we conclude that the refractive index 𝑛
(IIT-JEE 2008)
1
𝑛<
√2
𝑛 > √2
1
𝑛>
√2
𝑛 < √2
b
Understand the conditions for total internal reflection. Consider the relationship between the angle
of incidence, angle of refraction, and critical angle. Use the given information to determine the
refractive index of the prism.
Total internal reflection occurs in a denser medium when light is incident at surface of separation at
angle exceeding critical angle of the medium.
Given 𝑖 = 45∘ in the medium and total internal reflection occurs at the glass air interface
1 1
∴𝑛> > > √2
sin 𝐶 sin 45∘
A point object is placed at the centre of a glass sphere of radius 6 cm and refractive index 1.5. The
distance of virtual image from the surface is
(IIT-JEE 2004)
6 cm
4 cm
12 cm
9 cm
a
Apply the principle of reversibility of light rays to trace the path of a ray of light passing through the
glass sphere.
Consider the path of a ray of light that strikes the surface of the sphere normally.
Use the laws of refraction to determine the path of the ray after it enters and exits the sphere.
A point object is at the centre of a glass sphere of radius 6 cm.
The rays from the object fall normally on the surface of the sphere and emerge undeviated. When
drawn backwards, they meet at 𝑂.
The image will be formed at the centre 𝑂 itself.
∴ Distance of virtual image from surface = 6 cm.

Refraction and Lenses, Image Formation in a Glass Sphere
A source emits sound of frequency 600 Hz inside water. The frequency heard in air will be equal to
(velocity of sound in water = 1500 m/s, velocity of sound in air = 300 m/s )
(IIT-JEE 2004)
300 Hz
120 Hz
600 Hz
6000 Hz
c
The frequency of sound emitted by the source remains constant as it travels from water into air. This
is because frequency, which is the number of waves passing by a point per unit time, is an intrinsic
property of the source and does not depend on the medium through which the sound waves are
traveling.
Frequency of sound = 600 Hz inside water.
Frequency of a wave depends on the source and it does not change during refraction when wave
travels from one medium to another.
∴ Frequency heard in air = 600 Hz.

Wave Phenomena, Doppler Effect
A beam of white light is incident on glass air interface from glass to air such that green light just
suffers total internal reflection. The colours of the light which will come out to air are
(IIT-JEE 2004)
violet, indigo, blue
all colours except green
yellow, orange, red
white light
c
- Refraction index is related to the speed of light in the medium.
- Wavelength and frequency are related to the colour of light.
- Total internal reflection occurs when the incident angle is greater than the critical angle.
- The critical angle depends on the refractive indices of the two media.
𝜆 increases in the order
V, I, B, G, Y, O, R
𝑌, 𝑂, 𝑅 have 𝜆 greater than that of 𝐺.
𝑉, 𝐼, 𝐵 have 𝜆 less than that of 𝐺.
1
𝜇=
sin 𝐶
1
Also 𝜇 ∝ 𝜆
∴ sin 𝐶 ∝ 𝜆
∴ 𝐶 is greater for Y, O, R
∴ Y, O, R will come out to air.

Total Internal Reflection, Conditions for Total Internal Reflection
A ray of light is incident at the glass-water interface at an angle 𝑖. It emerges finally parallel to the
surface of water. Then the value of 𝜇𝑔 would be
(AIEEE 2003)
(4/3)sin 𝑖
1/sin 𝑖
4/3
1
b
Consider the refraction of light at each interface using Snell's law. Use the relationship between the
angles of incidence, refraction, and the refractive indices of the media. By combining these
equations, eliminate the angle of refraction at the water-air interface.
Apply Snell's law,
𝑔𝜇 sin 𝑖
At glass-water surface, 𝑤 =
sin 𝑟
𝑤𝜇 sin 𝑟
At water - air surface, 𝑎 =
sin 90∘
∵ 8 𝜇𝑤 × 𝑤𝜇
𝑎 × 𝑎 𝜇𝑔 = 1
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟
∴ × × 𝑎 𝜇𝑔
sin 𝑟 sin 90∘
= 1 or sin 𝑖 × 𝑎 𝜇𝑔 = 1
1
or 𝑎 𝜇𝑔 = sin 𝑖
Snell's Law of Refraction, Refraction from one medium to another
Which of the following is used in optical fibres?

(AIEEE 2002)
Total internal reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
Refraction
a
Consider the phenomenon used when light bends into a different medium to ensure maximum light
intensity is maintained within the medium for long distance signal transmission.
Total internal reflection is used in optical fibres.
Ray Optics, Total Internal Reflection in Optical Fibres
An observer can see through a pin-hole the top end of a thin rod of height ℎ, placed as shown in the
figure.
The beaker height is 3ℎ and its radius ℎ. When the beaker is filled with a liquid up to a height 2ℎ, he
can see the lower end of the rod. Then the refractive index of the liquid is
(IIT-JEE 2002)
5
2
5
√
2
3
√
2
3
2
b
Consider the path of light from the lower end of the rod to the eye. Use the principles of refraction
and similar triangles to determine the relationship between the height of the rod, the height of the
liquid, and the refractive index of the liquid.
When liquid is filled in the beaker up to a height 2ℎ, the image of the lower end 𝐴 of the rod 𝐴𝐵 is
formed at 𝐵 so that it is visible to the eye.
∵ 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐸𝐵 = 2ℎ
∴ ∠𝑖 = 45∘
𝐴𝐺 ℎ
sin 𝑟 = =
𝐴𝐶 ℎ√5
[∵ 𝐴𝐶 2 = (𝐺𝐶)2 + (𝐺𝐴)2 ]
sin 𝑖 sin 45∘

∴𝜇= or 𝜇 =
sin 𝑟 1/√5
Refraction of Light, Liquid-Filled Beaker
A ray of light passes through four transparent media with refractive indices 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 , 𝜇3 and 𝜇4 as
shown in the figure. The surfaces of all media are parallel. If the emergent ray 𝐶𝐷 is parallel to the
incident ray 𝐴𝐵, we must have
(IIT-JEE 2001)
𝜇1 = 𝜇2
𝜇3 = 𝜇4
𝜇2 = 𝜇3
𝜇4 = 𝜇1
d
Consider the total deviation at each surface, and the condition for parallel emergence. Use Snell's
law and the geometry of the problem to relate the refractive indices.
Geometrical Optics, Refraction at a plane surface
A diverging beam of light from a point source 𝑆 having divergence angle 𝛼, falls symmetrically on a
glass slab as shown. The angles of incidence of the two extreme rays are equal. If the thickness of the
glass slab is 𝑡 and the refractive index 𝜇, then the divergence angle of the emergent beam is
(IIT-JEE 2000)
Zero
1
sin−1 ( )
𝜇
𝛼
1
2sin−1 ( )
𝜇
b
Relate the parallel emergent rays with the incident rays using a geometrical representation.
Consider the angles formed by the incident and emergent rays with respect to the point source.
Apply the relationship between the angle of deviation and refractive index for refraction.
When a ray is incident on a glass slab, after refraction through slab, the emergent ray is parallel to
incident ray.
Emergent ray 𝐵1 𝐶1 is parallel to 𝑆𝐴1 .

Emergent ray 𝐵2 𝐶2 is parallel to 𝑆𝐴2 .
∴ Angle between 𝑆𝐴1 and 𝑆𝐴2 is equal to angle between 𝐵1 𝐶1 and 𝐵2 𝐶2 drawn backwards.
∴ Angle = 𝛼
Refraction, Prism
A rectangular glass slab 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 of refractive index 𝜇1 is immersed in water of refractive index
𝜇2 (𝜇1 > 𝜇2 ). A ray of light is incident at the surface 𝐴𝐵 of the slab as shown in the
figure. The maximum value of the angle of 𝑎max such that the ray comes out only from the other
surface 𝐶𝐷 is given by
(IIT-JEE 2000)
𝜇1 𝜇2
sin−1 [ cos (sin−1 ( ))]
𝜇2 𝜇1
1
sin−1 [𝜇1 cos (sin−1 ( ))]
𝜇2
𝜇1
sin−1 ( )
𝜇2
𝜇2
sin−1 ( )
𝜇1
a
Using Snell's law at each interface and considering total internal reflection at the second interface,
derive an expression for the maximum angle of incidence for which the ray emerges from the second
surface.
Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection,Critical Angle in Refraction
A ray of light from a denser medium strikes a rarer medium at an angle of incidence 𝑖 (see fig). The
reflected and refracted rays make an angle of 90∘ with
each other. The angles of reflection and refraction are 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ . The critical angle is
(IIT-JEE 1983)
sin−1 (tan 𝑟)
sin−1 (tan 𝑟 ′ )
sin−1 (tan 𝑖)
tan−1 (sin 𝑖)
a
Use Snell's law of refraction.
Consider the relationship between the angles of incidence, reflection, and refraction.
Determine the critical angle for the transition from a denser to a rarer medium.
𝑟 + 𝑟 ′ + 90∘ = 180∘
∴ 𝑟 ′ = 90∘ − 𝑟 … (i) 𝑖 = 𝑟
Apply Snell's law, 𝜇𝐷 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇𝑅 sin 𝑟 ′
or 𝜇𝐷 sin 𝑟 = 𝜇𝑅 sin (90∘ − 𝑟)

𝜇
or 𝜇 𝑅 = tan 𝑟
𝐷
or sin 𝜃𝐶 = tan 𝑟 or 𝜃𝐶 = sin−1 (tan 𝑟)

Ray Optics, Snell's Law
When a ray of light enters a glass slab from air

(IIT-JEE 1980)
its wavelength decreases.
its wavelength increases.
its frequency increases.
neither its wavelength nor its frequency changes.
a
Consider the relationship between wavelength, velocity, and frequency of light. As the velocity of
light decreases, the wavelength must change to maintain the constant frequency.
velocity (𝑣)
Wavelength (𝜆) =
frequency (𝑓)
When the ray of light travels from air to glass, 𝑓 remains unchanged while velocity (𝑣) decreases.
Hence wavelength 𝜆 should decrease.

Refraction of Light, Wavelength of Light
A person has been using spectacles of power -1.0 dioptre for distant vision and a separate reading
glass of power 2.0 dioptres. What is the least distance of distinct vision for this person?
10 cm
40 cm
30 cm
50 cm
d
Consider the lens formula and the power of the lenses to determine the image distance for distant
vision and nearby objects. Use the relationship between the power and the focal length of the lenses
to find the least distance of distinct vision.
For long sightedness or distant vision,
1 m 100
𝑓= = = −100 cm
𝑃 −1
Therefore, image is formed at 100 cm which is far point of the person. Now, for nearby objects
person uses glasses of power +2D
100 cm
or 𝑓 = = 50 cm
2
The normal distance of distinct vision is 25 cm which is different for the presbyopic person.
Here, 𝑓 = 50 cm and = −25 cm.

1 1 1
Using lens formula, = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ = + or = −
50 cm 𝑣 25 cm 𝑣 50 25
1−2 −1
= = or 𝑣 = −50 cm
50 50
Refraction of Light through Lenses, Presbyopia and its Correction
When a beam of white light is allowed to pass through convex lens parallel to principal axis, the
different colours of light converge at different point on the principle axis after refraction. This is
called
(Main 24 4th Jan 2nd Shift 2023)
Scattering
chromatic aberration
spherical aberration
Polarisation
b
Consider the lens's focusing properties and the relationship between wavelength and frequency of
light waves.
Chromatic aberration is a phenomenon in which light rays passing through a lens, focus at different
points depending on their wavelengths.
Chromatic Aberration, Dispersion of Light
For an object placed at a distance 2.4 m from a lens, a sharp focused image is observed on a screen
placed at a distance 12 cm form the lens. A glass plate of refractive index 1.5 and thickness 1 cm is
introduced between lens and screen such that the glass plate faces parallel to the screen. By what
distance should the object be shifted so that a sharp focused image is observed again on the screen?
0.8 m
3.2 m
1.2 m
5.6 m
b
Consider the effect of the glass plate on the image distance using the formula for real image
formation. Relate the changes in object and image distances due to the introduction of the glass
plate using the thin lens equation.
Let the focal length is 𝑓.
1 1 1 1 1 1 20 + 1 21 7
= − ; = + = = =
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 12 240 240 240 80
80
⇒𝑓= cm
7
Now sheet is introduced.
1
Normal shift, 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡 (1 − );
𝜇
1×2 1
𝑡 ′ = 1 (1 − ) = cm
3 3
1 35
So, 𝑣 ′ = 12 − 3 = 3
cm
1 1 1
As, = −
𝑓 𝑣′ 𝑢′
7 3 1 1 −1
or = − ′ ⇒ =
80 35 𝑢 𝑢′ 560
𝑢′ = −5.6 m
Shift = |𝑢′ | − |𝑢| = 5.6 m − 2.4 m = 3.2 m

Ray Optics, Focal length of lens
The power of a lens (biconvex) is 1.25 m−1 in particular medium. Refractive index of the lens is 1.5
and radii of curvature are 20 cm and 40 cm respectively. The refractive index of surrounding medium
1.0
9
7
3
2
4
3
b
Power of a lens is given by the formula
P = (n2 - n1) / (R1 + R2)
where P is power, n1 is the refractive index of the surrounding medium, n2 is the refractive index of
the lens, and R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces.
In this case, we are given the power of the lens, the refractive index of the lens, and the radii of
curvature of the lens surfaces. We can use the power formula to solve for the refractive index of the
surrounding medium.
Given
Power of lens = 1.25 m−1
Let refractive index of medium is 𝜇1
Refractive index of lens, 𝜇2 = 1.5
Radius of curvature, 𝑅1 = 20 cm and 𝑅2 = 40 cm
1 𝜇2 1 1
So, Power, 𝑃 = =( − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1.5 1 1
⇒ 1.25 = ( − 1) ( − )
𝜇1 0.2 (−0.4)
9
⇒ 𝜇1 =
7
Refractive Index and Lens Power, Power of Biconvex Lens in Different Mediums
A convex lens has power 𝑃. It is cut into two halves along its principal axis. Further one piece (out of
the two halves) is cut into two halves perpendicular to the principal axis (as shown in figure). Choose
the incorrect option for the reported pieces.
𝑃
Power of 𝐿1 = 2
𝑃
Power of 𝐿2 = 2
𝑃
Power of 𝐿3 = 2
Power of 𝐿1 = 𝑃
a
Consider the lens's power equation, which relates the focal length to the power. Identify how cutting
the lens along different axes affects the focal length, and consequently, the power.
When the lens is cut horizontally, then the focal length of the 𝑃2 = 𝑃/2 𝑃3 = 𝑃/2 lens does not
change. Hence, no change in power but when the lens is cut vertically then focal length of the lens
gets doubled and hence power of the lens, gets halved.
Convex Lens, Power of Convex Lens
Find the distance of the image from object 𝑂, formed by the combination of lenses in the figure.
(Main 27 th Aug 1st Shift 2021)

75 cm
10 cm
Infinity
20 cm
a
Consider each lens's contribution to image formation separately, starting from the object. First lens
forms an image that acts as an object for the second lens, which forms an image that acts as an
object for the third lens. Use lens formula and object-image distance sign convention to determine
the distance of each image from the respective lens. The final image's distance from the object is the
sum of distances of intermediate images from their respective image-forming lenses.
For first lens, 𝑓1 = 10 cm and 𝑢1 = −30 cm
1 1 1
From lens formula, 𝑓 = 𝑦 − 𝑢
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
or 10 = 𝑣 + 30 or 𝑣 = 10 − 30
1 1
or 𝑣1 = 15 cm
Therefore, image formed by the first lens is at a distance 15 cm to the right of first lens. This image
will now act as virtual object for the second lens.
For second lens, 𝑓2 = −10 cm and 𝑢2 = (15 − 5)cm = 10 cm
1 1 1
∴ = −
𝑓2 𝑣2 𝑢2
1 1 1 1 1
or 𝑣 = 𝑓 + 𝑢 = − 10 + 10
2 2 2
or 𝑣2 = ∞
Therefore, the image formed by second lens is real and at infinite distance. This image will now act as
an object for the third lens.
For third lens, 𝑓3 = 30 cm and 𝑢3 = ∞
1 1 1
∴ = −
𝑓3 𝑣3 𝑢3
1 1 1 1 1
or = + = +
𝑣3 𝑓3 𝑢3 30 ∞
or 𝑣3 = 30 cm
Therefore, final image formed by the given combination of lenses is at a distance 30 cm to the right
of the third lens.
∴ Distance of final image from object 𝑂 is 75 cm.

Ray Optics, Lens Combination
Curved surfaces of a plano-convex lens of refractive index 𝜇1 and a plano-concave lens of refractive
index 𝜇2 have equal radius of curvature as shown in figure. Find the ratio of radius of curvature to
the focal length of the combined lenses
(Main 27 th Aug 2nd Shift 2021)

1
𝜇2 − 𝜇1
1
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝜇2 − 𝜇1
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
d
Apply lens maker's formula to find the focal lengths of both lenses. Then, use the formula for
equivalent focal length to find the ratio.
Let the focal lengths of planoconvex lens and plano-cancave lens be 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 respectively.
Now, using Lens maker's formula,
1 1
= (𝜇1 − 1) ( )
𝐹1 𝑅
1 1
and = (𝜇2 − 1) (− )
𝐹2 𝑅
Equivalent focal length of the combined lenses is,
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝐹1 𝐹2
1 (𝜇1 −1) (𝜇2 −1)
or 𝐹 = 𝑅
− 𝑅
1 𝜇 −𝜇 𝑅
or 𝐹 = 1 𝑅 2 ∴ 𝐹 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Lenses and Lens Aberrations
An object is placed at the focus of concave lens having focal length 𝑓. What is the magnification and
distance of the image from the optical centre of the lens?
(Main 31st Aug 1st Shift 2021)
1 𝑓
,
4 4
1 𝑓
,
2 2
Very high, ∞
1, ∞
b
Consider the sign convention for image distance and focal length in the lens equation. Since the
object is placed at the focus of the concave lens, the image will be formed at infinity. Use the thin
lens equation to determine the magnification, which will be negative for a concave lens.
Focal length of concave lens = −𝑓 Distance of object, 𝑢 = −𝑓
Let the distance of image is 𝑣 and the magnification is 𝑚.
Using lens equation,
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑓
= − ⇒− = + ⇒𝑣=−
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑓 2
𝑣 −𝑓/2 1
We know that, 𝑚 = = =
𝑢 −𝑓 2
Geometrical Optics, Thin Lens Equation, Concave Lens, Magnification
Region I and II are separated by a spherical surface of radius 25 cm. An object is kept in region
I II
⬚ ← 𝜇I=1.25 ) I and at a distance of 40 cm from the surface. The distance of the image from
𝑂 𝜇II =1.4
the surface is
9.52 cm
37.58 cm
55.44 cm
18.23 cm
b
Consider the mirror formula to relate the object distance, image distance, and radius of curvature of
the spherical surface.
𝑢 = −40 cm
𝑅 = −25 cm; 𝜇I = 1.25; 𝜇II = 1.4
Let the distance of image is 𝑣.

𝜇II 𝜇I 𝜇II − 𝜇I
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
1.4 1.25 1.4 − 1.25
+ =
𝑣 40 −25
1.4
+ 0.03125 = −0.006
𝑣
1.4
= −0.03725 ⇒ 𝑣 = −37.58 cm
𝑣
Ray Optics, Image Formation by Spherical Surfaces
The refractive index of a converging lens is 1.4 . What will be the focal length of this lens if it is placed
in a medium of same refractive index? Assume the radii of curvature of the faces of lens are 𝑅1 and
𝑅2 respectively.
(Main 16 th March 2nd Shift 2021)
Zero
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 − 𝑅2
1
Infinite
d
Consider the lens maker's formula and analyze the effect of the refractive indices of the lens and the
medium on the focal length of the lens.
Given, refractive index of lens, 𝜇2 = 1.4
Refractive index of medium, 𝜇1 = 1.4
From lens maker's formula,

1 𝜇2 1 1
∴ = ( − 1) ( − )
1.4 1 1
=( − 1) ( − )
1.4 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1
or = 0 ⇒ 𝑓 = ; 𝑓 = infinite
𝑓 0
∴ Focal length of this lens would be infinite.

Lens Maker's Formula, Effective Focal Length of a Lens in the Same Medium
The thickness at the centre of a plano convex lens is 3 mm and the diameter is 6 cm. If the speed of
light in the material of the lens is 2 × 108 m s−1 . The focal length of the lens is
(Main 17 th March 1st Shift 2021)
1.5 cm
0.30 cm
30 cm
15 cm
c
Consider the lens as a combination of a plane surface and a convex surface. Use the lens maker's
formula for the convex surface and combine it with the relation between speed of light in vacuum
and refractive index to find the focal length.
Speed of light in material of lens 𝑣 = 2 × 108 m s−1
𝑐 3×108
Refractive index, 𝜇 = 𝑣 = 2×108 = 1.5
From figure,
𝑅2 = (𝑅 − 0.3)2 + 32
𝑅2 = 9 + 𝑅2 + 0.09 − 0.6𝑅
0.6𝑅 = 9.09 or 𝑅 = 15.15 cm
From lens maker's formula,
1 1
= (𝜇 − 1)
𝑓 𝑅
(Since this is a plano convex lens)
1 (0.5)
∴ = ⇒ 𝑓 = 30 cm
𝑓 15.15
Geometrical Optics, Lens Maker's Formula Plano-convex Lens
An extended object is placed at point 𝑂, 10 cm in front of a convex lens 𝐿1 and a concave lens 𝐿2 is
placed 10 cm behind it, as shown in
the figure. The radii of curvature of all the curved surfaces in both the lenses are 20 cm. The
refractive index of both the lenses is 1.5. The total magnification of this lens system is
(Advanced 2021)
0.4
0.8
1.3
1.6
b
Consider the formula for magnification and focal length of lenses.
For the convex lens, use the positive sign convention for focal length.
For the concave lens, use the negative sign convention for focal length.
Substitute the given values into the magnification formula to determine the total magnification.
For lens 𝐿1
𝑅1 = 20 cm; 𝑅2 = −20 cm; 𝜇 = 1.5
Let the focal length is 𝑓1 .
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1 2
= (1.5 − 1) ( − ) = 0.5 ×
𝑓1 20 −20 20
or 𝑓1 = 20 cm
For lens 𝐿2 𝑅1 = −20 cm; 𝑅2 = 20 cm; 𝜇 = 1.5 Let the focal length is 𝑓2 .
1 1 1 2
= (1.5 − 1) ( − ) = −0.5 ×
𝑓2 (−20) 20 20
or 𝑓2 = −20 cm
For lens 𝐿1 𝑢 = −10 cm; 𝑓1 = 20 cm; 𝑣 = ?
1 1 1 1
= − =−
𝑣 20 10 20
𝑣 −20
𝑣 = −20 cm; 𝑚1 = = =2
𝑢 −10
For lens 𝐿2
𝑢′ = −30 cm; 𝑓2 = −20 cm; 𝑣 ′ = ?
1 1 1 1 −1 1
= ′+ ⇒ ′= −
−20 𝑣 30 𝑣 20 30
𝑣 ′ −12 2
𝑣 ′ = −12 cm; 𝑚2 = = =
𝑢′ −30 5
so, total magnification
2 4
𝑚1 𝑚2 = 2 × = = 0.8
5 5
Ray Optics, Lens Formula
For a concave lens of focal length 𝑓, the relation between object and image distances 𝑢 and 𝑣,
respectively, from its pole can best be represented by ( 𝑢 = 𝑣 is the reference line)
(Main 5th Sept 1st Shift 2020)
a
Consider the case when the object is between the pole and the focal point. Determine the
relationship between the object and image distances based on the sign convention for concave
lenses.
𝑢𝑓
By using relation, 𝑣 =
𝑢+𝑓
Case-I If 𝑣 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑓 +𝑢 = 𝑓
⇒𝑢 =𝑓−𝑓 =0
Case-II If 𝑢 = ∞
then 𝑣 = 𝑓
(Using eq. (i))
So, option (a) is correct answer.

Ray Optics,Lens Formula
A point like object is placed at a distance of 1 m in front of a convex lens of focal length 0.5 m. A
plane mirror is placed at a distance of 2 m behind the lens. The position and nature of the final
image formed by the system is
2.6 m from the mirror, real
1 m from the mirror, virtual
1 m from the mirror, real
2.6 m from the mirror, virtual
b
Consider the convex lens and the plane mirror as two separate optical elements. Use the lens
formula to determine the position and nature of the image formed by the lens. Then, treat the image
formed by the lens as an object for the plane mirror, and use the mirror equation to determine the
final image's position and nature.
Given 𝑢1 = −1 m, 𝑓1 = 0.5 m
Using lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ = +
𝑣1 𝑢1 𝑓1 𝑣1 𝑢1 𝑓1
1 1 1
⇒ = + = 1 ⇒ 𝑣1 = 1 m
𝑣1 −1 0.5
Distance between mirror and image (object for mirror),
𝑢2 = −(2𝑚 − 1𝑚) = −1𝑚
So image distance 𝑣2 = −𝑢2 = 1 m behind the mirror.
Nature of image Virtual

Ray Optics, Image Formation by Lens and Mirror System
A double convex lens has power 𝑃 and same radii of curvature 𝑅 of both the surfaces. The radius of
curvature of a surface of a plano-convex lens made of the same material with power 1.5𝑃 is
(Main 6th Sept 2nd Shift 2020)
2𝑅
𝑅
2
3𝑅
2
𝑅
3
d
Use the lens maker's formula to relate the power of the lens to the radii of curvature of its surfaces.
Compare the power and radius of curvature for both lenses to find the desired relationship.
For the first lens, lens maker's formula,
1 1 2
𝑃 = (𝜇 − 1) ( − ) or 𝑃 = (𝜇 − 1) ( ) … (i)
𝑅 −𝑅 𝑅
For the plano-convex lens
1 1 𝜇−1
1.5𝑃 = (𝜇 − 1) (𝑅′ − ∞) or 𝑅′ = 1.5𝑃
𝑅 𝑅
From equations (i) and (ii), 𝑅′ = =
2×1.5 3
Lens and Lens Maker's Formula, Plano-Convex Lens
A thin lens made of glass (refractive index = 1.5 ) of focal length 𝑓 = 16 cm is immersed in a liquid
of refractive index 1.42. If its focal length in liquid is 𝑓𝑏 , then the ratio 𝑓𝑙 /𝑓 is closest to the integer
5
1
17
9
d
To determine the ratio of the focal lengths, apply the lens maker's formula for both air and liquid
mediums, and simplify the obtained expressions to find the ratio.
1 1 1
𝜇𝑔 = 1.5, 𝑓 = 16 cm, 𝜇𝑙 = 1.42, 𝑓𝑙 = ? By Lens maker's formula = (𝜇𝑔 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
When the lens is immersed in a liquid,
1 𝜇𝑔 1 1
= ( − 1) ( − )
𝑓𝑙 𝜇𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
𝑓𝑙 1.5 − 1 0.5
= = = 8.875 ≈ 9
𝑓 1.5 0.0564
1.42 − 1
Lens, Focal length of Lens in different medium
A convex lens is put 10 cm from a light source and it makes a sharp image on a screen, kept 10 cm
from the lens. Now a glass block (refractive index 1.5) of 1.5 cm thickness is placed in contact with
the light source. To get the sharp image again, the screen is shifted by a distance 𝑑. Then 𝑑 is
0.55 cm towards the lens
0
1.1 cm away from the lens
0.55 cm away from the lens
d
- Use the lens formula to relate the object and image distances for both cases.
- Consider the shift in the apparent position of the object due to the introduction of the glass block.
- Apply the lens formula again to determine the new image distance with the shifted screen.
- Equate the expressions for the image distance in both cases to find the shift in the screen distance.
Case I 𝑢 = −10 cm, 𝑣 = 10 cm, 𝑓 = ? Using lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − ⇒ 𝑓 = 5 cm
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 10 −10
Case II Due to introduction of slab, shift in the source is
1 2
= 𝑡 (1 − ) = 1.5 (1 − ) = 0.5 cm
𝜇 3
Now, 𝑢 = −9.5 cm, 𝑣 = ?
1 1 1 1 1 4.5
= + = − =
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 5 9.5 5 × 9.5
⇒ 𝑣 = 10.55 cm
∴ 𝑑 = 10.55 − 10 = 0.55 cm away from the lens

Geometrical Optics Lenses, Image Formation by Lenses
A plano convex lens of refractive index 𝜇1 and focal length 𝑓1 is kept in contact with another plano
concave lens of refractive index 𝜇2 and focal length 𝑓2 . If the radius of curvature of their spherical
faces is 𝑅 each and 𝑓1 = 2𝑓2 , then 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 are related as
3𝜇2 − 2𝜇1 = 1
2𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 1
𝜇1 + 𝜇2 = 3
2𝜇2 − 𝜇1 = 1
c
Consider the lens maker's formula and the relationship between the radius of curvature and focal
length for both lenses. Utilize the refractive indices of the lenses to relate them using the lens
maker's formula.
As per lens maker's formula
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
Also, 𝑓1 = 2𝑓2
𝑅 2𝑅
=
(𝜇1 − 1) (𝜇2 − 1)
(𝜇2 − 1) = 2(𝜇1 − 1)
2𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 1
Lens, Lens Equation
The eye can be regarded as a single refracting surface. The radius of curvature of this surface is equal
to that of cornea (7.8 mm). This surface separates two media of refractive indices 1 and 1.34.
Calculate the distance from the refracting surface at which a parallel beam of light will come to focus
(Main 10 th Jan 2nd Shift 2019)
4.0 cm
1 cm
3.1 cm
2 cm
c
Consider the relationship between the object and image distances, the refractive indices of the two
media, and the radius of curvature to determine the distance at which the parallel beam will focus.
Using refraction formula,

𝜇2 𝜇1 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
1.34 𝜇 1.34−1 3.4
or 𝑓
− ∞1 = 7.8
= 78
1.34 × 78
𝑓= = 30.7 mm ≈ 3.1 cm
3.4
Refraction of Light at Spherical Surfaces, Focal Length of a Single Spherical Surface
An object is at a distance of 20 m from a convex lens of focal length 0.3 m. The lens forms an image
of the object. If the object moves away from the lens at a speed of 5 m/s, the speed and direction of
the image will be
2.26 × 10−3 m/s away from the lens
3.22 × 10−3 m/s towards the lens
1.16 × 10−3 m/s towards the lens
0.92 × 10−3 m/s away from the lens
c
Use the lens equation to relate object distance, image distance, and focal length. Differentiate the
lens equation with respect to time to obtain a relation between the speeds of the object and image.
Consider the sign of the speed of the image to determine its direction.
From the lens equation,
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1 197 60
⇒ = + = ⇒𝑣= m
𝑣 0.3 −20 60 197
Differentiating eqn. (i),
1 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑𝑢 197 2 𝑑𝑣 1
0=− 2 + ⇒( ) = (5)
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑢2 𝑑𝑡 60 𝑑𝑡 202
𝑑𝑣
⇒ = 1.16 × 10−3 m/s
𝑑𝑡
Ray Optics, Lens Equation and Thin Lens Formula
What is the position and nature of image formed by lens combination shown in figure? (𝑓1 , 𝑓2 are
focal lengths.)

70 cm from point 𝐵 at right; real
20
cm from point 𝐵 at right, real
3
40 cm from point 𝐵 at right, real
70 cm from point 𝐵 at left, virtual
a
Consider the image formed by the first lens as the object for the second lens. Use lens equations to
calculate the position and nature of the final image formed by the lens combination.
For the first lens,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣1 𝑢1 𝑓1
1 1 1 20
⇒ + = ⇒ 𝑣1 = = 6.67 cm
𝑣1 20 5 3
Now, for the second lens,
14
𝑢2 = 6.67 − 2 = cm
3
1 1 1 1 1 3
− = ⇒ = +
𝑣2 𝑢2 𝑓2 𝑣2 −5 14
𝑣2 = 70 cm right of second lens.

Thin Lenses, Power of lens combination
Formation of real image using a biconvex lens is shown here.
If the whole set up is immersed in water without disturbing the object and the screen positions,
what will one observe on the screen?
Image disappears
Erect real image
Magnified image
No change
a
Consider the effect of water on the focal length of the lens and the resulting change in image
distance.
1 𝜇2 1 1
The focal length of the lens is given as = ( − 1) ( − )
If the setup is immersed in water, the focal length of the lens increases. Hence the image shifts
further away from the lens while the position of screen has been kept unchanged. So, the image will
not be observed on the screen.
Ray Optics, Effect of Medium on Focal Length of Lens
A plano-convex lens (focal length 𝑓2 , refractive index 𝜇2 , radius of curvature 𝑅 ) fits exactly into a
plano-concave lens (focal length 𝑓1 , refractive index 𝜇1 , radius of curvature 𝑅 ). Their plane surfaces
are parallel to each other. Then, the focal length of the combination will be
𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑅
𝜇2 − 𝜇1
𝑓1 − 𝑓2
2𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓1 + 𝑓2
b
Consider the individual focal lengths of the convex and concave lenses to deduce their combined
focal length by accounting for their similar or opposing effects on light rays. Utilize the lens maker's
formula to establish the relationship between focal length and curvature radius and refractive index.
The focal length of the two lens is given by
1 1 1 𝜇2 − 1
= (𝜇2 − 1) ( − ) =
𝑓2 𝑅2 ∞ 𝑅2
1 1 1 𝜇1 − 1
= (𝜇1 − 1) ( − ) = −
𝑓1 ∞ 𝑅1 𝑅1
So, the focal length of the lens combination is
𝑅2 −𝑅1
𝑓2 𝑓1 (𝜇 − 1) (𝜇1 − 1) 𝑅
2
= =
𝑓2 + 𝑓1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
𝜇2 − 1 − 𝜇1 − 1
Optical Instruments , Lens Combination
An upright object is placed at a distance of 40 cm in front of a convergent lens of focal length 20 cm.
A convergent mirror of focal length 10 cm is placed at a distance of 60 cm on the other side of the
lens. The position and size of the final image will be
40 cm from the convergent mirror, same size as the object
20 cm from the convergent mirror, twice the size of the object
20 cm from the convergent mirror, same size as the object
40 cm from the convergent lens, twice the size of the object.
Apply thin lens equation to find the image formed by the first lens.
Use mirror equation to find the image formed by the mirror.
Apply thin lens equation again to find the final image formed by the second lens.
Calculate the magnification at each step to find the overall magnification.
For first refraction
𝑢 = −40 cm, 𝑓 = 20 cm, 𝑣 = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− = or = − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 20 40 40
𝑣
𝑣 = 40 cm; 𝑚1 = = −1
𝑢
Now for first reflection
𝑢 = −(60 − 40) = −20 cm, 𝑓 = −10 cm, 𝑣 = ?

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = or = + =−
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 −10 20 20
𝑣
𝑣 = −20 cm; 𝑚2 = − = −1
𝑢
For final refraction, 𝑢 = −40 cm,
𝑓 = 20 cm, 𝑣 = ?
𝑣
𝑣 = 40 cm; 𝑚3 = − = −1
𝑢
Net magnification = 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 × 𝑚3 = −1
Hence final image is formed at 40 cm from the convergent lens with magnification 1 .
∗
None of the given options is correct.
Ray Optics and Imaging in Lenses and Mirrors,Image Formation in Combined Lens-Mirror Systems
A convex lens (of focal length 20 cm ) and a concave mirror, having their principal axes along the
same lines, are kept 80 cm apart from each other. The concave mirror is to the right of the convex
lens. When an object is kept at a distance of 30 cm to the left of the convex lens, its image remains
at the same position even if the concave mirror is removed. The maximum distance of the object for
which this concave mirror, by itself would produce a virtual image would be
(Main 8th April 2nd Shift 2019)
10 cm
25 cm
20 cm
30 cm
a
Consider the position of the image formed by the convex lens. The image remains the same after
removing the concave mirror, implying that the final image is formed by the mirror at the same
distance as the image formed by the lens. Use this to determine the maximum distance of the object
for a virtual image formed by the mirror alone.
Let the image be formed by the convex lens at 𝑣.
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ + =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 30 20
1 1 1 3−2 1
= − = = ⇒ 𝑣 = 60 cm
𝑣 20 30 60 60
Image is formed at 60 cm on the other side of convex lens without mirror. If mirror is placed at
80 cm, image is still formed at the same place by mirror. That means, image is formed by lens at 2𝑓
distance from mirror so the final image is formed at the same place by it. So, if 𝑓 be focal length of
mirror 2𝑓 = 80 − 60 = 20 cm ⇒ 𝑓 = 10 cm
So, for virtual image, maximum distance of object will be 10 cm from the mirror.
Ray Optics & Optical Instruments, Image Formation by a Convex Lens and a Concave Mirror
A convex lens of focal length 20 cm produces images of the same magnification 2 when an object is
kept at two distances 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 (𝑥1 > 𝑥2 ) from the lens. The ratio of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 is
53
31
21
43
b
- Use the lens formula to relate image distances to object distances and focal length.
- Since the magnification is the same for both cases, set the two lens formulas equal to each other
and solve for the ratio of object distances.
- Remember that the magnification for a convex lens is given by h'/h = -v/u.
Since both images have same magnification, one is real and the other one is virtual image.
𝑣
for 𝑚 = −2 = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑣 = −2𝑥1 [∵ 𝑢 = 𝑥1 ]
Using lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ = −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑓 −2𝑥1 𝑥1
−3𝑓
⇒ 𝑥1 = = −30 cm
2
for 𝑚 = 2 ⇒ 𝑣 = 2𝑥2
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ = −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑓 2𝑥2 𝑥2
−𝑓
⇒ 𝑥2 = = −10 cm
2
𝑥1 30 3
∴ = =
𝑥2 10 1
Magnification by Convex Lens, Lens Formula to Calculate Image Distance
A thin convex lens 𝐿 (refractive index = 1.5 ) is placed on a plane mirror 𝑀. When a pin is placed at
𝐴, such that 𝑂𝐴 = 18 cm, its real inverted image is formed at 𝐴 itself, as shown in figure. When a
liquid of refractive index 𝜇𝑙 is put between the lens and
the mirror, the pin has to be moved to 𝐴′ , such that 𝑂𝐴′ = 27 cm, to get its inverted real image at 𝐴′
itself. The value of 𝜇𝑙 will be
√3
√2
4
3
3
2
c
Consider the effect of the liquid on the optical path length between the pin and its image. Apply the
lens maker's formula to both cases without and with liquid to determine the relationship between
the focal length and refractive index.
Without liquid, 𝑓0 = 18 cm
∴ Radius of curvature from Lens Maker's formula,
1 1 1
= ( 𝑎 𝜇𝑔 − 1) [ − ] [𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅]
𝑓0 𝑅1 𝑅2
⇒ 𝑅 = 18 cm
With liquid, 𝑓eq = 27 cm
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = − =
𝑓eq 𝑓0 𝑓𝑙 𝑓𝑙 𝑓eq 𝑓0 −54
1 1 1
Now 𝑓 = [𝜇 − 1] [−𝑅 − ∞]
𝑙
1 1 4
= [𝜇 − 1] [ ]⇒𝜇=
−54 −18 3
Ray Optics, Thick lens
One plano-convex and one plano-concave lens of same radius of curvature ' 𝑅 ' but of different
materials are joined side by side as shown in the figure. If the refractive index of the material of 1 is
𝜇1 and that of 2 is 𝜇2 , then the focal length of the
combination is
2𝑅
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑅
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑅
2(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
𝑅
2 − (𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
b
Consider the focal lengths of each lens and the effects of their orientation when joined side by side.
Use the lens maker's formula to relate focal length to the refractive indices and radii of curvature.
From Lens Maker's formula,
1 1 1 (𝜇1 − 1)
= (𝜇1 − 1) ( − )=
𝑓1 ∞ −𝑅 𝑅
1 1 1 (𝜇2−1)
and 𝑓 = (𝜇2 − 1) (−𝑅 − ∞) =
2 −𝑅
1 1 1 (𝜇1 − 1) −(𝜇2 − 1)
∴ = + = +
𝑓eq 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑅 𝑅
1 𝜇1 − 1 − 𝜇2 + 1 (𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
⇒ = =
𝑓eq 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
So, 𝑓eq = (𝜇
1−𝜇2)
Two-Lens System , Plano Convex and Plano-Concave Lens Combination
The graph shows how the magnification 𝑚 produced by a thin lens varies with image distance 𝑣.
What is the focal length of the lens used?
(Main 10 April 2nd Shift 2019)

𝑎
𝑐
𝑏
𝑐
𝑏2 𝑐
𝑎
𝑏2
𝑎𝑐
b
Focal length is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the graph between magnification and the
image distance.
𝑓−𝑣
Magnification produced by a lens 𝑚 =
𝑓
𝑣
⇒ 𝑚 =1−
𝑓
On comparing (i) with equation of straight line,
i.e., 𝑦 = (tan 𝜃)𝑥 + 𝑐
1 𝑏
⇒ tan 𝜃 = slope = − 𝑓 or 𝑓 = 𝑐
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Lens Formula
A planoconvex lens becomes an optical system of 28 cm focal length when its plane surface is
silvered and illuminated from left to right as shown in figure (𝐴). If the same lens is instead silvered
on the curved surface and illuminated from other side as shown in figure (𝐵), it acts like an optical
system of focal length 10 cm. The refractive index of the material of lens is
(A)
(Main Online 2018)
1.75
1.51
1.55
1.50
c
Use the thin lens equation and consider the direction of light propagation for both configurations to
determine the effective focal length in each case. Then, use the relation between focal length and
refractive index to find the refractive index of the lens material.
For figure (𝐴)
1 𝜇−1 𝐸
=( );𝑓 = −28 cm (1 + = E
𝑓1 𝑅 2
𝑃 = 2𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 2𝑃1 + 0
1 𝜇−1
or − 28 = −2 ( 𝑅
)
For figure (B),
1 𝜇−1 𝑅
=( ) 𝑓2 = − . 𝑓 = −10 cm
𝑓1 𝑅 2
1 𝜇−1 2
𝑃 = 2𝑃1 + 𝑃2 ⇒ − = −2 ( )−
10 𝑅 𝑅
1 1 2
= +
10 28 𝑅
2 1 1 18 280
⇒ = − = ;𝑅 = cm
𝑅 10 28 280 9
Substituting 𝑅 in eqn. (i)
1 𝜇−1 5
= 2( ) 9; 𝜇 − 1 =
28 280 9
5 14
𝜇 =1+ = = 1.55
9 9
Lens Formula, Lens with Silvered Surfaces
A convergent doublet of separated lenses, corrected

for spherical aberration, has resultant focal length of 10 cm. The separation between the two lenses
is 2 cm. The focal lengths of the component lenses are
(Main Online 2018)
18 cm, 20 cm
12 cm, 14 cm
16 cm, 18 cm
10 cm, 12 cm
a
- The focal length of a convergent doublet is given by the sum of the reciprocals of the focal lengths
of the component lenses, minus the distance between the lenses.
- The focal length of a lens is inversely proportional to its power.
Geometrical Optics, Lenses
A diverging lens with magnitude of focal length 25 cm is placed at a distance of 15 cm from a

converging lens of magnitude of focal length 20 cm. A beam of parallel light falls on the diverging
lens. The final image formed is
(Main 2017)
real and at a distance of 40 cm from convergent lens.
virtual and at a distance of 40 cm from convergent lens.
real and at a distance of 40 cm from the divergent lens.
real and at a distance of 6 cm from the convergent lens.
a
Idea Consider the intermediate image formed by the diverging lens and its distance from the
converging lens and then apply the lens formula to find the position of the final image.
Given focal length of concave lens, 𝑓 = −25 cm
Focal length of convex lens, 𝑓 ′ = 20 cm
The formation of image is shown here.
The image for diverging lens will form at 𝐹. i.e. at focal length of concave lens.
Now, this image will serve as the object for convex lens. It is at twice the focal length of the convex
lens (i.e. 2𝑓 ). Hence, the final image will also form at 2𝑓, which is at a distance of 40 cm from the
convergent lens. Also, the image formed is real.
Ray Optics, Image Formation by Lens
A convex lens, of focal length 30 cm, a concave lens of focal length 120 cm, and a plane mirror are
arranged as shown. For an object kept at a distance of 60 cm from the convex lens, the final image
formed by the combination is a real
image at a distance of
(Main Online 2016)
60 cm from the convex lens
60 cm from the concave lens
70 cm from the convex lens
70 cm from the concave lens
a
Consider the focal lengths of the lenses and the image formation properties of the plane mirror.
Trace the path of rays through the system to determine the final image location. Use the lens
equation and the mirror equation to establish the relationship between object and image distances.
Analyze the nature of the image as real or virtual based on its position relative to the lenses.
For convex lens, 𝑢1 = −60 cm 𝑓1 = 30 cm
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = − =
𝑣1 𝑓1 𝑢1 30 60 60
or 𝑣1 = 60 cm
For concave lens
𝑢2 = 60 − 20 = 40 cm, 𝑓2 = −120 cm
1 1 1 1 1 2
= + =− + =
𝑣2 𝑓2 𝑢2 120 40 120
or 𝑣2 = 60 cm
For plane mirror, virtual object 10 cm behind the mirror.
Hence, real image 10 cm in front of the mirror.
Now, again for concave lens, 𝑢2 = 40 cm i.e., light rays from the object retrace their path after
striking the plane mirror, Hence the final image is formed at the object itself.
Lens Equation, Image Formation by Mirror
A small object is placed 50 cm to the left of a thin convex lens of focal length 30 cm. A convex
spherical mirror of radius of curvature 100 cm is placed to the right of the lens at a distance of
50 cm. The mirror is tilted such that the axis of the mirror is at an angle 𝜃 = 30∘ to the axis of the
lens, as shown in the figure.
(50 + 50√3, −50)
If the origin of the coordinate system is taken to be at the centre of lens, the coordinates (in cm ) of
the point (𝑥, 𝑦) at which the image is formed are
(Advanced 2016)
(25,25√3)
(0,0)
(125/3,25/√3)
(50 − 25√3, 25)
a
Consider the image formed by the lens as a virtual object for the mirror. Determine the image
location formed by the mirror if it were not tilted. Then account for the rotation of the image due to
the tilted mirror.
For convex lens, 𝑢 = −50 cm, 𝑓 = 30 cm
1 1 1 1 1 5−3 2
∴ = + = − = =
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 30 50 150 150
or 𝑣 = 75 cm
Image formed by convex lens acts as a virtual object for mirror.
If we consider that the mirror is not tilted, then for mirror,
𝑢1 = 75 − 50 = 25 cm,
𝑅 100 cm
𝑓1 = = = 50 cm
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 −1
∴ = − = − =
𝑣1 𝑓1 𝑢1 50 25 50
or 𝑣1 = −50 cm
So, the co-ordinates of final image formed (𝐼) if the mirror is not tilted are (0 cm, 0 cm)
Now, it is known that when a mirror is rotated through angle 𝜃(= 30∘ clockwise), the image rotates
by 2𝜃 (i.e., 60∘ clockwise).
(0,0)
(50 cm, 0)
∴ 𝑥 = 50 − 50cos 60∘ = 50 − 25 = 25 cm
50√3
𝑦 = 50sin 60∘ = = 25√3 cm
2
i.e. (𝑥, 𝑦) = (25 cm, 25√3 cm)

Ray Optics, Reflection and Refraction by Spherical Mirrors
A thin convex lens of focal length 𝑓 is put on a plane mirror as shown in the figure. When an object is
𝑎
kept at a distance 𝑎 from the lens - mirror combination, its image is formed at a distance in front of
3
the
combination. The value of 𝑎 is

(Main Online 2015)
𝑓
2𝑓
3𝑓
3
𝑓
2
b
Leverage the principles of mirror optics, specifically the mirror equation, to establish a relationship
between the object and image distances for a mirror of focal length f. The combined system of lens
and mirror effectively behaves as a single mirror with its own focal length, which can be derived from
the combination of the individual focal lengths.
This combination will behave like a mirror of power,
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 2𝑃𝐿 + 𝑃𝑀
1
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 2 + 0
𝑓
𝑓
𝑓𝑒𝑞 =
2
𝑓
So the behaviour of the system, will be like a mirror of focal length − 2 .
1 1 1
Using mirror equation 𝑣 + 𝑢 = 𝑓𝑒𝑞
Here, 𝑢 = −𝑎, 𝑣 = −𝑎/3, 𝑓𝑒𝑞 = −𝑓/2
1 1 −1 4 2
⇒ + = ⇒ = or 𝑎 = 2𝑓
−𝑎/3 −𝑎 𝑓/2 𝑎 𝑓
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Lens-Mirror Combinations
3
A thin convex lens made from crown glass (𝜇 = 2) has focal length 𝑓. When it is measured in two
4 5
different liquids having refractive indices and , it has the focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 respectively. The
3 3
correct relation between the focal lengths is
(Main 2014)
𝑓1 and 𝑓2 both become negative
𝑓1 = 𝑓2 < 𝑓
𝑓1 > 𝑓 and 𝑓2 becomes negative
𝑓2 > 𝑓 and 𝑓1 becomes negative
c
Apply the lens maker's formula which relates the focal length of a lens to the refractive indices of the
lens and the surrounding medium. Substitute the given values and solve for the relationship between
the focal lengths in the two liquids.
3
Given 𝜇 = 2 (crown glass) and
focal length = 𝑓
4
Focal length = 𝑓1 when lens is placed in liquid of refractive index 𝜇1 = 3
5
Focal length = 𝑓2 when lens is placed in liquid of refractive index 𝜇2 = 3
Using Lens maker's formula
1 𝜇 1 1
= ( − 1) ( − )
𝑓1 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 3/2 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ =( − 1) ( − ) = ( − )
𝑓1 4/3 𝑅1 𝑅2 8 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝜇 1 1
Similarly, =( − 1) ( − )
𝑓2 𝜇2 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 3/2 1 1 −1 1 1
⇒ =( − 1) ( − ) = ( − )
𝑓2 5/3 𝑅1 𝑅2 10 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 3 1 1 1 1 1
and = ( − 1) ( − )= ( − )
𝑓 2 𝑅1 𝑅2 2 𝑅1 𝑅2
Hence, 𝑓1 = 4𝑓 and 𝑓2 = −5𝑓

Lens Maker's Formula, Relation between Focal Lengths of Convex Lens in Different Liquids
Diameter of a plano-convex lens is 6 cm and thickness at the centre is 3 mm. If speed of light in
material of lens is 2 × 108 m/s, the focal length of the lens is
(Main 2013)
10 cm
15 cm
20 cm
30 cm
d
Use the lens maker's formula and consider the lens as a plano-convex lens. Calculate the radius of
curvature of the curved surface using the formula related to the thickness and radius of the lens.
Substitute these values in the lens maker's formula to find the focal length.
According to lens maker's formula
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) [ − ]
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
As the lens is plano-convex
∴ 𝑅1 = 𝑅, 𝑅2 = ∞
As speed of light in the medium of lens is 2 × 108 m/s
1 (𝜇−1) 𝑅
∴𝑓= 𝑅
or 𝑓 = (𝜇−1)
If 𝑟 is the radius and 𝑡 is the thickness of lens (at the centre), the radius of curvature 𝑅 of its curved
surface in accordance with figure will be given by
𝑅2 = 𝑟 2 + (𝑅 − 𝑡)2
𝑅2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑅𝑡
2𝑅𝑡 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑡 2
𝑟2
𝑅= (∵ 𝑟 ≫ 𝑡)
2𝑡
Here, 𝑟 = 3 cm,
𝑡 = 3 mm = 0.3 cm
(3)2
∴𝑅= = 15 cm
2 × 0.3
On substituting the values of 𝜇 and 𝑅 in eq. (i), we get
15 cm
𝑓= = 30 cm
(1.5 − 1)
Lens Maker's Formula, Focal Length of a Plano-Convex Lens with Different Light Speed
The image of an object, formed by a plano-convex lens at a distance of 8 m behind the lens, is real
2
and is one-third the size of the object. The wavelength of light inside the lens is 3 times the
wavelength in free space. The radius of the curved surface of the lens is
(Advanced 2013)
1m
2m
3m
6m
c
Consider the lens formula and the lens maker's formula to relate the focal length, object distance,
image distance, and radius of curvature. Determine the refractive index of the lens material using the
given information about the wavelength of light inside and outside the lens.
Image is formed behind the lens. ∴ 𝑣 = +8 m
As the image is real
𝐼 𝑣 1
∴ 𝑚= = =−
𝑂 𝑢 3
𝑢 = −3𝑣 = −3(8 m) = −24 m

According to lens formula
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ⇒ − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 8 −24 𝑓
1 1 1 4 1
+ 24 = 𝑓 or 24 = 𝑓 or 𝑓 = 6 m
8
Refractive index of the material of the lens is
Wavelength of the light in free space

𝜇=
Wavelength of light inside the lens
𝜆0 3
= =
2 2
𝜆
3 0
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
For plano-convex lens, 𝑅1 = 𝑅 and 𝑅2 = ∞
1 (𝜇−1)
∴𝑓= 𝑅
or 𝑅 = 𝑓(𝜇 − 1)
Substituting the value of 𝜇 and 𝑓 from eqs. (i) and (ii) in (iii), we get
𝑅 = (6 m)(1.5 − 1) = 3 m
Focal Length and Radius of Curvature of Lens, Refraction and Lens Maker's Formula
An object 2.4 m in front of a lens forms a sharp image on a film 12 cm behind the lens. A glass plate
1 cm thick, of refractive index 1.50 is interposed between lens and film with its plane faces parallel to
film. At what distance (from lens) should object be shifted to be in sharp focus on film?
(AIEEE 2012)
2.4 m
3.2 m
5.6 m
7.2 m
c
Consider the effect of the glass plate on the path of light rays passing through it. Apply the lens
formula to relate the object and image distances before and after the introduction of the glass plate.
According to thin lens formula
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Here, 𝑢 = −2.4 m = −240 cm, 𝑣 = 12 cm
1 1 1 1 1
∴ = − = +
𝑓 12 (−240) 12 240
1 21 240
= or 𝑓 = cm
𝑓 240 21
When a glass plate is interposed between lens and film, so shift produced by it will be
1 1
Shift = 𝑡 (1 − ) = 1 (1 − )
𝜇 1.5
2 1
= 1 (1 − ) = cm
3 3
To get image at film, lens should form image at distance
1 35
𝑣 ′ = 12 − = cm
3 3
Again using lens formula
21 3 1
∴ = − ′
240 35 𝑢
1 3 21 1 3 21
or = − = [ − ]
𝑢′ 35 240 5 7 48
1 1 144−147 1 3
= [ ] or ′ =−
𝑢′ 5 336 𝑢 1680
𝑢′ = −560 cm = −5.6 m ⇒ |𝑢′ | = 5.6 m

Image Formation by Lenses, Effect of Glass Plate on Image Formation
A bi-convex lens is formed with two thin plano-convex lenses as shown in the figure. Refractive index
𝑛 of the first lens is 1.5 and that of the second lens is 1.2. Both the curved surfaces are of the same
radius of curvature = 14 cm. For this bi-convex lens, for an object distance of 40 cm, the image
distance will be
(IIT-JEE 2012)
−280.0 cm
40.0 cm
21.5 cm
13.3 cm
b
Consider the lens maker's formula and thin lens formula to determine the focal length of the bi-
convex lens and the image distance. Notice the relationship between the focal lengths and the
refractive indices of the lenses.
1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
For the first lens, 𝑛 = 1.5, 𝑅1 = +14 cm, 𝑅2 = ∞
1 1 1 0.5
∴ = (1.5 − 1) ( − ) =
𝑓1 14 ∞ 14
For the second lens,
𝑛 = 1.2, 𝑅1 = ∞, 𝑅2 = −14 cm
1 1 1 0.2
∴ = (1.2 − 1) ( − )=
𝑓2 ∞ −14 14
The focal length of the bi-convex lens is
1 1 1 0.5 0.2 0.7 1

= + = + = =
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 14 14 14 20
1 1 1
According to thin lens formula, 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑓
Here, 𝑢 = −40 cm
1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ − = or = −
𝑣 −40 20 𝑣 20 40
or 𝜈 = 40 cm
Geometrical Optics, Lens Maker's Formula
A biconvex lens of focal length 15 cm is in front of a plane mirror. The distance between the lens and
the mirror is 10 cm. A small object is kept at a distance of 30 cm from the lens. The final image is
(IIT-JEE 2010)
virtual and at a distance of 16 cm from the mirror
real and at a distance of 16 cm from the mirror
virtual and at a distance of 20 cm from the mirror
rcal and at a distance of 20 cm from the mirror.
b
The object forms an image after refraction through the lens. This image acts as a virtual object for
the mirror. Use mirror and lens equations to relate object and image distances.
Ray Optics, Two Mirror System
A student measures the focal length of a convex lens by putting an object pin at a distance 𝑢 from
the lens and measuring the distance 𝑣 of the image pin. The graph between 𝑢 and 𝑣 plotted by the
student should look like
(AIEEE 2008)
d
Consider a convex lens in the new cartesian system where object distances are negative. The image
formed by a convex lens for an object at infinity is at the focal point. Parallel rays emerging from the
object at infinity intersect at the focal point. This focal point lies on the positive side of the optical
axis.
1 1 1
According to the new cartesian system used in schools, 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑓 for a
convex lens.
𝑢 has to be negative.
If 𝑣 = ∞, 𝑢 = 𝑓 and if 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓
A parallel beam (𝑢 = ∞) is focussed at 𝑓 and if the object is at 𝑓, the rays are parallel. The point
which meets the curve at 𝑢 = 𝑣 gives 2𝑓. Therefore 𝑣 is +ve, 𝑢 is negative, both are symmetrical and
this curve
satisfies all the conditions for a convex lens.

Geometrical Optics, Interpretation of Lens Formula Graph
Two lenses of power −15D and +5D are in contact with each other. The focal length of the
combination is
(AIEEE 2007)
+10 cm
−20 cm
−10 cm
+20 cm
c
Consider the thin lens formula and the definition of power. Then, use the following equation for the
combination of lenses in contact
Power of combination = Power of lens 1 + Power of lens 2

Power of combination = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = −15D + 5D = −10D
Focal length of combination,
1 1
𝐹= = = −0.1 m = −10 cm
𝑃 −10D
Ray Optics, Lens Power and Focal Length
The graph shows relationship between object distance and image distance for an equiconvex lens.
Then, focal length of the lens is
0.50 ± 0.05 cm
0.50 ± 0.10 cm
5.00 ± 0.05 cm
5.00 ± 0.10 cm
c
Relate the slope of the graph to the focal length of the lens using the lens formula. Consider the
errors in the measurements and apply the concept of maximum error to determine the focal length.
Using lens formula

1 1 1 1 1 1
= − or = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 10 −10
1 2 1
or 𝑓 = 10 = 5 or 𝑓 = +5 cm
Δ𝑢 = 0.1, from graph, Δ𝑣 = 0.1, from graph
1 1 1
∵ = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Δ𝑓 Δ𝑣 Δ𝑢
For maximum error in 𝑓, errors are added. ⇒ = +
𝑓2 𝑣2 𝑢2
Δ𝑓 0.1 0.1
or (5)2 = (10)2 + (10)2
25×2×0.1
or Δ𝑓 = or Δ𝑓 = 0.05
100
∴ Focal length of lens = 𝑓 ± Δ𝑓
= 5.00 ± 0.05 cm.

Option (c) is correct.
N. B. As the graph between 𝑣 and 𝑢 indicates, it is the curve of a convex lens where 𝑢 = −10
cm, 𝜈 = 10 cm, 𝑓 = 5 cm. Object is placed at 2𝑓 and real, inverted and equal size image is formed at
2𝑓, on the other side of the lens.
Ray Optics, Lens Formula and Magnification
Focal length of the planoconvex lens is 15 cm. A small object is placed at 𝐴 as shown in the figure.
The plane surface is silvered. The image will form at
60 cm to the left of lens

60 cm to the right of lens
b
Consider the image formed due to the reflection from a silvered plane surface and the image formed
due to refraction through the curved surface. The final image will be the combination of both
images.
Lenses and Image Formation, Image Location in Lens-Mirror Combination
A thin glass (refractive index 1.5) lens has optical power of −5D in air. Its optical power in a liquid
medium with refractive index 1.6 will be
(AIEEE 2005)
25D
−25D
1D
-1D
Apply the relation between optical power, refractive indices of the medium and lens, and focal
length. Consider the change in refractive index when the lens is immersed in the liquid medium.
1 1 1
= ( 𝑎 𝜇𝑔 − 1) ( − )
𝑓𝑎 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= ( ′ 𝜇𝑔 − 1) ( − )
𝑓𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑓𝑎 (𝜇𝑔 − 1) (𝜇𝑔 /𝜇𝑙 ) − 1

∴ = 𝑎 =
𝑓𝑙 ( 𝜇𝑔 − 1) (𝜇𝑔 − 1)
𝜇𝑔 − 𝜇𝑙 1.5 − 1.6
= =
𝜇𝑙 (𝜇𝑔 − 1) 1.6(1.5 − 1)
𝑃𝑙 0.1 −1
or =− =
𝑃𝑎 1.6×0.5 8
𝑃𝑎 (−5) 5
⇒ 𝑃𝑙 = − =− =
8 8 8
5
or optical power in liquid medium = dioptre.
8
Note This answer is not given in the four options provided in the question.
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Optical Power
A convex lens is in contact with concave lens. The magnitude of the ratio of their focal lengths is 2/3.
Their equivalent focal length is 30 cm. What are their individual focal lengths?
(IIT-JEE 2005)
−15,10
−10,15
75,50
−75,50.
a
Use the formula for the equivalent focal length of a combination of lenses in contact to find the focal
length of the convex lens. Then find the focal length of the concave lens by dividing the equivalent
focal length by the ratio of the focal lengths given.
Let focal length of convex lens = 𝑓1 = 𝑓 (suppose)
−3𝑓
𝑓2 = focal length of concave lens = 2
.
Equivalent focal length = 30 cm
1 1 2 1 1 1
∴ = − (∵ = + )
30 𝑓 3𝑓 𝐹 𝐹1 𝐹2
1 1
or 30 = 3𝑓
or 𝑓 = 10 cm = Focal length of convex lens.
∴ Focal length of concave lens
−3
= × 10 = −15 cm
2
∴ Focal lengths are −15 cm (concave lens) and 10 cm (convex lens).

Ray Optics, Focal Length and Lens Combination
A plano convex lens of refractive index 1.5 and radius of curvature 30 cm is silvered at the curved
surface. Now this lens has been used to form the image of an object. At what distance from this lens
an object be placed in order to have a real image of the size of the object?
(AIEEE 2004)
20 cm
30 cm
60 cm
80 cm
a
Consider the lens as a concave mirror due to silvering. Utilize the mirror equation for concave mirrors
to determine the object distance required for an image of equal size to the object.
A plano-convex lens behaves like a concave mirror when its curved surface is silvered.
𝑅 30
∴ 𝐹 of concave mirror so formed = 2𝜇 = 2×1.5 = 10 cm
To form an image of object size, the object should be placed at (2𝐹) of the concave mirror. ∴
Distance of object from lens = 2 × 𝐹 = 2 × 10 = 20 cm
Ray Optics, Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors
The size of the image of an object, which is at infinity, as formed by a convex lens of focal length
30 cm is 2 cm. If a concave lens of focal length 20 cm is placed between the convex lens and the
image at a distance of 26 cm from the convex lens, calculate the new size of the image.
(IIT-JEE 2003)
1.25 cm
2.5 cm
1.05 cm
2 cm
b
Apply the lens formula to both the convex lens and the concave lens, considering the image formed
by the convex lens as the object for the concave lens. Determine the magnification of each lens and
use them to find the overall magnification of the system.
Convex lens forms the image at 𝐼1 . 𝐼1 is at the second focus of convex lens. Size of 𝐼1 = 2 cm.
𝐼1 acts as virtual object for concave lens. Concave lens forms the image of 𝐼1 at 𝐼2 .
1 1 1
Lens formula 𝑣
−𝑢 = 𝑓
For concave lens,

1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
− 4 = − 20 or 𝑦 = − 20 + 4 = 20 = 5
𝑣
or 𝑣 = 5 cm = Distance of 𝐼2 from concave lens.

𝑣 size of image 5
∴ Magnification = 𝑢 = size of object
=4
size of image
or 2
= 1.25
or size of image due to concave lens = 2.5 cm.

Geometrical Optics, Lenses, Image Formation by a Concave-Convex Lens System
Which one of the following spherical lenses does not exhibit dispersion? The radii of curvature of the
surfaces of the lenses are as given in the diagrams.
(IIT-JEE 2002)
c
Consider the sign convention for radii of curvature. Apply lens maker's formula and Snell's law to
analyze the dispersion of the lenses.
In figure (c), both the curved surfaces have same 𝑅 on the same side. Hence no dispersion is
exhibited.
1 1 1
For a lens, = (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1
For no dispersion 𝑑 ( ) = 0
𝑓
1 1
∴ 0 = (𝑑𝜇) ( − ) or 𝑅1 = 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
Ray Optics, Lenses
A hollow double concave lens is made of very thin transparent material. It can be filled with air or
either of two liquids 𝐿1 or 𝐿2 having refractive indices 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 respectively (𝜇2 > 𝜇1 > 1). The
lens will diverge a parallel beam of light if it is filled with
(IIT-JEE 2000)
air and placed in air
air and immersed in 𝐿1
𝐿1 and immersed in 𝐿2
𝐿2 and immersed in 𝐿1 .
d
Consider the lens maker's formula and analyze the changes in the refractive indices of the lens and
medium. Determine the conditions for the lens to behave as a divergent lens, noting that a concave
lens naturally diverges light.
1 𝜇𝐿 1 1
=( − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝜇𝑚 𝑅1 𝑅2
where 𝜇𝐿 = refractive index of material of lens
𝜇𝑚 = refractive index of medium in which lens is dipped.
If 𝜇𝐿 > 𝜇𝑚 , the lens maintains its nature.
A concave lens behaves as a divergent lens and a convex lens behaves as a convergent lens.
If 𝜇𝐿 < 𝜇𝑚 , the nature of lens is reversed.
Since 𝜇2 > 𝜇1 > 1, the concave lens will maintain its divergent nature if it is filled with 𝐿2 and
immersed in 𝐿1 .
Geometrical Optics, Focal Length of a Lens
A concave lens of glass, refractive index 1.5, has both surfaces of same radius of curvature 𝑅. On
immersion in a medium of refractive index 1.75 , it will behave as a
(IIT-JEE 1999)
convergent lens of focal length 3.5𝑅
convergent lens of focal length 3.0𝑅
divergent lens of focal length 3.5𝑅
divergent lens of focal length 3.0R.
a
Refractive Index Change Consider the change in refractive index when the lens is submerged in the
medium.
Focal Length Formula Use the lens maker's formula to determine the focal length of the lens, taking
into account the change in refractive index.
Sign of Focal Length A positive focal length indicates a convergent lens, while a negative focal length
indicates a divergent lens.
Immersion Effect The immersion of the lens in a denser medium may reverse its behavior (e.g., a
concave lens acting as a convergent lens).
When glass lens is immersed in a medium, its refractive index is 𝑚 𝜇𝑔 .
𝑎
𝑚𝜇
𝜇𝑔 1.50 6
𝑔 = 𝑎𝜇 = =
𝑚 1.75 7
∴ By lens maker's formula
1 1 1
= (𝑚𝜇𝑔 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 6 1 1
or 𝑓 = (7 − 1) (− 𝑅 − 𝑅)
1 1 2
or = (− ) (− )
𝑓 7 𝑅
7𝑅
or 𝑓 = 2
= 3.5𝑅.
Positive focal length shows that it behaves like a convergent lens of focal length 3.5𝑅.
N. B. When a glass lens is immersed in a denser medium, the nature of the lens is reversed. A convex
lens behaves as a divergent lens and a concave lens behaves as a convergent lens. Glass lens
( 𝑎 𝜇𝑔 = 1.5) behaves like this pattern when dipped in carbon di sulfide ( 𝑎 𝜇𝑐 = 1.6).
Lens Maker's Formula, Lens Behavior in Different Medium
An eye specialist prescribes spectacles having combination of convex lens of focal length 40 cm in
contact with a concave lens of focal length 25 cm. The power of this lens combination, in dioptre, is
(IIT-JEE 1997)
+1.5
-1.5
+6.67
-6.67
b
Consider the power of both convex and concave lenses individually. Combine their powers
considering the sign convention for concave lenses to determine the net power of the combination.
For convex lens, power
100
𝑃1 = = 2.5D
40
For concave lens,

100
power 𝑃2 = − = −4.0D
25
∴ Power of combination = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
= 2.5 − 4.0 = −1.5D.

Optical Instruments, Lens Combination
Spherical aberration, in a thin lens, can be reduced by

(IIT-JEE 1994)
using a monochromatic light
using a doublet combination
using a circular annular mask over the lens
increasing the size of the lens.
c
Consider the different ray paths through the thin lens to determine the lens arrangement where
paraxial rays and marginal rays focus at the same point.
Spherical aberration is caused because the marginal rays and the paraxial rays incident on a lens are
brought to focus at different points. To reduce spherical aberration, the marginal rays are blocked by
using a circular annular mask over the lens.
Spherical Aberration, Methods to Reduce Spherical Aberration
A thin prism 𝑃1 with an angle 6∘ and made of glass of refractive index 1.54 is combined with another
prism 𝑃2 made from glass of refractive index 1.72 to produce dispersion without average deviation.
The angle of prism 𝑃2 is
7.8∘
4.5∘
6∘
1.3∘
b
Consider the angles of deviation for both prisms to be equal. Use the refractive indices of the glasses
and the relationship between the angles of incidence, refraction, and deviation to find the angle of
prism 2.
As, the angle of deviations of both are equal, so, 𝛿1 = 𝛿2 .
𝛿 = angle of prism (refractive index is 𝜇1 ).
Let 𝐴 be the angle of prism 𝑃1 . Let 𝐵 be the angle of prism 𝑃2 .
𝐴(1.54 − 1) = 𝐵(1.72 − 1); 6∘ (1.54 − 1)
= 𝐵(1.72 − 1)
6∘ (0.54)
= 𝐵 or 𝐵 = 4.5∘
0.72
Dispersion of Light, Combination of Prisms
The refracting angle of a prism is 𝐴 and refractive index of the material of the prism is cot (𝐴/2).
Then the angle of minimum deviation will be
180 − 2𝐴
90 − 𝐴
180 + 2𝐴
180 − 3𝐴
a
Apply Snell's law at the two interfaces of the prism to derive the relation between the angles of
incidence, refraction, and deviation. Use the minimum deviation condition, where the deviation is
minimum, to find the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of the prism.
𝐴
Given, Refractive index, 𝜇 = cot
2
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
sin ( 2
)
Using, 𝜇 = 𝐴
sin 2
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
𝐴 sin ( 2
)
or cot = 𝐴
2 sin 2
𝐴 𝐴+𝛿𝑚
or cos = sin ( )
2 2
𝜋 𝐴 𝛿𝑚+𝐴
or 2 − 2 =
2
or 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 2𝐴 or 𝛿𝑚 = 180 − 2𝐴
Prism, Angle of Minimum Deviation
A prism of refractive index 𝜇 and angle of prism 𝐴 is placed in the position of minimum angle of
deviation. If minimum angle of deviation is also 𝐴, then in terms of refractive index, value of 𝐴 is
𝜇
2cos −1 ( )
2
−1
𝜇
sin ( )
2
𝜇
cos −1 ( )
2
𝜇−1
sin−1 (√ )
2
a
Use the formula for the angle of minimum deviation of a prism to relate the refractive index, angle of
prism, and angle of minimum deviation. Substitute the given values and solve for the unknown
angle.
Refractive index = 𝜇
Angle of prism = 𝐴 = angle of minimum deviation
So, by the prism formula,
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
sin ( 2 )
𝜇=
𝐴
sin 2
where 𝛿𝑚 is angle of minimum deviation, 𝐴 is angle of prism.
𝐴+𝐴
sin ( ) sin 𝐴
∴𝜇= 2 =
𝐴 𝐴
sin 2 sin 2
2sin (𝐴/2)cos (𝐴/2)

𝜇=
sin (𝐴/2)
𝐴 𝜇 𝜇
∴ = cos −1 ( ) ⇒ 𝐴 = 2cos −1 ( )
2 2 2
Prism Formula, Minimum Angle of Deviation
The expected graphical representation of the variation of angle of deviation 𝛿 with angle of incidence
𝑖 in a prism is
d
Consider the condition for minimum deviation, where the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
emergence. Use the symmetry of the path of light through the prism to determine the shape of the
graph.
The graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation for a prism is
where, 𝛿𝑚 is the angle of minimum deviation
Refraction and Prism, Angle of Deviation and Angle of Incidence
The angle of deviation through a prism is minimum when

(A) incident ray and emergent ray are symmetric to the prism
(B) the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base
(C) angle of incidence is equal to that of the angle of emergence
(D) when angle of emergence is double the angle of incidence.
(Main 16 th March 1st Shift 2021)

Only statements (A) and (B) are true.
Statements (B) and (C) are true.
Statements (A), (B) and (C) are true.
Only statement (D) is true.
c
Consider the symmetry of the light path through the prism and the relationship between the angles
of incidence and emergence when the ray within the prism is parallel to its base.
Incident ray and emergent ray are symmetric to the prism. Deviation is minimum in prism when 𝑖 =
𝑒, 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 and ray inside prism is parallel to the base of the prism.
Hence statements (A), (B) and (C) are true.
Refraction of Light through a Prism, Minimum Deviation
Three rays of light, namely red (𝑅), green (𝐺) and blue (𝐵) are incident on the face 𝑃𝑄 of a right
angled prism 𝑃𝑄𝑅 as shown in the figure.
The refractive indices of the material of the prism for
red, green and blue wavelength are 1.27,1.42 and 1.49 respectively. The colour of the ray(s)
emerging out of the face 𝑃𝑅 is
(Main 18th March 2nd Shift 2021)
Green
Blue
blue and green
Red
d
Consider the values of refractive indices and apply Snell's Law at each interface to determine the
path of the rays.
Prism, Dispersion of Light
The variation of refractive index of a crown glass thin prism with wavelength of the incident light is
shown. Which of the following graphs is the correct one , if Dm is the angle of minimum deviation?

a
Consider the relationship between refractive index, incident angle, and angle of deviation for a
prism. The refractive index changes with wavelength, which affects the angle of deviation. Based on
the given information, determine how the angle of minimum deviation varies with wavelength.
The angle of minimum deviation 𝐷𝑚 = (𝜇 − 1)𝐴.
In the given graph, as the wavelength increases 𝜇 decreases. Hence, the angle of minimum deviation
also decreases.
Prism and Dispersion of Light, Angle of Minimum Deviation and Variation with Wavelength
A monochromatic light is incident at a certain angle on an equilateral triangular prism and suffers
minimum deviation. If the refractive index of the material of the prism is √3, then the angle of
incidence is
60∘
45∘
90∘
30∘
a
Consider the principle of minimum deviation for a prism. Use Snell's law to relate the angle of
incidence to the angle of refraction and the refractive index. Apply the condition for minimum
deviation to determine the angle of incidence.
For minimum deviation, 𝑖 = 𝑒
𝐴 60∘
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = = = 30∘
2 2
Using snell's law at the interface,
1sin 𝑖 = √3sin 𝑟1
sin 𝑖 = √3sin 30∘ = √3/2 ⇒ 𝑖 = 60∘

Light and Optical Instruments, Minimum Deviation in a Prism
A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60∘ on one face of a prism of angle 30∘ . The emergent ray of
light makes an angle of 30∘ with incident ray. The angle made by the emergent ray with second face
of prism will be
(Main Online 2018)
0∘
45∘
90∘
30∘
c
Consider the path of light ray through the prism. Apply the law of refraction to both refractions at
prism faces and the law of reflection to the third face. Relate the incident and emergent angles to the
prism angle.
As 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − 𝐴
30∘ = 60∘ + 𝑒 − 30∘ ⇒ 𝑒 = 0
So required angle with face of
prism = 90∘
Dispersion and Prism, Calculating angle with prism faces
A parallel beam of light is incident from air at an angle 𝛼 on the side 𝑃𝑄 of a right angled triangular
prism of refractive index 𝑛 = √2.
Light undergoes total internal reflection in the prism at the face 𝑃𝑅 when 𝛼 has a minimum value of
45∘ .
The angle 𝜃 of the prism is
(Advanced 2016)
15∘
22.5∘
30∘
45∘
a
Consider the critical angle for total internal reflection and use Snell's law to relate the angles and
indices of refraction at the prism-air interface. Apply the law of sines to the triangle formed by the
incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the prism-air interface.
Using Snell's law at point 𝐴, 1sin 𝛼 = 𝑛sin 𝑟
1
sin 45∘ = √2sin 𝑟 ⇒ sin 𝑟 = 2 = sin 30∘ ∴ 𝑟 = 30∘
At point 𝐵, minimum value of 𝑖 for total internal reflection to take place,
1 1
𝑖 = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) = 45∘
𝑛 √2
In triangle 𝐴𝐵𝑃,
(90∘ + 𝑟) + (90∘ − 𝑖) + 𝜃 = 180∘

90∘ + 30∘ + 90∘ − 45∘ + 𝜃 = 180∘
∴ 𝜃 = 15∘
Total Internal Reflection, Angle of Prism
Monochromatic light is incident on a glass prism of angle 𝐴. If the refractive index of the material of
the prism is 𝜇, a ray, incident at an angle 𝜃, on the face 𝐴𝐵 would get transmitted
through the face 𝐴𝐶 of the prism provided

(Main 2013)
1
𝜃 > cos −1 [𝜇sin (𝐴 + sin−1 ( ))]
𝜇
c
Consider the critical angle of incidence in the prism with respect to the face . Then apply Snell's law
at the two refracting surfaces of the prism to obtain the condition for the ray to emerge from the
face .
Refraction of Light at a Glass-Air Interface, Minimum Deviation Principle
The graph between angle of deviation ( 𝛿 ) and angle of incidence (i) for a triangular prism is
represented by
(Main 2013)
d
Physically, the graph shows that the angle of deviation is minimum for a specific angle of incidence
known as the angle of minimum deviation, represented by on the graph. This angle of minimum
deviation is related to the refractive index of the prism.
The graph between angle of deviation (𝛿) and angle of incidence (𝑖) for a triangular prism is as
shown in the adjacent figure.
Angle of Deviation, Angle of Incidence (i)
A spectrometer gives the following reading when used to measure the angle of a prism.
Main scale reading 58.5 degree
Vernier scale reading 09 divisions
Given that 1 division on main scale corresponds to 0.5 degree. Total divisions on the vernier scale is
30 and match with 29 divisions of the main scale. The angle of the prism from the above data
(AIEEE 2012)
58.77 degree
58.65 degree
59 degree
58.59 degree
b
To calculate the angle of the prism, use the least count of the spectrometer, which is determined by
the ratio of the number of divisions on the vernier scale to the number of divisions on the main
scale. The angle of the prism is then obtained by adding the vernier scale reading to the main scale
reading multiplied by the least count.
30VSD = 29MSD
29
1VSD = MSD
30
Least count = 1MSD − 1VSD
29 1
= (1 − ) MSD = × 0.5∘
30 30
Reading = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading × least count
0.5∘
= 58.5∘ + 9 × = 58.5∘ + 0.15∘ = 58.65∘
30
Spectrometer, Least Count and Prism Angle Measurement
Two beams of red and violet colours are made to pass separately through a prism (angle of the prism
is 60∘ ). In the position of minimum deviation, the angle of refraction will be
(ITT-JEE 2008)
30∘ for both the colours
greater for the violet colour
greater for the red colour
equal but not 30∘ for both the colours
a
Consider the condition for minimum deviation of a ray passing through a prism. Use the equal
deviation at both refracting surfaces and apply Snell's law to determine the angle of refraction for
both red and violet light.
When the deviation of a ray through a prism is the minimum, it deviates equally at both the
refracting surfaces. In this condition 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 and 𝜃1 ′ = 𝜃2 ′ see the figure.
Now 𝜃1′ + 𝜃2′ = 𝐴,
𝐴 60∘
so 𝜃1′ = 𝜃2′ = = = 30∘.
2 2
Since both the beams are set for minimum deviation, the angle of refraction will be 30∘ for both the
colours.
Dispersion of light, Angle of minimum deviation
The refractive index of glass is 1.520 for red light and 1.525 for blue light. Let 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 be angles of
minimum deviation for red and blue light respectively in a prism of this glass. Then
(AIEEE 2006)
𝐷1 > 𝐷2
𝐷1 < 𝐷2
𝐷1 = 𝐷2
𝐷1 can be less than or greater than depending upon the angle of prism.
b
Consider the relationship between the prism geometry, the refractive index, and the angle of
minimum deviation. Recall the formula for the angle of minimum deviation and observe the
differences in refractive indices for red and blue light.
Angle of minimum deviation 𝐷 = 𝐴(𝜇 − 1)
𝐷1 for red 𝜇 −1
= 𝜇𝑅 −1.
𝐷2 for blue 𝐵
𝐷1
Since 𝜇𝐵 > 𝜇𝑅 , ∴ < 1 ∴ 𝐷1 < 𝐷2
𝐷2
Prism, Angle of Minimum Deviation
An equilateral prism is placed on a horizontal surface. A ray 𝑃𝑄 is incident onto it. For minimum
deviation
(IIT-JEE 2004)
𝑃𝑄 is horizontal
𝑄𝑅 is horizontal
𝑅𝑆 is horizontal
any one will be horizontal.
b
Consider the path of the refracted ray inside the prism. Use the fact that the base of the prism is
horizontal and that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence for minimum deviation.
In equilateral prism, the refracted ray 𝑄𝑅 runs parallel to base. Base is horizontal. Hence 𝑄𝑅 is
horizontal.
Prism and Dispersion of Light, Minimum Deviation in Prism
A given ray of light suffers minimum deviation in an equilateral prism 𝑃. Additional prism 𝑄 and 𝑅 of
identical shape and of
the same material as 𝑃 are now added as shown in the figure.
The ray will now suffer

(IIT-JEE 2001)
greater deviation
no deviation
same deviation as before
total internal reflection
c
Consider the symmetry of prism combinations and use the fact that the materials of both prisms are
identical.
No refraction will occur when ray travels from 𝑃 to 𝑄 or 𝑄 to 𝑅 because 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 are made of same
material. They are all identical prisms.
Deviation suffered in prism 𝑃 remains as such
Ray Tracing through Prisms, Minimum Deviation in Prisms
An isosceles prism of angle 120∘ has a refractive index 1.44. Two parallel monochromatic rays enter
the prism, parallel to each other in air, as shown. The rays which emerge from the opposite faces
(IIT-JEE 1995)
are parallel to each other
are diverging
make an angle 2[sin−1 (0.72) − 30∘ ] with each other
make an angle 2sin−1 (0.72) with each other.
c
Use the principle of minimum deviation to determine the angle of deviation and the angle at which
the emergent rays meet. Consider the symmetry of the prism and the path of the rays within it.
∠𝑖 = 30∘ , by geometry
sin 𝑖 sin 30∘ 1 sin 30∘

= ⇒ =
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑟 1.44 sin 𝑟
or sin 𝑟 = 0.72
𝛿 = ∠𝑟 − ∠𝑖 ∴ 𝛿 = sin−1 (0.72) − 30∘
or (2𝛿) = 2[sin−1 (0.72) − 30∘ ]
or 𝜃 = 2[sin−1 (0.72) − 30∘ ]

𝜃 is the angle at which the emergent rays from the opposite faces meet each other.
Geometrical Optics, Refraction in Prism
In a reflecting telescope, a secondary mirror is used to

reduce the problem of mechanical support
move the eyepiece outside the telescopic tube
remove spherical aberration
make chromatic aberration zero.
b
Consider the purpose of using mirrors in a reflecting telescope and how the secondary mirror can aid
in achieving this purpose. Additionally, think about the benefits of having the eyepiece outside the
telescopic tube.
In the reflecting telescope, a secondary mirror is used to move the eyepiece outside the telescopic
tube.
Reflecting Telescope, Secondary Mirror in Reflecting Telescope
A scientist is observing a bacteria through a compound microscope. For better analysis and to
improve its resolving power he should (Select the best option)
(Main 29 9th Jan 2nd Shift 2023)
increase the wavelength of the light
increase the refractive index of the medium between the object and objective lens
decrease the focal length of the eye piece
decrease the diameter of the objective lens
b
Consider the expression for resolving power of a microscope and analyze how each variable affects
the value.
Resolving power of microscope is given by
2𝜇sin 𝜃
R. P =
1.22𝜆
where, 𝜇 is the refractive index of medium between object and objective lens and 𝜆 is wavelength of
light used.
So, on increasing the resolving power, 𝜇 should be increased.

Microscopy, Resolving Power of Compound Microscope
A microscope was initially placed in air (refractive index 1). It is then immersed in oil (refractive index
2). For a light whose wavelength in air is 𝜆, calculate the change of microscope's resolving power due
to oil and choose the correct option.
1
Resolving power will be 4 in the oil than it was in the air
Resolving power will be twice in the oil than it was in the air
Resolving power will be four times in the oil than it was in the air
1
Resolving power will be in the oil than it was in the air
2
b
Consider the relationship between refractive index, wavelength, and resolving power. Also, note that
the resolving power is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
Resolving power of a microscope,
2sin 𝜃 2sin 𝜃 × 𝜇
( R.P )air = ; ( R.P )oil =
1.22𝜆 1.22𝜆
( R.P )oil = ( R.P )air × 2

Resolving Power of a Microscope, Change in Resolving Power Due to immersion
In normal adjustment, for a refracting telescope, the distance between objective and eye-piece is
30 cm. The focal length of the objective, when the angular magnification of the telescope is 2 , will
be
20 cm
30 cm
10 cm
15 cm
a
Relate the angular magnification to the ratio of focal lengths and then use the given distance
between objective and eyepiece to solve for the focal length of the objective.
Distance between objective and eye-piece
𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒 = 30 cm
Magnification, 𝑚 = 𝑓0 /𝑓𝑒
∴ 2 = 𝑓0 /𝑓𝑒
𝑠 ∵ 𝑚 = 2)
𝑓0 = 2𝑓𝑒
So, 2𝑓𝑒 + 𝑓𝑒 = 30 cm
(Using (i))
Put 𝑓𝑐 in equation (i), we get,
𝑓𝑒 = 10 cm
∴ 𝑓0 = 2 × 10 = 20 cm
Telescopes, Angular Magnification of Refracting Telescope
Your friend is having eye sight problem. She is not able to see clearly a distant uniform window mesh
and it appears to her as non-uniform and distorted. The doctor diagnosed the problem as
(Main 18 8th March 1st Shift 2021)
Myopia with Astigmatism
Astigmatism
Myopia and hypermetropia
Presbyopia with Astigmatism
a
Analyze the symptoms carefully. Consider how these symptoms relate to different eye conditions.
Myopia affects distant vision, while astigmatism causes distorted and non-uniform vision.
Since, person is not able to see distant window clearly, she is suffering from myopia.
Additionally she has non-uniform and distorted vision, then it is astigmatism.
Optics, Defects of Vision
If we need a magnification of 375 from a compound microscope of tube length 150 mm and an
objective of focal length 5 mm, the focal length of the eye-piece, should be close to
22 mm
12 mm
33 mm
2 mm
a
Apply the formula for magnification of a compound microscope magnification = -(length of the
tube)/(focal length of the objective focal length of the eyepiece). Then, solve for the focal length of
the eyepiece.
Given 𝑚 = 375, 𝐿 = 150 mm, 𝑓0 = 5 mm
𝐿 150
𝑚0 = = = 30
𝑓0 5
𝑚 375 75
∴ 𝑚 = 𝑚0 𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 𝑚𝑒 = = =
𝑚0 30 6
𝐷
Now, 𝑚𝑒 = [1 + ] [Here 𝐷 = 25 cm]
𝑓𝑒
75 25
⇒ = [1 + ] = 22 mm
6 𝑓𝑒
Microscope, Magnification in Compound Microscope
The magnifying power of a telescope with tube length 60 cm is 5 . What is the focal length of its eye
piece?
30 cm
40 cm
10 cm
20 cm
c
Apply the expression for magnifying power of a telescope and use the relation between tube length
and focal length of objective and eyepiece.
𝐿 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 = 60 cm
𝑓0
𝑀= =5
𝑓𝑒
𝑓0 = 5𝑓𝑒 ⇒ 5𝑓𝑒 + 𝑓𝑒 = 60 cm ⇒ 𝑓𝑒 = 10 cm
Magnifying Power of Telescope, Focal Length of Eye-piece
An observer looks at a distant tree of height 10 m with a telescope of magnifying power of 20 . To
the observer the tree appears
(Main 2016)
10 times taller
10 times nearer
20 times taller
20 times nearer
d
Consider the magnifying power of the telescope and its effect on the apparent distance of the tree.
Telescope resolves and brings the objects closer which is far away from the telescope. Hence for
telsescope with magnifying power 20 , the tree appears 20 times nearer.
Telescopes, Magnifying Power
A telescope has an objective lens of focal length 150 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 5 cm. If a 50
m tall tower at a distance of 1 km is observed through this telescope in normal setting, the angle
formed by the image of the tower is 𝜃, then 𝜃 is close to
(Main Online 2015)
1∘
15∘
30∘
60∘
d
Consider the formula for angular magnification, which relates the focal lengths of the objective and
eyepiece lenses to the size of the image and the object.
Angular magnification
𝑓0 150
𝑚= = = 30
𝑓𝑒 5
tan 𝛽
so, = 30
tan 𝛼
50
tan 𝛽 = tan 𝛼 × 30 ( ) × 30
1000
15 3 3
= = ; 𝛽 = tan−1 ( )
10 2 2
∴ 𝜃 = 𝛽 ≈ 60∘
Ray Optics, Angular Magnification
The image formed by an objective of a compound microscope is

(AIEEE 2003)
virtual and diminished
real and diminished
real and enlarged
virtual and enlarged.
c
Consider the characteristics of the image formed by the objective of a compound microscope and its
purpose in the overall functioning of the microscope.
The objective of compound microscope forms a real and enlarged image.
Microscopy, Image formation in a compound microscope
The focal lengths of the objective and the eye piece of a compound microscope are 2.0 cm and
3.0 cm, respectively. The distance between the objective and the eyepiece is 15.0 cm. The final
image formed by the eyepiece is at infinity. The two lenses are thin. The distance, in cm, of the
object and the image produced by the objective, measured from the objective lens, are respectively
(IIT-JEE 1995)
2.4 and 12.0
2.4 and 15.0
2.0 and 12.0
2.0 and 3.0.
a
Apply thin lens formula for objective lens to determine the location of the image formed by objective
lens. Use the fact that the final image formed by the eyepiece is at infinity to determine the location
of the object for the eyepiece. Substitute these values into the thin lens formula for the eyepiece to
find the focal length of the eyepiece.
The eyepiece forms the final image at infinity. Its object should therefore lie at its focus.
𝐹 denotes focus of eyepiece. 𝐼 denotes image formed by the objective lens which serves as object for
eye piece. It should be at 3 cm from eyepiece.
∴ 𝑣0 for objective lens = 15 − 3 = 12 cm
1 1 1
∴ − =
𝑣0 𝑤0 𝑓0
1 1 1
or − =
12 𝑢0 2
1 1 1 5
⇒ = − =−
𝑢0 12 2 12
or 𝑢0 = −2.4 cm.
From objective lens, 𝑢0 = 2.4 cm (to left) 𝑦0 = 12 cm (to right).

Compound Microscope, Image Formation
A parallel beam of light strikes a piece of transparent glass having cross-section as shown in the
figure below. Correct shape of the 𝐴 emergent wavefront will be (Figures are schematic and not
drawn to scale.)
(Advanced 2020)
a
Consider the path difference between the upper and lower portions of the wavefront after passing
through the glass block. This path difference will determine the shape of the emergent wavefront.
Since the upper and lower part of the wavefront has to travel a larger distance through glass, the
emerging wavefront will be similar to that given in option (a)
Geometrical optics, Image formation by Lenses
On a hot summer night, the refractive index of air is smallest near the ground and increases with
height from the ground. When a light beam is directed horizontally, the Huygens' principle leads us
to conclude that as it travels, the light beam
(Main 2015)
bends downwards
bends upwards
becomes narrower
goes horizontally without any deflection
b
Consider a plane wavefront traveling horizontally. As the refractive index of air increases with height,
the speed of the wavefront decreases with height. This results in bending of the wavefront and
hence the light beam upward.
Consider a plane wavefront travelling horizontally.
As refractive index of air increases with height, so speed of wavefront decreases with height. Hence,
the light beam
bends upwards.
Variation of Refractive Index with Height, Bending of Light
The width of fringe is 2 mm on the screen in a double slits experiment for the light of wavelength of
400 nm. The width of the fringe for the light of wavelength 600 nm will be
2 mm
4 mm
3 mm
1.33 mm
c
Consider the relationship between fringe width, wavelength, and slit separation in the double-slit
experiment. Express the ratio of the widths for the two different wavelengths.
Case I 𝜆 = 400 nm = 400 × 10−9 m 𝛽 = 2 mm = 2 × 10−3 m
𝜆
As angular fringe width, 𝛽 =
𝑑
𝜆 400×10−9
So, 𝑑 = = = 2 × 10−4 m
𝛽 2×10−3
Case II 𝜆 = 600 nm = 600 × 10−9 m 𝑑 = 2 × 10−4 m
𝜆 600 × 10−9
∴𝛽= = = 3 × 10−3 m = 3 mm
𝑑 2 × 10−4
Interference and Diffraction, Interference of Light at Double Slits
The ratio of intensities at two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 on the screen in a Young's double slit experiment
where phase difference between two waves of same amplitude are 𝜋/3 and 𝜋/2, respectively are
(Main 10 th April 2nd Shift 2023)
13
32
23
31
b
Consider the formula for intensity in a double-slit experiment. Relate the phase difference between
the waves to the path difference and the wavelength of light. Use this relationship to determine the
intensity at each point. Finally, find the ratio of intensities between the two points.
Resultant intensity,
𝐼net = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼0 + 2𝐼0 cos (⬚ for 𝜙 = )
3 3
1
𝐼1 = 2𝐼0 + 2𝐼0 × = 3𝐼0
2
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼2 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼0 + 2𝐼0 cos = 2𝐼0 (⬚ for 𝜙 = 2 )
2
𝐼1 3 𝐼0 3
Hence, ratio between the two waves = =
𝐼2 2 𝐼0 2
Interference of Light, Double Slit Experiment
In a Young's double slits experiment, the ratio of amplitude of light coming from slits is 21. The ratio
of the maximum to minimum intensity in the interference pattern is
259
94
21
91
d
Consider the interference pattern resulting from the superposition of waves with varying amplitudes.
The intensity of the pattern depends on the relative phase difference between the waves at any
given point. Relate this to the intensity ratio of the interference pattern.
As for interference pattern,
𝐼max (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2 (2𝑥 + 𝑥)2 9𝑥 2
= = = 2
𝐼min (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2 (2𝑥 − 𝑥)2 𝑥
𝐼max 9
𝐼min
= 1 or 𝐼max 𝐼min is 91
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Intensity Ratio in Interference
A single slit of width 𝑎 is illuminated by a monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm. The value of '
𝑎 ' for which first minimum appears at 𝜃 = 30∘ on the screen will be
0.6 𝜇m
1.2 𝜇m
1.8 𝜇m
3 𝜇m
b
Using the principle of diffraction, the position of minima can be determined by considering the path
length difference between rays from different points on the slit. The path length difference between
the central maximum and the first minimum is equal to half a wavelength. The width of the slit and
the distance to the screen determine the angle at which this path length difference occurs, which in
turn determines the value of 'y'.
Here, 𝜆 = 600 nm = 6 × 10−7 m 𝜃 = 30∘
𝜆
For first minimum, sin 𝜃 = 𝑎
6 × 10−7
⇒ sin 30∘ = ⇒ 𝑎 = 12 × 10−7
𝑎
⇒ 𝑎 = 1200 nm = 1.2𝜇m
Diffraction due to Single Slit, Condition for Minima in Single Slit Diffraction
In a Young's double slit Source 𝑃 experiment, two slits are 8

illuminated with a light of wavelength 800 nm. The line joining 𝐴1 𝑃 is perpendicular to 𝐴1 𝐴2 as
shown in the figure. If the
first minimum is detected at 𝑃, the value of slits separation ' 𝑎 ' will be
The distance of screen from slits = 5 cm.

0.4 mm
0.2 mm
0.5 mm
0.1 mm
b
Remember the formula for the position of the bright and dark fringes in a double-slit experiment.
Consider the path length difference between the waves from each slit to the first minimum. Relate
the path length difference to the slit separation and the wavelength of light.
In a Young double slit experiment Wavelength of light (𝜆) = 800 nm.
Distance of screen from slit (𝐷) = 5 cm
𝜆
Here, √𝐷2 + 𝑎 2 − 𝐷 =
2
= 5 × 10−2 m
𝜆
⇒ √𝐷 2 + 𝑎 2 = +𝐷
2
2
𝜆
⇒ (𝐷2 + 𝑎 2 ) = ( + 𝐷)
2
𝜆2 2𝜆
⇒ 𝐷2 + 𝑎 2 = + 𝐷2 + ×𝐷
4 2
𝜆2 𝜆2
⇒ 𝑎2 = + 𝐷𝜆 {∵ ≪ 𝐷𝜆}
4 4
So, 𝑎 2 = 𝐷𝜆 ⇒ 5 × 10−2 × 800 × 10−9
𝑎 2 = 4000 × 10−11 m2 ; 𝑎 = 2 × 10−4 m
or 𝑎 = 0.2 mm
Interference in Young's Double Slit Experiment, Determination of Slit Separation Using First
Minimum
In Young's double slit experiment, the position of 5th bright fringe from the central maximum is
5 cm. The distance between slit and screen is 1 m and wavelength of used monochromatic light is
600 nm. The separation between the slits is
(Main 25 th Jan 1st Shift 2023)
12 𝜇m
60 𝜇m
36 𝜇m
48 𝜇m
b
To determine the separation between the slits, consider the distance between the bright fringe and
central maximum, as well as the distance between the slit and screen and the wavelength of light.
Utilize the formula for the displacement of fringes to solve for the slit separation.
𝑛𝐷𝜆
Distance of 𝑛th fringe from central fringe 𝑦 =
𝑑
Here, 𝑦 = 5 cm, 𝑛 = 5, 𝐷 = 1 m, 𝜆 = 600 nm Let 𝑑 is separation between the slits.
5 × 1 × 600 × 10−9
5 × 10−2 = ⇒ 𝑑 = 60𝜇m
𝑑
(using (i))
Interference of Light, Young's Double Slit Experiment
In Young's double slit experiment, the fringe width is 12 mm. If the entire arrangement is placed in
4
water of refractive index , then the fringe width becomes
3
(in mm )
16
9
48
12
b
Consider the change in wavelength due to the change in medium. Use Huygen's principle to relate
the fringe width to the wavelength.
4
Given, fringe width in air, 𝛽 = 12 mm Refractive index of water, 𝜇 = 3
𝜆𝐷
Fringe width 𝛽 = 𝑑
Also, from Huygen's principle,
𝜆
Refractive index, 𝜇 = 𝜆
𝑤
When the entire arrangement is immersed in water, new fringe width is given by
𝜆𝑤 𝐷
𝛽′ =
𝑑
From eq. (i) and (iii),
𝛽 𝜆𝐷 𝑑 𝜆 𝜆𝑤
= × = ⇒ 𝛽′ = 𝛽 ×
𝛽′ 𝑑 𝜆𝑤 𝐷 𝜆𝑤 𝜆
𝛽 12
⇒ 𝛽′ = ∴ 𝛽′ = = 9 mm
𝜇 4
(3)
(Using eq. (ii))

Young's Double Slit Experiment, Effect of Refractive Index on Fringe Width
Two coherent sources of light interfere. The intensity ratio of two sources is 14. For this interference
𝐼 +𝐼 2𝛼+1 𝛼
pattern if the value of max min is equal to , then will be
𝐼max−𝐼min 𝛽+3 𝛽
(Main 27th July 2nd Shift 2022)
1.5
2
0.5
1
b
Consider the mathematical relation between the ratio of intensities and the path difference between
coherent sources. The path difference will be directly proportional to the value of lambda.
2
Maximum intensity of interfering waves, 𝐼max = (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 )
Minimum intensity of interfering waves,
2
𝐼min = (√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 )
2
𝐼max √𝐼1 + √𝐼2
∴ =( )
𝐼min √𝐼1 − √𝐼2
2 2
𝐼1
√ +1 √1 + 1 9
𝐼2 4
= = =
𝐼 1
√ 1 −1 √1
( 𝐼2 ) ( 4 − 1)
𝐼max + 𝐼min 9 + 1 10 5
⇒ = = =
𝐼max − 𝐼min 9 − 1 8 4
5 2𝛼 + 1 2(2) + 1 2𝛼 + 1
⇒ = ⇒ =
4 𝛽+3 1+3 𝛽+3
On comparing, we get
Interference of Light, Coherent Sources
Two light beams of intensities in the ratio of 94 are allowed to interfere. The ratio of the intensity of
maximum and minima will be
23
1681
25169
251
d
Consider the superposition principle of waves and the relationship between intensity and amplitude
of waves. Use the formula for the intensity of interference and simplify it to find the ratio.
𝛼
𝛼 = 2; 𝛽 = 1 ⇒ = 2
𝛽
Interference of Light Waves,Intensity and Fringe Width in Double-Slit Experiment
The two light beams having intensities 𝐼 and 9𝐼 interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a screen. The
phase difference between the beams is 𝜋/2 at point 𝑃 and 𝜋 at point 𝑄. Then the difference
between the resultant intensities at 𝑃 and 𝑄 will be
2𝐼
6𝐼
5𝐼
7𝐼
b
Consider the path difference between the two beams at points P and Q. Apply the principle of
superposition to determine the resultant intensity at each point. Use the formula for intensity as a
function of amplitude to find the difference between the resultant intensities.
Here, 𝐼1 = 𝐼, 𝐼2 = 9𝐼,
𝜋
𝜙𝑃 = , 𝜙𝑄 = 𝜋
2
𝜋
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼 + 9𝐼 + 2√𝐼 × 9𝐼cos = 10𝐼
2
𝐼𝑄 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜋
𝐼𝑄 = 𝐼 + 9𝐼 − 2√𝐼 × 9𝐼 = 4𝐼
Then, the difference between the resultant intensities at 𝑃 and 𝑄 will be 10𝐼 − 4𝐼 = 6𝐼
Interference of Light,
Intensity Distribution in Interference
The interference pattern is obtained with two coherent light sources of intensity ratio 41. And the
𝐼 +𝐼 5
ratio 𝐼max −𝐼min is 𝑥. Then, the value of 𝑥 will be equal to
max min
(Main 25 th June 2nd Shift 2022)
3
4
2
1
b
Relate the contrast ratio to the intensity ratio using the formula for fringe contrast and derive the
value of gamma.
𝐼1 4 𝐼 𝐴 2
= 1; So, 𝐼1 = (𝐴1 )
𝐼2 2 2
𝐴1 2 4 𝐴1 2 𝐴max 2 + 1 3
( ) = ⇒ = ; = =
𝐴2 1 𝐴2 1 𝐴min 2 − 1 1
𝐼max 𝐴max 2 9 𝐼max +𝐼min 5

=( ) = ⇒ = So, 𝑥 = 4
𝐼min 𝐴min 1 𝐼max −𝐼min 4
Interference of Light Waves, Intensity Distribution in Interference Pattern
In young's double slit experiment performed using a monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆, when a
glass plate (𝜇 = 1.5) of thickness 𝑥𝜆 is introduced in the path of the one of the interfering beams,
the intensity at the position where the central maximum occurred previously remains unchanged.
The value of 𝑥 will be
3
2
1.5
0.5
b
Consider the effect of the glass plate on the path difference. To maintain the intensity at the central
maximum, the path difference should remain unchanged. This leads to determining the value of the
thickness of the glass plate based on the wavelength of light and path difference.
To keep the intensity unchanged at the position where central maximum occurred previously. So,
path difference must be 𝑛𝜆.
Path difference = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
where 𝑡 is thickness of the glass plate.
∴ (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 or (1.5 − 1)𝑥𝜆 = 𝑛𝜆
or 𝑥 = 2𝑛
So the value of 𝑥 will be, 𝑥 = 0,2,4,6, … …

Interference of Light, Young's Double Slit Experiment
Using Young's double slit experiment, a monochromatic light of wavelength 5000Å produces fringes
of fringe width 0.5 mm. If another monochromatic light of wavelength 6000Å is used and the
separation between the slits is doubled, then the new fringe width will be
(Main 29th June 1st Shift 2022)
0.5 mm
1.0 mm
0.6 mm
0.3 mm
d
Apply Young's double-slit formula for fringe width. Note that fringe width is inversely proportional to
both wavelength and slit separation.
𝜆𝐷
Fringe width is given by, 𝛽 =
𝑑
where 𝐷 is the separation between screen and slits and 𝑑 is the separation between slits. When light
of wavelength 6000Å is used and 𝑑 is doubled, then new fringe width will be
𝜆′ 𝐷
𝛽′ =
2𝑑
From equation (i) and (ii),
𝛽 ′ 𝜆′ 𝜆′
= ⇒ 𝛽′ = 𝛽 ×
𝛽 2𝜆 2𝜆
6000Å
= 0.5 mm × = 0.3 mm
2 × 5000Å
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Fringe Width
The light waves from two coherent sources have same intensity 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 . In interference pattern
the intensity of light at minima is zero. What will be the intensity of light at maxima?
(Main 27 7th Aug 2nd Shift 2021)
𝐼0
2𝐼0
4𝐼0
5𝐼0
c
To understand the intensity at maxima, recall the principle of superposition, where the electric fields
of the coherent waves add up at maxima, resulting in constructive interference. This leads to the
maximum resultant intensity.
Given that, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
For maximum intensity, cos 𝜙 = 1

2
∴ 𝐼𝑚 = (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 ) = 𝐼0 + 𝐼0 + 2√(𝐼0 )2
or 𝐼𝑚𝑙 = 4𝐼0
Wave Optics, Interference of Light
In the Young's double slit experiment, the distance between the slits varies in time as 𝑑(𝑡) = 𝑑0 +
𝑎0 sin 𝜔𝑡; where 𝑑0 , 𝜔 and 𝑎0 are constants. The difference between the largest fringe width and
the smallest fringe width obtained over time is given as
𝜆𝐷
𝑑0 + 𝑎0
𝜆𝐷
𝑎0
𝑑02
2𝜆𝐷𝑎0
(𝑑02 − 𝑎02 )
2𝜆𝐷(𝑑0 )
(𝑑02 − 𝑎02 )
c
Consider the equation for fringe width. Analyze how fringe width varies with distance between slits.
Determine the maximum and minimum values of fringe width over time. Calculate the difference
between these values to obtain the desired result.
𝑑 = 𝑑0 + 𝑎0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐷𝜆
The fringe width is given by, 𝛽 = 𝑑
where 𝐷 is the distance between slit and screen, 𝑑 is the distance between two slits and 𝜆 is the
wavelength of light used.
1
∴ 𝛽∝
𝑑
𝑑max = 𝑑0 + 𝑎0
(sin 𝜔𝑡 = 1)
𝑑min = 𝑑0 − 𝑎0
(sin 𝜔𝑡 = −1)
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
∴ 𝛽min = ⇒ 𝛽max =
𝑑0 + 𝑎0 𝑑0 − 𝑎0
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 2𝐷𝜆𝑎0
𝛽max − 𝛽min = − = 2
𝑑0 − 𝑎0 𝑑0 + 𝑎0 𝑑0 − 𝑎02
Interference of Light, Change in Fringe Width due to Time-Varying Slit Separation
In Young's double slit experiment, if the source of light changes from orange to blue, then
the central bright fringe will become a dark fringe
the distance between consecutive fringes will decrease
the distance between consecutive fringes will increase
the intensity of the minima will increase.
b
Consider the relationship between wavelength and fringe width from the double slit experiment
formula. When wavelength decreases, what will happen to the fringe width?
The wavelength of light decreases when changes from orange to blue.
The fringe width is given by
𝜆𝐷
𝛽= ,
𝑑
𝐷 is the distance between slit and screen, 𝜆 is wavelength and 𝑑 is the distance between two slits.
So, as wavelength decreases, 𝛽 also decreases and the consecutive fringes comes nearer, means the
distance between consecutive fringes will decrease.
Diffraction of Light,
Young's Double Slit Experiment
In a Young's double slit arrangement, slits are separated by a gap of 0.5 mm, and the screen is placed
at a distance of
0.5 m from them. The distance between the first and the third bright fringe formed when the slits
are illuminated by a monochromatic light of 5890Å is
(Main 18 8th March 1st Shift 2021)
5890 × 10−7 m
1178 × 10−12 m
1178 × 10−9 m
1178 × 10−6 m
d
Consider the path difference for the first and third bright fringes and use the equation for fringe
width in a double-slit experiment.
𝜆𝐷
Distance between first and third bright fringe = 2𝛽 = 2
𝑑
5890× 10−10 × 0.5

=2× = 1178 × 10−6 m
0.5 × 10−3
So, the distance between first and third bright fringe = 1178 × 10−6 m
Interference in Young's Double Slit Experiment,
Distance between Bright Fringes
In a Youngs double slit experiment, the width of one of the slit is three times the other slit. The
amplitude of the light coming from a slit is proportional to the slit-width. Find the ratio of the
maximum to the minimum intensity in the interference pattern.
(Main 24 4th Feb 1st Shift 2021)
14
31
41
21
c
Consider the amplitudes of the waves from each slit and the resulting interference pattern. The ratio
of intensity maxima and minima depends on the amplitude ratio of the waves.
𝜔2 = 3𝜔1
As, amplitude is proportional to slit width So, 𝐴2 = 3𝐴1
Intensity 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
√𝐼1 ∝ 𝐴1 , √𝐼2 ∝ 𝐴2
⇒ 𝐼max ∝ (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )2 ⇒ 𝐼min ∝ (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 )2
𝐼 𝐴 +𝐴 2 𝐴 +3𝐴 2
So, 𝐼max = (𝐴1 −𝐴2 ) = (𝐴1 −3𝐴1 ) = 41
min 1 2 1 1
Interference of Light, Young's Double Slit Experiment with Unequal Slit Widths
If the source of light used in a Young's double slit experiment is changed from red to violet
(Main 24 4th Feb 2nd Shift 2021)
the intensity of minima will increase.
the central bright fringe will become a dark fringe.
the fringes will become brighter.
consecutive fringe lines will come closer.
d
Consider the formula for fringe width in Young's double-slit experiment. Identify the parameter that
changes when the light source is changed. Relate this parameter to the observed effect on the fringe
pattern.
The fringe width in YDSE is given by
𝐷
𝛽 = ( )𝜆
𝑑
Where 𝐷 = distance of screen from slits. 𝑑 = separation between the slits.
Clearly 𝛽 ∝ 𝜆
Also, 𝜆𝑅 > 𝜆𝑉
∴ 𝛽𝑅 > 𝛽𝑉
Therefore, if light source is changed from red to violet consecutive fringe lines will cone closer.
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Fringe Shift with Wavelength
Two coherent light sources having intensity in the ratio 2𝑥 produce an interference pattern. The ratio
𝐼max −𝐼min
𝐼max +𝐼min
will be
(Main 25 5th Feb 1st Shift 2021)
2√2𝑥
𝑥+1
√2𝑥
𝑥+1
√2𝑥
2𝑥 + 1
2√2𝑥
2𝑥 + 1
d
Relate the intensity ratio to the square of the electric field ratio, and then use the phase difference
between the light sources in the interference pattern to determine the electric field ratio.
𝐼1
= 2𝑥
𝐼2
2 2
𝐼max √𝐼1 + √𝐼2 𝐼max √2𝑥 + 1
=( ) = =( )
𝐼min √𝐼1 − √𝐼2 𝐼min √2𝑥 − 1
𝐼max − 𝐼min (√2𝑥 + 1)2 − (√2𝑥 − 1)2

=
𝐼max + 𝐼min (√2𝑥 + 1)2 + (√2𝑥 − 1)2
(2√2𝑥)(2) 4√2𝑥 2√2𝑥

= = =
2𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 + 1 2(2𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 1
Interference of Light, Ratio of Interference Intensities
In a Young's double slit experiment two slits are separated by 2 mm and the screen is placed one
meter away. When a light of wavelength 500 nm is used, the fringe separation will be
(Main 26 th Feb st Shift 2021)
0.75 mm
0.25 mm
1 mm
0.50 mm
b
Consider the path difference between rays from the two slits to a point on the screen at a distance x
from the central fringe. Use the condition for constructive interference.
Given, 𝑑 = 2 mm; 𝐷 = 1 m;
𝜆 = 500 nm
Fringe width,
𝐷𝜆 1 × 500 × 10−9
𝛽= = = 2.5 × 10−4 m
𝑑 2 × 10−3
⇒ 𝛽 = 0.25 mm
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Fringe Separation
Interference fringes are observed on a screen by illuminating two thin slits 1 mm apart with a light
source (𝜆 = 632.8 nm). The distance between the screen and the slits is 100 cm. If a bright fringe is
observed on a screen at a distance of 1.27 mm from the central bright fringe, then the path
difference between the waves, which are reaching this point from the slits is close to
(Main 2nd Sept 1st Shift 2020)
1.27 𝜇m
2.87 nm
2 nm
2.05 𝜇m
a
Consider the path difference between the waves reaching the point on the screen. Apply the
condition for constructive interference to determine the path difference corresponding to the bright
fringe.
Given 𝑑 = 1 mm;
𝐷 = 100 cm; 𝜆 = 632.8 nm
𝐷 𝑥𝑑
Position of bright fringe at distance 𝑥 from central fringe i.e., = 1.27 mm. As 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑑 ∴ 𝑛 = 𝜆𝐷
𝑥𝑑 1.27×10−3×1×10−3
Then, path difference between the waves Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 or Δ𝑥 = 𝐷
= 100×10−2
= 1.27𝜇m
Interference and Diffraction Path Difference in Double Slit Experiment, Path Length
In a Young's double slit experiment, 16 fringes are observed in a certain segment of the screen when
light of wavelength 700 nm is used. If the wavelength of light is changed to 400 nm, the number of
fringes observed in the same segment of the screen would be
(Main 2nd Sept 2nd Shift 2020)
24
28
30
18
b
Consider the formula for fringe width in Young's double slit experiment. Analyze how the number of
fringes varies with wavelength.
For given Young's double slit experiment, 𝑁1 𝜆1 = 𝑁2 𝜆2
𝑁1 𝜆1 16 × 700
∴ 𝑁2 = = = 28
𝜆2 400
Interference and Diffraction, Young's Double Slit Experiment
In a Young's double slit experiment, light of 500 nm is used to produce an interference pattern.
When the distance between the slits is 0.05 mm, the angular width (in degree) of the fringes formed
on the distance screen is close to
(Main 3rd Sept 1st Shift 2020)
0.17∘
0.57∘
1.7∘
0.07∘
b
Consider the path difference for bright fringes and use the small-angle approximation to relate
angular fringe width to path difference.
𝜆 = 500 nm, 𝑑 = 0.05 mm
Angular fringe width,
𝜆 500×10−9
𝛽 = 𝑑 = 0.05×10−3 = 0.01 radian = 0.57∘
Interference and Diffraction, Angular Fringe Width
Two light waves having the same wavelength 𝜆 in vacuum are in phase initially. Then the first wave
travels a path 𝐿1 through a medium of refractive index 𝑛1 while the second wave travels a path of
length 𝐿2 through a medium of refractive index 𝑛2 . After this the phase difference between the two
waves is
(Main 3rd Sept 2nd Shift 2020)
2𝜋 𝐿2 𝐿1
( − )
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐿2
( − )
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
2𝜋
(𝑛 𝐿 − 𝑛2 𝐿2 )
𝜆 1 1
2𝜋
(𝑛2 𝐿1 − 𝑛1 𝐿2 )
𝜆
c
Consider the optical path length for each wave and use the formula for phase difference from the
optical path difference.
Optical path for first ray = 𝑛1 𝐿1 Optical path for second ray = 𝑛2 𝐿2
Path difference = 𝑛1 𝐿1 − 𝑛2 𝐿2
2𝜋
phase difference = × 𝑝 ath difference
𝜆
2𝜋
= (𝑛 𝐿 − 𝑛2 𝐿2 )
𝜆 1 1
Interference of Light, Phase Difference due to Propagation in Different Mediums
In the given figure, 𝑃 and 𝑄 are two equally intense coherent sources cmitting radiation of
wavclength 20 m. The separation between 𝑃 and 𝑄 is 5 m and the phase of 𝑃
is ahead of that of 𝑄 by 90∘ . 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are three distinct points of observation, each equidistant
from the midpoint of 𝑃𝑄. The intensities of radiation at 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 will be in the ratio
014
210
012
410
b
Understand Coherent Sources
Coherent sources emit waves that have the same wavelength and phase relationship.
Calculate Phase Difference

The path difference between the waves from S1 and S2 determines the phase difference at any point
in space.
Consider Constructive and Destructive Interference

Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude. Calculate the amplitude at each point using
the principle of superposition and determine if interference is constructive or destructive.
Apply the Pythagorean Theorem

Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the distance between the point of observation and the
midpoint of S1S2.
Relate Intensity to Phase Difference

The intensity at each point is related to the phase difference between the waves from S1 and S2.
𝜆
𝜆 = 20 m, 𝑃𝑄 = 5 m =
4
𝜆 𝜋
Phase difference for 4 is 2 = 90∘ .
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
Let 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼 ∴ 𝐼𝑅 = 2𝐼 + 2𝐼cos 𝜙
At point 𝐵, 𝜙 = 90∘
∴ 𝐼𝑅𝐵 = 2𝐼 + 2𝐼cos 90∘ = 2𝐼
At point 𝐶, phase difference
b) = 90∘ + 90∘ = 180∘
𝐼𝑅𝐴 = 2𝐼 + 2𝑙cos 180∘ = 2𝑙 − 2𝐼 = 0
At point 𝐴, 𝜙 = 90∘ … 90∘ = 0∘
𝐼𝑅𝐶 = 2𝐼 + 2𝐼cos 0∘ = 4𝐼
∴ 𝐼𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝑅𝐵 𝐼𝑅𝐶 = 4𝑙2𝑙0 = 210

Interference and Diffraction
Coherent Sources
In a Young's double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.15 mm. In the experiment,
a source of light of wavelength 589 nm is used and the interference pattern is observed on a screen
kept 1.5 m away. The separation between the successive bright fringes on the screen is
5.9 mm
4.9 mm
6.9 mm
3.9 mm
a
Consider the path difference between the waves from the two slits to the bright fringes on the
screen. Use the principle of constructive interference to determine the fringe width.
𝑑 = 0.15 mm, 𝜆 = 589 nm,
𝐷 = 1.5 m
As, we know that the separation between. successive bright fringes on the screen is the fringe width.
𝐷𝜆 1.5 × 589 × 10−9

∴ 𝛽= =
𝑑 0.15 × 10−3
= 5.89 × 10−3 m = 5.9 mm

Ray Optics, Young's Double Slit Experiment
In a double-slit experiment, at a certain point on the screen the path difference between the two
1
interfering waves is 8 th of a wavelength. The ratio of the intensity of light at that point to that at the
centre of a bright fringe is
0.568
0.853
0.760
0.672
b
Consider the path difference between the waves and the resulting interference pattern. Use the
relationship between path difference and intensity in double-slit interference.
Δ𝜙 2𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 ( ) ; Δ𝜙 = ⋅ Δ𝑥
2 𝜆
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
Given Δ𝑥 = ; Δ𝜙 = ⋅ =
8 𝜆 8 4
𝑙 𝜋
So, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 (𝜋/8); = cos2 ( ) = 0.853
𝐼0 8
Interference and Diffraction, Double Slit Experiment
𝑎 1
In an interference experiment the ratio of amplitudes of coherent waves is 𝑎1 = 3. The ratio of
2
maximum and minimum intensities of fringes will be
4
9
2
18
a
Consider the equation for the resultant intensity in an interference pattern, which is proportional to
the square of the resultant amplitude. The ratio of maximum and minimum amplitudes is equal to
the ratio of the square of the maximum and minimum resultant amplitudes.
𝐼max (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2 (1 + 3)2 16 4
= = = = =4
𝐼mix (𝑎1 ⋯ 𝑎2 )2 (1 − 3)2 4 1
Coherence and Interference, Intensity ratio of fringes
The figure shows a Young's double slit experimental setup. It is observed that when a thin
transparent sheet of thickness 𝑡 and refractive index 𝜇 is put in front of one of the slits, the central
maximum gets shifted by
a distance equal to 𝑛 fringe widths. If the wavelength of light used is 𝜆, 𝑡 will be

𝑛𝐷𝜆
𝑎(𝜇 − 1)
2𝐷𝜆
𝑎(𝜇 − 1)
2𝑛𝐷𝜆
𝑎(𝜇 − 1)
𝐷𝜆
𝑎(𝜇 − 1)
Consider the interference effect of light passing through the sheet and the other slit. Apply the
concept of optical path length difference and use the formula for constructive interference fringes.
The shift in pattern,
𝐷
Δ𝑥 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝑎
Given, Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝛽
𝐷
∴ 𝑛𝛽 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝑎
𝜆𝐷 𝐷 𝑛𝜆
𝑛 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡 =
𝑎 𝑎 (𝜇 − 1)
None of the given options is correct.

Interference and Diffraction,Interference in Double Slit Experiment
In a Young's double slit experiment, the ratio of the slit's width is 41. The ratio of the intensity of
maxima to minima, close to the central fringe on the screen, will be
(Main 10 0th April 2nd Shift 2019)
(√3 + 1)4 16
91
259
41
b
Relate the intensity of light to the width of the slit using the appropriate formula. Consider the
interference pattern and the relationship between path difference, wavelength, and fringe intensity.
Intensity of light (𝐼) ∝ Width of slit (𝑤).
𝐼1 𝑤1 4
i.e., = =
𝐼2 𝑤2 1
2 2
𝐼max √𝐼1+√𝐼2 √4+√1 9
So, =( ) =( ) =
𝐼min √𝐼1−√𝐼2 √4−1 1
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Intensity Ratio
In a double slit experiment, when a thin film of thickness 𝑡 having refractive index 𝜇 is introduced in
front of one of the slits, the maximum at the centre of the fringe pattern shifts by one fringe width.
The value of 𝑡 is (𝜆 is the wavelength of the light used)
(Main 12 th April 1st Shift 2019)
𝜆
(𝜇 − 1)
𝜆
(2𝜇 − 1)
2𝜆
(𝜇 − 1)
𝜆
2(𝜇 − 1)
a
Consider the change in optical path length due to the introduction of the thin film, and relate it to
the condition for constructive interference in a double-slit experiment.
One fringe is shifted when there is change of 𝜆 in the path difference of interfering waves
In this case, path difference of (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 is created
𝜆
So, (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝜆 ; 𝑡 =
(𝜇−1)
Interference in Wave Optics, Thin Film Interference
Two coherent sources produce waves of different intensities which interfere. After interference, the
ratio of the maximum intensity to the minimum intensity is 16 . The intensity of the waves are in the
ratio
169
53
259
41
c
Consider the path difference between the two waves at corresponding points where maximum and
minimum intensities are observed. Apply constructive and destructive interference conditions to find
the intensity ratio of the original two waves.
𝐼max 16 𝐴 +𝐴 2 16
= or ( 1 2 ) =
𝐼min 1 𝐴1−𝐴2 1
⇒ 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 4𝐴1 − 4𝐴2
𝐴 5
⇒ 3𝐴1 = 5𝐴2 or 𝐴1 = 3
2
𝐼1 25
∴ =
𝐼2 9
Interference of Light, Coherent sources
In a Young's double slit experiment, the slits are placed 0.320 mm apart. Light of wavelength 𝜆 =
500 nm is incident on the slits. The total number of bright fringes that are observed in the angular
range −30∘ ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 30∘ is
641
321
640
320
a
Consider the path difference between waves from the two slits and relate it to the wavelength and
the angle of the bright fringes. Determine the maximum value of the path difference that still
produces a bright fringe within the given angular range.
𝑑 = 0.320 mm, 𝜆 = 500 nm
Path difference, 𝑑sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑑sin 𝜃
Maximum value of integer, 𝑛 =
𝜆
0.32 × 10−3 × (1/2) 1600

= = = 320
500 × 10−9 5
Hence, total number of maxima observed in angular range −30∘ ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 30∘ is = 320 + 1 + 320 =
641
Interference, Young's Double Slit Experiment
In a Young's double slit experiment with slit separation 0.1 mm, one observes a bright fringe at angle
1
rad by using light of wavelength 𝜆1 . When the light of wavelength 𝜆2 is used a bright fringe is seen
40
at the same angle in the same set up. Given that 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 are in visible range ( 380 nm to 740 nm ),
their values are
400 nm, 500 nm
625 nm, 500 nm
380 nm, 525 nm
380 nm, 500 nm
b
Consider the relationship between path difference, slit separation, angle of observation, and
wavelength. Determine how the change in wavelength affects the path difference and use this to
infer the relationship between the two wavelengths.
Path difference = 𝑑sin 𝜃 ≃ 𝑑 × 𝜃
1
= (0.1 mm) = 2.5 × 10−3 mm
40
= 2500 nm
For bright fringes, path difference = 𝑛𝜆
So, 2500 = 𝑛𝜆1 = 𝑚𝜆2 or 𝜆1 = 500 nm, 𝜆2 = 625 nm

Young's Double Slit Experiment, Path Difference
Consider a Young's double slit experiment as shown in figure. What should be the Source slit
separation 𝑑 in terms of wavelength
𝜆 such that the first minima occurs directly in front of the slit (𝑆1 ) ?
𝜆
2(√5 − 2)
𝜆
(5 − √2)
𝜆
(√5 − 2)
𝜆
2(5 − √2)
a
Use the condition for the first minima (m = 0) in Young's double-slit experiment path difference = 0.
Path difference,
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝜆/2
𝜆
√4𝑑 2 + 𝑑 2 − 2𝑑 =
2
𝜆 𝜆
𝑑(√5 − 2) = ⇒𝑑=
2 2(√5 − 2)
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Condition for First Minima
In a Young's double slit experiment, the path difference, at a certain point on the screen, between
1
two interfering waves is 8 th of wavelength. The ratio of the intensity at this point to that at the
centre of a bright fringe is close to
0.80
0.94
0.85
0.74
c
Consider the intensity of light at a point on the screen where the path difference is a fraction of the
wavelength. Use the relationship between path difference, phase difference, and intensity to
determine the ratio of intensities.
The phase difference between two waves is given as
2𝜋 𝜆 2𝜋 𝜋
Δ𝑥 × = × =
𝜆 8 𝜆 4
So, the intensity at this point is
𝜋
𝜋 1 + cos 4
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 ; 𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( )
8 2
1
1+
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( √2) = 0.85𝐼
0
2
Diffraction, Intensity pattern in Young's Double Slit Experiment

In a Young's double slit experiment, slits are separated by 0.5 mm and the screen is placed 150 cm
away. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain
interference fringes on the screen. The least distance from the common central maximum to the
point where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide is
(Main 2017)
1.56 mm
7.8 mm
9.75 mm
15.6 mm
b
Consider the path difference between waves with different wavelengths for the same bright fringe
number. The least distance will occur when the path difference is an integer multiple of the
wavelength of the longer wavelength.
Let 𝑦 be the distance from the central maximum to the point where the bright fringes due to both
the wavelengths coincides.
𝑚𝜆1𝐷
Now, for 𝜆1 , 𝑦 = .
𝑑
𝑛𝜆2𝐷
For 𝜆2 , 𝑦 =
𝑑
𝑚 𝜆2 520 4
∴ 𝑚𝜆1 = 𝑛𝜆2 ⇒ = = =
𝑛 𝜆1 650 5
i.e., with respect to central maximum 4th bright fringe of 𝜆1 coincides with 5th bright fringe of 𝜆2 .
4×650×10−9×1.5
Now, 𝑦 = 0.5×10−3
m
⇒ 𝑦 = 7.8 × 10−3 m or 𝑦 = 7.8 mm

Wave Optics, Interference due to double slits
In Young's double slit experiment, the distance between slits and the screen is 1.0 m and
monochromatic light of 600 nm is being used. A person standing near the slits is looking at the fringe
pattern. When the separation between the slits is varied, the interference pattern disappears for a
particular distance 𝑑0 between the slits.
1∘
If the angular resolution of the eye is 60, the value of 𝑑0 is close to
(Main Online 2016)
1 mm
3 mm
2 mm
4 mm
c
The interference pattern disappears when the angular separation between the bright fringes is equal
to the angular resolution of the eye. The angular separation is related to the wavelength of light, the
distance between the slits, and the distance from the slits to the screen.
For a particular distance 𝑑0 between the slits, the eye is not able to resolve two consecutive bright
fringes.
𝛽 𝜆𝐷 𝜆
Now, 𝜃 = 𝐷 but 𝛽 = ∴ 𝜃=𝑑
𝑑0 0
𝜆 600×10−9 m
or 𝑑0 = = 1 𝜋
𝜃 × rad
60 180
= 2.06 × 10−3 m ≈ 2 mm
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Angular Resolution and Interference Pattern
In a Young's double slit experiment with light of wavelength 𝜆 the separation of slits is 𝑑 and distance
of screen is 𝐷 such that 𝐷 ≫ 𝑑 ≫ 𝜆. If the fringe width is 𝛽, the distance from point of maximum
intensity to the point where intensity falls to half of maximum intensity on either side is
(Main Online 2015)
𝛽
2
𝛽
4
𝛽
3
𝛽
6
b
Consider the path length difference between waves from each slit to the point of interference. Use
the formula for fringe width to relate the path length difference to the distance from the point of
maximum intensity.
Intensity at any point on the screen is given by
𝜙
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 cos2 ( ) ; 𝐼max = 4𝐼0
2
𝐼max 𝜙
Now, = 2𝐼0 = 4𝐼0 cos2 ( )
2 2
𝜙 1 𝜙 𝜋 𝜋
cos ( ) = ∴ = ;𝜙 =
2 √2 2 4 2
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜆
Also 𝜆
Δ𝑥 = 2 ; Δ𝑥 = 4
𝑑 𝜆 𝜆𝐷 𝛽
𝑦 = ∴𝑦= =
𝐷 4 4𝑑 4
Interference, Fringe Width and Intensity Distribution
Two coherent point sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are separated by a small distance ' 𝑑 ' as shown. The fringes
obtained on the screen will be
(Main 2013)
concentric circles
Points
straight lines
semi-circles
a
Consider the path difference between waves from sources S1 and S2 at a point on the screen. Use
the principle of superposition and interference to determine the resulting intensity pattern.
When the screen is placed perpendicular to the line joining the sources, the fringes will be concentric
circles.
Interference of Light, Coherent Sources and Circular Fringes
In the Young's double slit experiment using a monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆, the path
difference (in terms of an integer 𝑛 ) corresponding to any point having half the peak intensity is
(Advanced 2013)
𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1)
2
𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1) 4
𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1)
8
𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1) 16
b
Consider the relationship between phase difference and path difference. Recall that intensity is
proportional to the square of the amplitude, which in turn is affected by the phase difference.
𝜙
As 𝐼 = 𝐼max cos2 ( )
2
𝐼max
Here, 𝐼 =
2
𝐼max 𝜙 1 𝜙
∴ = 𝐼max cos2 ( ) ⇒ = cos2
2 2 2 2
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
⇒ cos 𝜙 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙 = , , ,…
2 2 2
𝜋
or 𝜙 = (2𝑛 + 1) where 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … …
2
2𝜋
Since phase difference = × Path difference
𝜆
𝜆
∴ Path difference = × Phase difference
2𝜋
𝜆 𝜋 𝜆
= × (2𝑛 + 1) = (2𝑛 + 1)
2𝜋 2 4
Interference and Diffraction , Double Slit Experiment
In Young's double slit experiment, one of the slit is wider than other, so that the amplitude of the
light from one slit is double of that from other slit. If 𝐼𝑚 be the maximum intensity, the resultant
intensity 𝐼 when they interfere at phase difference 𝜙 is given by
(AIEEE 2012)
𝐼𝑚 𝜙
(1 + 2cos2 )
3 2
𝐼𝑚 𝜙
(1 + 4cos2 )
5 2
𝐼𝑚 𝜙
(1 + 8cos2 )
9 2
𝐼𝑚
(4 + 5cos 𝜙)
9
c
Consider the formula for intensity in double-slit interference and apply superposition principle to
calculate resultant intensity considering different amplitudes from slits and phase difference.
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Intensity in Double Slit Interference
Young's double slit experiment is carried out by using green, red and blue light, one colour at a time.
The fringe widths recorded are 𝛽𝐺 , 𝛽𝑅 and 𝛽𝐵 , respectively. Then,
(IIT-JEE 2012)
𝛽𝐺 > 𝛽𝐵 > 𝛽𝑅
𝛽𝐵 > 𝛽𝐺 > 𝛽𝑅
𝛽𝑅 > 𝛽𝐵 > 𝛽𝐺
𝛽𝑅 > 𝛽𝐺 > 𝛽𝐵
d
Remember that the fringe width is inversely proportional to the wavelength of light, and use the
given values for fringe widths and wavelengths to solve for the wavelength of green light.
𝜆𝐷
Fringe width, 𝛽 =
𝑑
∴ 𝛽∝𝜆
As 𝜆𝑅 > 𝜆𝐺 > 𝜆𝐵 ∴ 𝛽𝑅 > 𝛽𝐺 > 𝛽𝐵

Interference, Young's Double Slit Experiment
The question has a paragraph followed by two statements, Statement-1 and Statement-2. Of the
given four alternatives after the statements, choose the one that describes the statements.
A thin air film is formed by putting the convex surface of a plane-convex lens over a plane glass plate.
With monochromatic light, this film gives an interference pattern due to light reflected from the top
(convex) surface and the bottom (glass plate) surface of the film.
Statement-1 When light reflects from the air-glass plate interface, the reflected wave suffers a phase
change of 𝜋. Statement-2 The centre of the interference pattern is dark.
(AIEEE 2011)
Statement- 1 is true, Statement- 2 is false.
Statement-1 is true, Statement- 2 is true, Statement-2 is the correct explanation of Statement-1.
Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true, Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of Statement-I.
Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.
c
- Air-glass interface causes a phase change of pi in the reflected light due to a change in the refractive
index.
- At the centre of Newton's rings, the path difference between the interfering light waves is zero,
resulting in destructive interference and a dark spot.
Thin Film Interference, Phase Change and Centre of Interference Pattern
A mixture of light, consisting of wavelength 590 nm and an unknown wavelength, illuminates Youngs
double slit and gives rise to two overlapping interference patterns on the screen. The central
maximum of both lights coincide. Further, it is observed that the third bright fringe of known light
coincides with the 4 th bright fringe of the unknown light. From this data, the wavelength of the
unknown light is
(AIEEE 2009)
393.4 nm
885.0 nm
442.5 nm
776.8 nm
c
Consider the path difference formula for bright and dark fringes in Young's double-slit experiment.
Determine the ratio of the path differences for the bright fringes of the two lights to find the
relationship between their wavelengths.
𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑑
For interference, by Young's double slits, the path difference 𝐷
= 𝑛𝜆 for bright fringes and 𝐷
=
𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1) 2 for getting dark fringes.
The central fringes when 𝑥 = 0, coincide for all wavelengths.
The third fringe of 𝜆1 = 590 nm coincides with the fourth bright fringe of unknown wavelength 𝜆.
𝑥𝑑
∴ = 3 × 590 nm = 4 × 1 nm
𝐷
3 × 590
∴𝜆= = 442.5 nm
4
Interference of light, Determination of Wavelength using Interference
𝜆
In a Young's double slit experiment the intensity at a point where the path difference is 6 ( being the
𝐼
wavelength of light used) is 𝐼. If 𝐼0 denotes the maximum intensity, 𝐼 is equal to
0
(AIEEE 2007)
3
4
1
√2
√3
2
1
2
a
Consider the intensity formula for Young's double slit experiment and relate the path difference to
the phase difference. Use the given value of path difference to determine the phase difference and
substitute it in the intensity formula to find the intensity.
In Young's double slit experiment intensity at a point is given by
𝜙
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 ( )
2
where 𝜙 = phase difference,
𝐼0 = maximum intensity
𝐼 𝜙
or = cos2 ( )
𝐼0 2
Phase difference
2𝜋
𝜙= 𝜆
× path difference
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
∴𝜙= 𝜆
× 6 or 𝜙 = 3
Substitute eqn. (ii) in eqn. (i), we get
𝐼 𝜋 𝐼 3
𝐼0
= cos2 ( 6 ) or 𝐼 = 4
0
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Intensity Variation
A Young's double slit experiment uses a monochromatic source. The shape of the interference fringes
formed on a screen
(AIEEE 2005)
straight line
Parabola
Hyperbola
Circle
c
Consider the path difference between waves from the two slits interfering at a point on the screen.
Use the principle of superposition to determine the intensity at that point.
Hyperbolic line fringes are formed on screen.
Interference, Formation of Hyperbolic Interference Fringes in Young's Double Slit Experiment
In Young's double slit experiment intensity at a point is (1/4) of the maximum intensity. Angular
position of this point is
(IIT-JEE 2005)
sin−1 (𝜆/𝑑)
sin−1 (𝜆/3𝑑)
sin−1 (𝜆/2𝑑)
sin−1 (𝜆/4𝑑).
c
Consider the path difference between waves reaching the given point. Use the formula for intensity
in double-slit experiment and solve for the path difference. This will lead to the angular position of
the point.
In Young's double slit experiment, intensity at any point 𝑃 is given by 𝐼 = 𝐼max cos2 (𝜙/2).
where 𝜙 denotes the phase difference at 𝑃.
𝜙
∵ 𝐼 = 𝐼max cos2 ( )
2
𝐼max 𝜙
∴ = 𝐼max cos2 ( )
4 2
𝜙 1 𝜋
or cos ( ) = = cos ( )
2 2 3
𝜙 𝜋 2𝜋
or 2 = 3 or 𝜙 =
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
or 𝜆
∧𝑥 = 3
or Δ𝑥 = 𝜆/3
Path difference Δ𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝑄 = 𝑑sin 𝜃
or 𝑑sin 𝜃 = 𝜆/3
𝜆
or 𝜃 = sin−1 (3𝑑)
Young's Double Slit Experiment, Angular Position of Point of Intensity
The maximum number of possible interference maxima for slit-separation equal to twice the
wavelength in Young's double-slit experiment is
(AIEEE 2004)
Infinite
Five
Three
Zero
b
Principle 1 Interference maxima occur when the path difference between waves from the two slits is
an integer multiple of the wavelength.
Principle 2 The path difference is determined by the slit separation and the angle of observation.
Principle 3 For a given slit separation, the maximum number of maxima occurs when the maximum
path difference is equal to the wavelength.
Principle 4 The maximum path difference is twice the slit separation for normal incidence (angle of
observation = 0).
For interference maxima,
𝑑sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛
∴ 2𝜆sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 or sin 𝜃 = 2
This equation is satisfied if 𝑛 = −2, −1,0,1,2 sin 𝜃 is never greater than (+1), less than (−1)
∴ Maximum number of maxima can be five.

Interference in Young's Double Slit Experiment, Maximum number of interference maxima
Monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm and 560 nm are incident simultaneously and normally
on double slit apparatus whose slit separation is 0.1 mm and screen distance is 1 m. Distance
between areas of total darkness will be
(IIT-JEE 2004)
4 mm
5.6 mm
14 mm
28 mm
d
To determine the distance between areas of total darkness, consider the condition for minima for
both wavelengths. Use the path difference between the slits to derive equations for the distances
where minima occur. Examine these equations to identify the possible solutions and calculate the
distance between them.
At the area of total darkness, in double slit apparatus, minima will occur for both the wavelengths
which are incident simultaneously and normally.
(2𝑛 + 1)𝜆1 (2𝑚 + 1)𝜆2
∴ =
2 2
2𝑛+1 𝜆
or 2𝑚+1 = 𝜆2
1
2𝑛+1 560 7
or 2𝑚+1 = 400 = 5
or 10𝑛 = 14𝑚 + 2
By inspection, the two solutions are
(i) if 𝑚1 = 2, 𝑛1 = 3
(ii) if 𝑚2 = 7, 𝑛2 = 10
∴ Distance between areas correspond to these points.
𝐷𝜆1
∴ Distance Δ𝑆 =
𝑑
(2𝑛2 + 1) − (2𝑛1 + 1)
[ ]
2
Put 𝑛2 = 10 and 𝑛1 = 3,
1 × (400 × 10−9 ) 21 − 7
Δ𝑆 = [ ]
0.1 × 10−3 2
or Δ𝑆 = 4 × 7 × 10−3 m or Δ𝑆 = 28 mm.
Waves and Optics, Interference in double slit experiment
To demonstrate the phenomenon of interference we require two sources which emit radiation of
(AIEEE 2003)
nearly the same frequency
the same frequency
different wavelength
the same frequency and having a definite phase relationship.
d
To demonstrate interference, sources should emit radiation with
- Same frequency to produce coherent superposition.

- Definite phase relationship to result in alternating regions of constructive and destructive
interference.
For interference phenomenon, two sources should emit radiation of the same frequency and having
a definite phase relationship.
Interference, Coherent Sources
In the given diagram, 𝐶𝑃 represents a wavefront and 𝐴𝑂 and 𝐵𝑃, the corresponding two rays. Find
the condition in 𝜃 for constructive interference at 𝑃 between the ray 𝐵𝑃 and reflected ray 𝑂𝑃.
(IIT-JEE 2003)
cos 𝜃 = 3𝜆/2𝑑
sec 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = 𝜆/𝑑
cos 𝜃 = 𝜆/4𝑑
sec 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = 4𝜆/𝑑.
b
Consider the path difference between the ray and reflected ray. Use the relation for constructive
interference and the fact that the path difference is twice the distance between the wavefront and
the point of observation.
Wave Optics, Interference of Light

In the ideal double-slit experiment, when a glass-plate (refractive index 1.5) of thickness 𝑡 is
introduced in the path of one of the interfering beams (wavelength ), the intensity at the position
where the central maximum occurred previously remains unchanged. The minimum thickness of the
glass-plate is
(IIT-JEE 2002)
2𝜆
2 𝜆/3
𝜆/3
𝜆
a
Consider the path difference caused by the glass plate. Apply the condition for constructive
interference to find the minimum path difference that results in the central maximum. Utilize the
relationship between path difference, wavelength, and refractive index to solve for the minimum
plate thickness.
Path difference due to slab = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
or (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
For minimum thickness 𝑡 of plate, 𝑛 should be minimum i.e. 𝑛 = 1
∴ (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
or 𝑡 = 𝜇−1 or 𝑡 = 1.5−1 or 𝑡 = 2𝜆.
Interference, Path difference in interference
In Young's double slit experiment, 12 fringes are observed to be formed in a certain segment of the
screen when light of wavelength 600 nm is used. If the wavelength of light is changed to 400 nm,
number of fringes observed in the same segment of the screen is given by
(IIT-JEE 2001)
12
18
24
30
b
Consider the dependence of fringe width on wavelength. Determine the ratio of the number of
fringes formed with the two wavelengths in the same segment of the screen.
𝜆𝐷
Fringe width 𝛽 = 𝑑
12 fringes of 𝜆1 , occupy a segment of screen.
Let 𝑁 fringes of 𝜆2 occupy the same segment.
𝜆2 𝐷 𝜆1 𝐷
∴ 𝑁( ) = 12 ( )
𝑑 𝑑
12×600×10−9
or 𝑁 =
400×10−9
or 𝑁 = 18
Interference and Diffraction, Young's Double Slit Experiment
Two beams of light having intensities 𝐼 and 4𝐼 interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a screen. The
phase difference between the beams is 𝜋/2 at point 𝐴 and 𝜋 at point 𝐵. Then the difference
between the resultant intensities at 𝐴 and 𝐵 is
(IIT-JEE 2001)
2𝐼
4𝐼
5𝐼
7𝐼
b
Relate the intensity of the beams with the phase difference using the concepts of superposition and
interference of waves.
𝐼(𝜙) = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
𝐼1 = 𝐼, 𝐼2 = 4𝐼
∴ At 𝐴 when 𝜙 = 𝜋/2, 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼 + 4𝐼 = 5𝐼
Again at 𝐵 when 𝜙 = 𝜋,
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼 + 4𝐼 + 2√𝐼 × 4𝐼cos 𝜋
or 𝐼𝐵 = 5𝐼 − 4𝐼
or 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼
∴ 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 = 5𝐼 − 𝐼 or 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 = 4𝐼
Interference in Young's Double Slit Experiment, Path Length Difference and Phase Difference
In a double slit experiment instead of taking slits of equal widths, one slit is made twice as wide as
the other. Then, in the interference pattern
the intensities of both the maxima and the minima increase
the intensity of the maxima increases and the minima has zero intensity
the intensity of the maxima decreases and that of the minima increases
the intensity of the maxima decreases and the minima has zero intensity.
a
Consider the relationship between slit width and intensity distribution in a double-slit experiment.
Analyze the effect of doubling the width of one slit on the maxima and minima intensities.
When slits are of equal width,
𝐼max ∝ (√𝐼 + √𝐼)2 ∝ 4𝐼 = 4𝐾𝐼 (say)
𝐼min ∝ (√𝐼 − √𝐼)2 ∝ zero = zero
In second case,
𝐼1 𝑊1 𝑊 1
= = =
𝐼2 𝑊2 2𝑊 2
2
′
∴ 𝐼max = 𝐾(√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 )
2
′
𝐼max = 𝐾(√𝐼1 + √2𝐼1 ) = 𝐾𝐼1 (1 + √2)2
= 𝐾𝐼1 × (2.414)2 = 5.8KII = 5.8KI

2
′
𝐼min 𝐾(√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 ) = 𝐾𝐼1 (1 − √2)2
= 𝐾𝐼(−0.414)2 = 0.17𝐾𝐼
′
𝐼max > 𝐼max from (iii) and (i)
′
𝐼min > 𝐼min from (iv) and (ii)
∴ Intensities of both, the maxima and the minima will increase.

Interference and Diffraction, Double Slit Experiment
In an interference arrangement similar to Young's double-slit experiment, the slits 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are
illuminated with coherent microwave sources, each of frequency 106 Hz. The sources are
synchronized to have zero phase difference. The slits are (IIT-JEE 2000) separated by a distance =
150.0 m. The intensity 𝐼(𝜃) is measured as a function of 𝜃, where 𝜃 is defined as shown. If 𝐼0 is the
maximum intensity, then 𝐼(𝜃) for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90∘ is given by
(IIT-JEE 1995)
𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 /2, for 𝜃 = 30∘
𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 /4, for 𝜃 = 90∘
𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 , for 𝜃 = 0∘
𝐼(𝜃) is constant for all values of 𝜃.
c
Consider the phase difference between the waves reaching a point on the screen from the two slits.
Use the path difference and the wavelength to determine the constructive and destructive
interference conditions.
Consider the maxima and minima in the interference pattern and relate them to the path difference
and the wavelength.
The intensity 𝐼(𝜃) is measured as a function of 𝜃. 𝐼0 denotes the maximum intensity.
𝜃 varies from 0∘ to 90∘

𝛿
∵ 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 ( )
2
2𝜋 𝑑𝑦 2𝜋𝑑tan 𝜃
Where 𝛿 = × =
𝜆 𝐷 𝜆
𝜋𝑑tan 𝜃
∴ 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 ( )
𝜆
3×108
where 𝜆 = 106
= 300 m
𝜋×150×tan 𝜃
or 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 ( )
300
𝜋
or 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 ( 2 tan 𝜃)
(a) When 𝜃 = 30∘ ,
𝜋×1
𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 ( )
2√3
Option (a) is incorrect.
(b) When 𝜃 = 90∘ , 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 (∞)
Option (b) is incorrect.
(c) When 𝜃 = 0, 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 cos2 (0)
∴ 𝐼(𝜃) = 𝐼0 .
The option (𝑐) is correct.
(d) 𝐼(𝜃) varies with value of 𝜃
Option (d) is incorrect.
Hence only option (c) is correct.

Interference in double slit experiment, Path Difference
Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities 𝐼 and 4𝐼 are superposed. The maximum and
minimum possible intensities in the resulting beam are
.(IIT-JEE 1988)
5𝐼 and 𝐼
5𝐼 and 3𝐼
9𝐼 and 𝐼
9 I and 3I
c
Consider the interference of the two beams and the resulting intensity variations due to path length
differences and relative phase. Recall the relationship between intensity and electric field amplitude.
2
𝐼max = (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 ) = (√4𝐼 + √𝐼)2 = 9𝐼
2
𝐼min = (√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 ) = (√4𝐼 − √𝐼)2 = 𝐼
Interference of Light, Superposition of Waves
In Young's double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is halved and the distance
between the slits and the screen is doubled. The fringe width is
(IIT-JEE 1981)
Unchanged
Doubled
Halved
Quadrupled
d
Consider the formula for fringe width in double slit experiment. Analyze how changing the
separation between slits and the distance between slits and screen affects the value of fringe width
using physics principles.
𝜆𝐷
In double slit experiment, fringe width 𝛽 = .
𝑑
𝛽2 𝐷2 𝑑1
∴ = ( ) ( ) = (2)(2) = 4
𝛽1 𝐷1 𝑑2
or 𝛽2 = 4𝛽1
Fringe width will become four times.

Young's Double Slit Experiment, Fringe Width in Double Slit Experiment
The aperture of the objective is 24.4 cm. The resolving power of this telescope, if a light of
wavelength 2440Å is used to see the object will be
8.1 × 106
8.2 × 105
10.0 × 107
1.0 × 10−8
c
Consider the relationship between resolving power and wavelength, and the dependency of
resolving power on the aperture of the objective.
Here, wavelength of light 𝜆 = 2440Å
Aperture of objective of the telescope, 𝑎 = 24.4 cm

𝑎
Resolving power of telescope = 1.22𝜆
24.4 × 10−2
= = 8.2 × 105
1.22 × 2440 × 10−10
Interference and Diffraction, Resolving Power of Telescope
Consider the diffraction pattern obtained from the sunlight incident on a pinhole of diameter 0.1𝜇m.
If the diameter of the pinhole is slightly increased, it will affect the diffraction pattern such that
(Main 25 th Feb2nd Shift 2021)
its size decreases, and intensity increases
its size increases, and intensity decreases
its size decreases, and intensity decreases
its size increases, and intensity increases
a
Consider the formula for the width of the central maximum in a diffraction pattern, particularly the
relationship between the hole size and the resulting width.
We know that,
2𝜆𝐷
Width of central maximum =
𝑎
where 𝑎 is the size of hole, 𝜆 is the wavelength of light used.
When size of the hole is increased, the width of central maxima decreases. As the size of hole
decreases, more and more light will pass through it, hence intensity will increase. Intensity is also
1
increasing due to the concentration of light on a smaller area, as intensity ∝
area
Diffraction, Effect of Size of Aperture on Diffraction Pattern
Visible light of wavelength 6000 × 10−8 cm falls normally on a single slit and produces a diffraction
pattern. It - is found that the second diffraction minimum is at 60∘ from the central maximum. If the
first minimum is produced at 𝜃1 , then 𝜃1 is close to
45∘
30∘
25∘
20∘
c
Consider the principle of destructive interference for the diffraction of light through a single slit.
Relate the path difference between the rays diffracted from the slit edges to the wavelength of light
and the distance from the slit to the minima. Use this relationship to determine the ratio of the
distances of the first and second minima from the central maximum and subsequently find the
approximate value of lambda.
In a single slit, for a destructive interference, 𝑑sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
For second minima, 𝑑sin 𝜃 = 2𝜆
Here 𝜃 = 60∘ , 𝜆 = 6000 × 10−8 cm
From eqn. (i), 𝑑sin 60∘ = 2 × 6000 × 10−8
𝑑 = 13.85 × 10−5 cm
For first minima, 𝑛 = 1
𝑑sin 𝜃1 = 1𝜆
Using value of ' 𝑑 ' and ' 𝜆 ' in eqn. (ii), we get
6000 × 10−8 cm
sin 𝜃1 = = 0.4332
13.85 × 10−5 cm
𝜃1 = 25.67∘ ≃ 25∘
Diffraction through a Single Slit, Diffraction Minima
The aperture diameter of a telescope is 5 m. The separation between the moon and the earth is
4 × 105 km. With light of wavelength of 5500Å, the minimum separation between objects on the
surface of moon, so that they are just resolved, is close to
600 m
20 m
60 m
200 m
c
Apply the Rayleigh's criterion for the resolution of two objects by a telescope. Use the formula for
the diameter of the central diffraction peak. Substitute the given values to find the minimum
separation.
Diameter 𝐷 = 5 m,
𝑑 = 4 × 105 km, 𝜆 = 5500Å
Let the minin'1m separation is 𝑥.
1.22𝜆 𝑥 1.27𝜆
𝜃= ⇒ =
𝐷 𝑑 𝐷
1.22 × 5500 × 10−10 × 4 × 108

⇒ 𝑥=
5
⇒ 𝑥 = 53.68 m
Thus the nearest possible value is 60 m

Diffraction, Rayleigh criterion
Calculate the limit of resolution of a telescope objective having a diameter of 200 cm, if it has to
detect light of wavelength 500 nm coming from a star.
610 × 10−9 radian
457.5 × 10−9 radian
152.5 × 10−9 radian
305 × 10−9 radian
d
Consider the diffraction of light through a circular aperture and apply the Rayleigh criterion for the
limit of resolution.
The limit of resolution,
1.22𝜆 1.22 × 500 × 10−9
Δ𝜃 = =
𝑎 200 × 10−2
= 3.05 × 10−7 radian = 305 × 10−9 radian

Limit of Resolution of an Optical System, Resolving Power of a Telescope Objective
Diameter of the objective lens of a telescope is 250 cm. For light of wavelength 600 nm coming from
a distant object, the limit of resolution of the telescope is close to
2.0 × 10−7 rad
4.5 × 10−7 rad
1.5 × 10−7 rad
3.0 × 10−7 rad
d
Use the Rayleigh's criterion for the limit of resolution to arrive at the answer. Consider the diameter
of the objective lens and the wavelength of light as the key factors in determining the limit of
resolution.
1.22𝜆
Limit of resolution of the telescope =
𝐷
Here 𝐷 = 250 × 10−2 m, 𝜆 = 600 × 10−9 m
1.22 × 600 × 10−9

∴ 𝑑𝜃 = ≈ 3.0 × 10−7 rad
250 × 10−2
Limit of Resolution of Telescope,Rayleigh's Criterion
The value of numerical aperture of the objective lens of a microscope is 1.25 . If light of wavelength
5000Å is used, the minimum separation between two points, to be seen as distinct, will be
0.48 𝜇m
0.12 𝜇m
0.38 𝜇m
0.24 𝜇m
d
Consider the relationship between numerical aperture and the angle of the cone of light entering the
objective lens. Determine the maximum angle of resolution and use it to calculate the minimum
separation distance using the principles of diffraction and interference.
0.61𝜆
Numerical aperture of objective lens of microscope = 𝑑
Minimum separation between two points 𝑑 to be seen clearly,
0.61𝜆
𝑑=
Numerical aperture
0.61 × 5000 × 10−10
= = 0.24𝜇m
1.25
Ray Optics, Numerical Aperture
In a double-slit experiment, green light ( 5303Å ) falls on a double slit having a separation of
19.44𝜇m and a width of 4.05𝜇m. The number of bright fringes between the first and the second
diffraction minima is
10
04
05
09
c
Consider the conditions for diffraction and interference to determine the number of bright fringes
between the first and second minima. Ensure that the width of the slit is considered for the
diffraction condition.
𝜆𝑔 = 5303Å, 𝑑 = 19.44𝜇m, 𝑎 = 4.05𝜇m
For diffraction location of first minima,
𝐷𝜆
𝑦1 =
𝑎
2𝐷𝜆
Location of second minima, 𝑦2 = 𝑎
For interference,
𝑑𝑦1 𝑑𝜆
𝑑sin 𝜃 ≈ = = 4.80𝜆
𝐷 𝑎
𝑑𝑦 2𝑑𝜆
Also, 𝑑sin 𝜃˙ ′ = 2 = = 9.62𝜆
𝐷 𝑎
Number of bright fringes correspond to 𝑛 = 5,6,7,8,9

Diffraction and Interference, Diffraction Grating
The angular width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction pattern is 60∘ . The width of the
slit is 1𝜇m. The slit is illuminated by monochromatic plane waves. If another slit of same width is
made near it, Young's fringes can be observed on a screen placed at a distance 50 cm from the slits.
If the observed fringe width is 1 cm, what is slit separation distance?
(i.e. distance between the centres of each slit.)
(Main 2018)
25 𝜇m
75 𝜇m
50 𝜇m
100 𝜇m
a
Use the formula for the angular width of the central maximum in single-slit diffraction and the
relation between fringe width and slit separation in Young's double-slit experiment to determine the
slit separation distance.
𝑎 1×10−6 m
In a single slit diffraction, 𝑎sin 𝜃 = 𝜆 𝜆 = 2 = ∴ 𝜆 = 5000Å
2
In Young's double slit experiment

𝜆𝐷
Fringe width, 𝛽 =
𝑑
( 𝑑 is slit separation)
5000 × 10−10 × 0.5

10−2 =
𝑑
⇒ 𝑑 = 25 × 10−6 m = 25𝜇m
Double Slit Interference, Fringe Width in Young's Double-Slit Experiment
Light of wavelength 550 nm falls normally on a slit of width 22.0 × 10−5 cm. The angular position of
the second minima from the central maximum will be (in radians)
(Main Online 2018)
𝜋
8
𝜋
12
𝜋
6
𝜋
4
c
Consider the path difference between two waves from the slit edges to the second minima. Apply
the condition for destructive interference and use the small angle approximation to find the angular
position.
If the angular position of second minima from central maxima is 𝜃 then,
2𝜆 2 × 550 × 10−9 1
sin 𝜃 = = =
𝑎 22 × 10−7 2
𝜋
𝜃= rad
6
Diffraction, Angular Position of Second Minima from Central Maxima
A single slit of width 𝑏 is illuminated by a coherent monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆. If the

second and fourth minima in the diffraction pattern at a distance 1 m from the slit are at 3 cm and
6 cm respectively from the central maximum, what is the width of the central maximum? (i.e.
distance between first minimum on either side of the central maximum)
(Main Online 2017)
6.0 cm
1.5 cm
4.5 cm
3.0 cm
d
Apply the principle of single slit diffraction and use the formula for the position of minima to relate
the distance of the second and fourth minima from the central maximum to the width of the central
maximum.
For single slit diffraction,
𝑛𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
𝑏
Position of 𝑛th minima from central maxima
𝑛𝜆𝐷
=
𝑏
2𝜆𝐷
When 𝑛 = 2, then 𝑥2 = = 0.03
𝑏
4𝜆𝐷
When 𝑛 = 4, then 𝑥4 = 𝑏
= 0.06
Subtracting eqn. (ii) from eqn. (i)
4𝜆𝐷 2𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 0.03

𝑥4 − 𝑥2 = 𝑏
− 𝑏
= 0.03 or 𝑏
= 2
2𝜆𝐷
then width of central maximum = 𝑏
0.03
=2× = 0.03 m = 3 cm
2
Diffraction through Single Slit, Width of Central Maximum
A single slit of width 0.1 mm is illuminated by a parallel beam of light of wavelength 6000Å and
diffraction bands are observed on a screen 0.5 m from the slit. The distance of the third dark band
from the central bright band is
(Main Online 2017)
3 mm
1.5 mm
9 mm
4.5 mm
c
Consider the path length difference between the rays from the slit edges to the third dark band.
Relate this path length difference to the wavelength and slit width using the principle of diffraction.
Here, 𝑑 = 0.1 mm, 𝜆 = 6000Å, 𝐷 = 0.5 m
For third dark band,
3𝜆 𝑦
𝑑sin 𝜃 = 3𝜆; sin 𝜃 = =
𝑑 𝐷
3𝐷𝜆 3 × 0.5 × 6 × 10−7

𝑦= =
𝑑 0.1 × 10−3
= 9 × 10−3 m = 9 mm
Diffraction , Position of Diffraction Bands
The box of a pin hole camera, of length 𝐿, has a hole of radius 𝑎. It is assumed that when the hole is
illuminated by a parallel beam of light of wavelength 𝜆 the spread of the spot (obtained on the
opposite wall of the camera) is the sum of its geometrical spread and the spread due to diffraction.
The spot would then have its minimum size (say 𝑏min ) when
(Main 2016)
𝜆2 2𝜆2
𝑎= and 𝑏min = ( )
𝐿 𝐿
2𝜆2
𝑎 = √𝜆𝐿 and 𝑏min = ( )
𝐿
𝑎 = √𝜆𝐿 and 𝑏min = √4𝜆𝐿
𝜆2
𝑎 = and 𝑏min = √4𝜆𝐿
𝐿
c
Consider the principles of diffraction and geometrical optics to understand how the spot size is
determined by the wavelength of light, the radius of the hole, and the length of the box.
Size of spot, 𝑏 = Geometrical spread + diffraction spread
𝜆
∴ 𝑏 = 𝑎+𝐿
𝑎
𝑑𝑏
Now, value of 𝑏 would be minimum if 𝑑𝑎 = 0
−𝜆
1+ 𝐿( ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 2 = 𝜆𝐿 ⇒ 𝑎 = √𝜆𝐿
𝑎2
𝜆𝐿
∴ 𝑏min = √𝜆𝐿 + = 2√𝜆𝐿 = √4𝜆𝐿
√𝜆𝐿
Diffraction and Interference, Diffraction through a Single Slit
Two stars are 10 light years away from the earth. They are seen through a telescope of objective
diameter 30 cm. The wavelength of light is 600 nm. To see the stars just resolved by the telescope,
the minimum distance between them should be (1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m) of the order of
(Main Online 2016)
108 km
1010 km
1011 km
106 km
a
Consider the Rayleigh criterion which states that two objects are just resolvable when the center of
the diffraction pattern of one object is directly over the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of
the other object. The angular resolution of a telescope is given by theta = 1.22 (wavelength of light)
/ (diameter of the objective).
Here, 𝜆 = 600 nm = 6 × 10−7 m
𝐷 = 30 cm = 30 × 10−2 m = 0.3 m
𝑅 = 10ly = 10 × 9.46 × 1015 m, 𝑙 = ?
1.22𝜆 𝑙
The limit of resolution of a telescope Δ𝜃 = 𝐷
=𝑅
1.22𝜆𝑅 1.22 × 6 × 10−7 × 10 × 9.46 × 1015

𝑙= =
𝐷 0.3
= 2.31 × 108 km
Ray Optics, Resolution of a Telescope
Assuming human pupil to have a radius of 0.25 cm and a comfortable viewing distance of 25 cm, the
minimum separation between two objects that human eye can resolve at 500 nm wavelength is
(Main 2015)
100 𝜇m
300 𝜇m
1 𝜇m
30 𝜇m
d
Consider the resolving power of the eye as the ratio of the wavelength of light to the diameter of the
pupil. Use the given values to calculate the minimum separation.
Given, wavelength of light,
𝜆 = 500 nm = 500 × 10−9 m
Least distance of distinct vision,
𝐷 = 25 cm = 25 × 10−2 m
Radius of pupil, 𝑟 = 0.25 cm
∴ Diameter of pupil, 𝑑 = 2𝑟 = 0.50 cm = 0.50 × 10−2 m
1.22𝜆
Resolving power of eye, Δ𝜃 =
𝑑
1.22 × 500 × 10−9

= = 1.22 × 10−4 rad
0.50 × 10−2
∴ Minimum separation that eye can resolve,
𝑥 = Δ𝜃𝐷 = 1.22 × 10−4 × 25 × 10−2
= 30.5 × 10−6 m = 30𝜇m

Geometrical Optics, Resolving Power of Optical Instruments
Two point white dots are 1 mm apart on a black paper. They are viewed by eye of pupil diameter
3 mm. Approximately, what is the maximum distance at which these dots can be resolved by the
eye? [Take wavelength of light = 500 nm ]
(AIEEE 2005)
6m
3m
5m
1m
c
Consider the relationship between wavelength, pupil diameter, and the angle of diffraction to
determine the maximum distance at which the two dots can be resolved by the eye.
1.22𝜆
Resolution limit =
𝑑
𝑦
Again resolution limit = sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 =
𝐷
𝑦 1.22𝜆 𝑦𝑑 (10−3 )×(3×10−3) 30

∴𝐷= 𝑑
or 𝐷 = 1.22𝜆 or 𝐷 = (1.22)×(5×10−7)
= 6.1 ≈ 5 m
Diffraction and Resolution Limit, Rayleigh's Criterion
If 𝐼0 is the intensity of the principal maximum in the single slit diffraction pattern, then what will be
its intensity when the slit width is doubled?
(AIEEE 2005)
𝐼0
𝐼0 /2
2𝐼0
4𝐼0
a
Consider the path difference between interfering waves and the intensity formula for the single-slit
diffraction pattern to analyze the effect of doubling the slit width.
For diffraction pattern
sin 𝜙 2
𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( ) where 𝜙 denotes path difference.
𝜙
For principal maxima, 𝜙 = 0.
sin 𝜙
Hence ( 𝜙
) =1
Hence intensity remains constant at 𝐼0 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1) = 𝐼0

Diffraction of Light, Intensity of Single Slit Diffraction Pattern
An astronomical telescope has a large aperture to

(AIEEE 2002)
reduce spherical aberration
have high resolution
increase span of observation
have low dispersion.
b
To achieve high resolution, it is crucial to gather more light from the object. A larger aperture implies
a greater amount of light collection, leading to improved resolution in the telescope's observations.
Large aperture leads to high resolution of telescope.
Astronomical Telescope
Significance of Aperture
Wavelength of light used in an optical instrument are 𝜆1 = 4000Å and 𝜆2 = 5000Å, then ratio of
their respective resolving powers (corresponding to 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 ) is
(AIEEE 2002)
1625
91
45
54
d
Consider the formula for resolving power. Determine the relationship between resolving power and
wavelength. Use this relationship to find the ratio of resolving powers corresponding to the given
wavelengths.
Resolving power is proportional to 𝜆−1
𝑅. 𝑃. for 𝜆1 𝜆2 5000 5
∴ = = =
𝑅. 𝑃. for 𝜆2 𝜆1 4000 4
Resolving Power of Optical Instruments, Dependence of Resolving Power on Wavelength
Yellow light is used in a single slit diffraction experiment with slit width of 0.6 mm. If yellow light is
replaced by X-rays, then the observed pattern will reveal,
(IIT-JEE 1999)
that the central maximum in narrower
more number of fringes
less number of fringes
no diffraction pattern.
d
Consider the comparative wavelengths of X-rays and visible light to determine whether the slit width
is comparable to their respective wavelengths. This will help you understand the condition necessary
for diffraction patterns to be observed.
X-rays have very small wavelength of the order of
1Å. Light rays have wavelength of the order of 6000Å.
For diffraction pattern to be produced by incident waves, the dimension of slit should be comparable
to the wavelength of waves. No diffraction pattern will be observed with X-rays which replace the
yellow light.
Wave Optics, Diffraction of Light
Consider Fraunhofer diffraction pattern obtained with a single slit illuminated at normal incidence. At
the angular position of the first diffraction minimum, the phase difference (in radian) between the
wavelets from the opposite edges of the slit is
(IIT-JEE 1995)
𝜋/4
2𝜋
𝜋/2
𝜋.
c
To determine the phase difference, consider the path length difference between rays from opposite
edges of the slit. Relate this difference to the wavelength to find the phase difference in radians.
The figure depicts Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
For 𝑃 to be first minimum, the phase difference between 𝑂𝐴 or 𝑂𝐵 is 𝜋.
∴ Phase difference from opposite edges = 2𝜋 radian

Diffraction, Fraunhofer Diffraction
A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm, from a distant source, falls on a single slit 1 mm wide and a
resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 2 m away. The distance between the first dark
fringes on either side of central bright fringe is
(IIT-JEE 1994)
1.2 cm
1.2 mm
2.4 cm
2.4 mm
d
Consider the path difference between waves from different points of the slit to the dark fringe, and
relate it to the given wavelength, slit width, and screen distance using geometrical optics and
interference principles.
For first dark fringe, in diffraction pattern, 𝑑sin 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝐷𝜆
or 𝑦 =
𝑑
2𝐷𝜆
or Distance = 𝑑
2×(2)(600×10−9)
or Distance = m
1×10−3
= 2.4 × 10−3 m = 2.4 mm.

Diffraction of Light,Single Slit Diffraction
' ' polarizing sheets are arranged such that each makes an angle 45∘ with the preceding sheet. An
unpolarized
light of intensity 𝐼 is incident into this arrangement. The output intensity is found to be 𝐼/64. The
value of 𝑛 will be
(Main 1st Feb 1st Shift 2023)
6
5
3
4
a
Consider the law of Malus, which relates the intensity of light after passing through a polarizing sheet
to the initial intensity and the angle of polarization. Use this principle to relate the output intensity to
the input intensity and the angles of the polarizing sheets.
According to law of Malus,
The amount of light passing through first polarizer,
𝐼
𝑙1 =
2
After passing through second polarizer,
𝐼 1 𝐼
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 cos2 45∘ = × =
2 2 22
After passing through 𝑛th polarizer,
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼𝑛th = 𝑛 = or 2𝑛 = 64 ⇒ 𝑛 = 6
2 64
Malus Law, Intensity after passing through multiple polarizers
Two polaroid 𝐴 and 𝐵 are placed in such a way that the pass-axis of polaroids are perpendicular to
each other. Now, another polaroid 𝐶 is placed between 𝐴 and 𝐵 bisecting angle between them. If
intensity of unpolarized light is 𝐼0 then intensity of transmitted light after passing through polaroid 𝐵
will be
(Main 31st Jan 1st Shift 2023)
𝐼0
8
Zero
𝐼0
2
𝐼0
4
a
Consider the intensity of light after passing through the first polaroid. Then, determine the intensity
component that can pass through the second polaroid. Recognize that the intensity after passing
through the third polaroid is a fraction of the intensity after passing through the second polaroid due
to the angle between their transmission axes.
Intensity of light passing through a polaroid is given by,
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃
For polaroid 𝐴, 𝜃 = 45∘
𝐼0 𝐼0
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼0 cos2 45∘ = ; 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 cos 2 45∘ =
2 𝐶 4
𝐼0
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶 cos2 45∘ =
8
Polaroids and Malus' Law,
Intensity of Transmitted Light
An unpolarised light beam of intensity 2𝐼0 is passed through a polaroid 𝑃 and then through another
polaroid 𝑄 which is oriented in such a way that its passing axis makes an angle of 30∘ relative to that
of 𝑃. The intensity of the emergent light is
𝐼0
4
𝐼0
2
3𝐼0
4
3𝐼0
2
c
Consider the polarization of light as it passes through the polaroids and how the angle between their
axes affects the intensity of the emergent light. Apply the principles of Malus' law and the concept of
the intensity of unpolarized light.
Consider the diagram shown
Intensity passing from 𝑃 is 𝐼0 , this will be received by 𝑄.
Now, intensity passing through 𝑄 is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝛿 = 𝐼0 cos2 30∘

2
√3 3𝐼0
= 𝐼0 × ( ) =
2 4
Interference and Diffraction, Polarisation
A light whose electric field vectors are completely removed by using a good polaroid, allowed to
incident on the surface of the prism at Brewster's angle. Choose the most suitable option for the
phenomenon related to the prism.
(Main 25 th June 2nd Shift 2022)
Reflected and refracted rays will be perpendicular to each other.
Wave will propagate along the surface of prism.
No refraction, and there will be total reflection of light.
No reflection and there will be total transmission of light.
d
Consider the relationship between the angle of incidence and the polarization of light when it
undergoes total internal transmission at the prism's surface.
When light falls on prism at Brewster's angle, no reflection takes place and all the light is transmitted
by the prism.
Polarization of Light, Brewster's Law
A beam of plane polarised light of large crosssectional area and uniform intensity of 3.3 W m−2 falls
normally on a polariser (cross sectional area 3 × 10−4 m2 ) which rotates about its axis with an
angular speed of 31.4rad/s. The energy of light passing through the polariser per revolution, is close
to
1.0 × 10−4 J
1.0 × 10−5 J
5.0 × 10−4 J
1.5 × 10−4 J
a
Consider the Malus law and the definition of energy to relate the energy passing through the
polariser to the angular speed.
From Malus law, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃
Given, 𝐼0 = 3.3 W/m2 , 𝜔 = 31.4rad/s and area of cross-section 𝐴 = 3 × 10−4 m2
2𝜋 𝐼0
∴ 𝐼𝑎𝜈 = ∫0 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 =
2
Now, energy
2𝜋
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣 × 𝐴 × 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣 × 𝐴 ×
𝜔
3.3 2 × 3.14
= × 3 × 10−4 ×
2 31.4
= 0.99 × 10−4 J = 1.0 × 10−4 J

Polarization, Malus Law
A polarizer - analyser set is adjusted such that the intensity of light coming out of the analyser is just
10% of the original intensity. Assuming that the polarizer - analyser set does not absorb any light,
the angle by which the analyser need to be rotated further to reduce the output intensity to zero, is
71.6∘
90∘
18.4∘
45∘
c
Relate the given intensity with the Malus law equation to determine the initial angle between the
polarizer and analyzer. Then, calculate the remaining angle to be rotated to reduce the intensity to
zero.
According to Malus Law,
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃
𝐼0
From given statement, 𝐼 = 10%𝐼0 =
10
Using value of 𝐼 in eqn. (i), we get
𝐼0 1
= 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = = 0.31
10 √10
⇒ 𝜃 = 71.6∘
Angle rotated should be = 90∘ … 71.6∘ = 18.4∘

Malus Law, Brewster's Law
A system of three polarizers 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 is set up such that the pass axis of 𝑃3 is crossed with respect to
that of 𝑃1 . The pass axis of 𝑃2 is inclined at 60∘ to the pass axis of 𝑃3 . When a beam of unpolarized
light of intensity 𝐼0 is incident on 𝑃1 , the intensity of light transmitted by the three polarizers is 𝐼. The
ratio (𝐼0 /𝐼) equals (nearly)
(Main 12 2th April 2nd Shift 2019)
10.67
5.33
1.80
16.00
a
Apply Malus' law for each polarizer to calculate the intensity of light transmitted through each
polarizer. Use the relation between the initial unpolarized light intensity and the final transmitted
intensity to determine the ratio .
Interference and Diffraction
Polarization
Consider a tank made of glass (refractive index 1.5) with a thick bottom. It is filled with a liquid of
refractive index 𝜇. A student finds that, irrespective of what the incident angle 𝑖 (see figure) is
for a beam of light entering the liquid, the light reflected from the liquid glass interface is never
completely polarized. For this to happen, the minimum value of 𝜇 is
5
√
3
4
3
3
√5
5
√3
c
Consider the boundary conditions for the electric field components at the liquid-glass interface. The
component of the electric field parallel to the interface must be continuous across the boundary,
while the perpendicular component must experience a phase shift. Use these conditions to find the
value of for which the reflected light is not completely polarized.
sin 𝑖 1.5 sin 𝑖 1.5 1.5
= 𝜇 and tan 𝑟 = = = × cos 𝑟
sin 𝑟 𝜇 sin 𝑟 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖
⇒ sin 𝑖 = 1.5cos 𝑟 ⇒ = 1.5
cos 𝑟
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑖
= 1.5 ⇒ = 1.5
√1 − sin2 𝑟
sin2 𝑖
√1 −
𝜇2
𝜇sin 𝑖
⇒ = 1.5
√𝜇2 − sin2 𝑖
𝜇2 sin2 𝑖
⇒ = 2.25
𝜇2 − sin2 𝑖
𝜇2 sin2 𝑖 = 2.25𝜇2 − 2.25sin2 𝑖
⇒ (𝜇2 + 2.25)sin2 𝑖 = 2.25𝜇2
2.25𝜇2
sin2 𝑖 =
𝜇2 + 2.25
For 𝑖 to be imaginary, 2.25𝜇2 > 𝜇2 + 2.25
⇒ 1.25𝜇2 > 2.25
2.25 9
𝜇>√ ⇒𝜇>√
1.25 5
3 3
𝜇> ; minimum value of 𝜇 =
√5 √5
Polarization of Light, Conditions for Complete Polarization at Liquid-Glass Interface
Unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼 passes through an ideal polarizer 𝐴. Another identical polarizer 𝐵 is
𝐼
placed behind 𝐴. The intensity of light beyond 𝐵 is found to be 2. Now another identical polarizer 𝐶 is
𝐼
placed between 𝐴 and 𝐵. The intensity beyond 𝐵 is now found to be .
8
The angle between polarizer 𝐴 and 𝐶 is
(Main 2018)
0∘
30∘
45∘
60∘
c
Consider Malus' law and the orientations of the polarizers relative to each other. Use the information
given to determine the angle between the polarizers.
Polarizers 𝐴 and 𝐵 are oriented with parallel pass axis. Suppose polarizer 𝐶 is at angle 𝜃 with 𝐴 then
it also makes angle 𝜃 with 𝐵,
𝐼
Using Malus' law, 𝐼𝐶 = (2 cos2 𝜃)
𝐼
and 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶 cos2 𝜃 = 2 cos4 𝜃
𝐼 𝐼
= cos4 𝜃
8 2
𝐼
(∵ 𝐼𝐵 = )
8
1 1 1
cos4 𝜃 = = ; cos 𝜃 = = cos 45∘
4 (√2)4 √2
So, 𝜃 = 45∘
Polarization by Polaroids, Angle between Polaroids
A plane polarized light is incident on a polariser with its pass axis making angle 𝜃 with 𝑥-axis, as
shown in the figure.
At four different values of 𝜃, 𝜃 = 8∘ , 38∘ , 188∘ and 218 ∘, the observed intensities are same. What is
the angle between the direction of Pass axis polarization and 𝑥-axis?
(Main Online 2018)
203∘
128∘
98∘
45∘
a
Consider the intensity of light passing through the polarizer as a function of angle, and solve for the
angle values that make the intensity equal.
Polarisation of Light, Intensity of Transmitted Light
Unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼 is incident on a system of two polarizers, 𝐴 followed by 𝐵. The

𝐼
intensity of emergent light is 2. If a third polarizer 𝐶 is placed between 𝐴 and 𝐵, the intensity of
𝐼
emergent light is reduced to . The angle between the polarizers 𝐴 and 𝐶 is 𝜃. Then
3
(Main Online 2018)
1
1 2
cos 𝜃 = ( )
3
1
2 4
cos 𝜃 = ( )
3
1
2 2
cos 𝜃 = ( )
3
1
1 4
cos 𝜃 = ( )
3
b
Consider Malus' law to relate the intensity of light passing through each polarizer to its orientation
relative to the previous one. Apply the law successively through each polarizer to determine the final
intensity.
Polarizers 𝐴 and 𝐵 are oriented with parallel pass axis. Suppose polarizer 𝐶 is at angle 𝜃 with 𝐴 then
it also makes angle 𝜃 with 𝐵.
𝐼
Using Malus' law, 𝐼𝐶 = (2 cos2 𝜃)
𝐼
and 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶 cos2 𝜃 = 2 cos4 𝜃
𝐼 𝑙
= cos4 𝜃
3 2
2 2 1/4
cos4 𝜃 = ; cos 𝜃 = ( )
3 3
𝐼
(∵ 𝐼𝐵 = )
3
Polarization, Malus' Law
Unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼0 is incident on surface of a block of glass at Brewster's angle. In that
case, which one of the following statements is true?
(Main Online 2015)
Transmitted light is partially polarized with intensity 𝐼0 /2.
Transmitted light is completely polarized with intensity less than 𝐼0 /2.
Reflected light is completely polarized with intensity less than 𝐼0 /2.
Reflected light is partially polarized with intensity 𝐼0 /2.
c
The intensity of reflected light is less than that of refracted light at Brewster's angle due to
polarization of light.
At Brewster's angle, 𝑖 = tan−1 (𝜇), the reflected light is completely polarized, whereas refracted light
is partially polarized. Thus, the reflected ray will have lesser intensity compared to refracted ray.
𝐼0
∴ 𝐼reflected <
2
Polarization , Brewster's law
Two beams, 𝐴 and 𝐵, of plane polarized light with mutually perpendicular planes of polarization are
seen through a polaroid. From the position when the beam 𝐴 has maximum intensity (and beam 𝐵
has zero intensity), a rotation of polaroid through 30∘ makes the two beams appear equally bright. If
𝐼
the initial intensities of the two beams are 𝐼𝐴 and 𝐼𝐵 respectively, then 𝐴 equals
𝐼𝐵
(Main 2014)
1
3
3
3
2
1
a
Consider the change in intensity of beam as the polaroid is rotated. Use the Malus' law to relate the
intensity of the transmitted beam to the angle of rotation. Equate the intensities of the two beams in
the given situation and solve for θ.
When a polaroid rotated through 30∘ with respect to beam 𝐴, then beam 𝐵 is at 60∘ with it.
So, 𝐼𝐴 cos2 30∘ = 𝐼𝐵 cos2 60∘
3 1 𝐼𝐴 1
⇒ 𝐼𝐴 ( ) = 𝐼𝐵 ( ) ⇒ =
4 4 𝐼𝐵 3
Polarization of Light, Intensity of Polarized Beams
A beam of unpolarised light of intensity 𝐼0 is passed through a polaroid 𝐴 and then through another
polaroid 𝐵 which is oriented so that its principal plane makes an angle of 45∘ relative to that of 𝐴.
The intensity of the emergent light is
(Main 2013)
𝐼0 /8
𝐼0
𝐼0 /2
𝐼0 /4
d
Use Malus law to find the intensity of light after passing through the first polaroid. Then, apply Malus
law again to determine the intensity of the light emerging from the second polaroid, considering the
angle between their polarization axes.
𝐼0
Intensity of light after passing polaroid 𝐴 is, 𝐼1 =
2
Now this light will pass through the second polaroid 𝐵 whose axis is inclined at an angle of 45∘ to the
axis of polaroid 𝐴. So in accordance with Malus law, the intensity of light emerging from polaroid 𝐵 is
𝐼0 1 2 𝐼0
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 cos2 45∘ = ( ) ( ) =
2 √2 4
Interference and Diffraction, Polarisation of Light
When an unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼0 is incident on a polarizing sheet, the intensity of the light
which does not get transmitted is
(AIEEE 2005)
Zero
𝐼0
1
𝐼
2 0
1
𝐼
4 0
c
Consider the polarization of light and consider that the light not transmitted is the light that has been
absorbed or reflected.
Intensity of polarized light = 𝐼0 /2
∴ Intensity of light not transmitted
𝐼0 𝐼0
= 𝐼0 − =
2 2
Polarization, Malus's Law
The angle of incidence at which reflected light in totally polarized for reflection from air to glass
(refractive index 𝑛 ), is
(AIEEE 2004)
sin−1 (𝑛)
sin−1 (1/𝑛)
tan−1 (1/𝑛)
tan−1 (𝑛)
d
Consider the relationship between the angle of incidence and the refractive index of the medium
according to Brewster's law.
According to Brewster's law of polarization,
𝑛 = tan 𝑖𝑝 where 𝑖𝑝 is angle of incidence
∴ 𝑖𝑝 = tan−1 (𝑛)
Brewster's Law, Polarization by Reflection
For a specific wavelength 670 nm of light coming from a galaxy moving with velocity 𝑣, the observed
wavelength is 670.7 nm.
3 × 108 m s−1
3.13 × 105 m s−1
3 × 1010 m s−1
4.48 × 105 m s−1
c
Consider the Doppler's effect, which relates the observed wavelength to the actual wavelength and
the velocity of the source. Substitute the given variables into the formula and solve for lambda.
Wavelength, 𝜆1 = 670 nm,
𝜆2 = 670.7 nm
By the Doppler's effect,
Δ𝜆 𝑣 Δ𝜆
= ⇒𝑣= 𝑐
𝜆 𝑐 𝜆
(670.7 − 670) × 10−9

𝑣= × 3 × 108
670 × 10−9
𝑣 = 3.13 × 105 m/s

Doppler's Effect, Wavelength Shift
An observer is moving with half the speed of light towards a stationary microwave source emitting
waves at frequency 10GHz. What is the frequency of the microwave measured by the observer?
(speed of light = 3 × 108 m s−1 )
( Main 2017)
10.1GHz
12.1GHz
17.3GHz
15.3GHz
c
Consider the Doppler Effect for light and use the relative velocity between the observer and the
source to determine the observed frequency. Substitute the given values to find the numerical result.
Frequency of the microwave measured by the observer will be given by Doppler's effect of light.
𝑣′ 1+𝛽 𝑣
= √1−𝛽 (⬚ Here 𝛽 = 𝑐 )
𝑣
𝑣′ 1 + 𝑣/𝑐 𝑐+𝑣
⇒ =√ =√
𝑣 1 − 𝑣/𝑐 𝑐−𝑣
𝑐
(𝑐 + )
𝑣′ = 𝑣√ 2
𝑐 = 10√3GHz
(𝑐 − )
2
or 𝑣 ′ = 17.3GHz
Doppler's Effect, Effect of Observer's Motion on Wave Frequency

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1.An object is placed at a distance of 12 cm in front of a plane mirror.

A virtual and erect image is formed by

Now mirror is shifted towards the object by a distance of 4 cm

So, object distance from 𝑋 ′ 𝑌 ′ is 12 − 4 = 8 cm Thus, image distance is also 8 cm.

So, shifting in the position of image will be 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑃𝐼 ′ s

= 12 − 4 = 8 cm towards the mirror.

= 180∘ − 2𝑟 = 180∘ − 2 × 30∘ = 180∘ − 60∘

By the mirror formula,

Distance between the images formed by the mirror

= |𝑣𝐴 | + |𝑣𝐵 | = 60 + 100 = 160 cm

C. Smaller in size than object

Shortest distance between the images

= √(4𝑎)2 + (2𝑎)2 = 𝑎√20 = 2𝑎√5 = 4.6𝑎

Ray Optics, Reflection with Concave Mirror

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments, Image Formation by Concave Mirrors

𝛼 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 180∘ ⇒ 3𝛼 = 180∘ ; 𝛼 = 60∘

Also, △ 𝐴𝐸𝐷 and △ 𝐴𝑆𝐷 are congruent triangles.

Using (i) and (ii), 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑

source in the mirror is, 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 3𝑑

(2) The image executes non-periodic motion.

Ray Optics, Mirror formula

Let 𝜃 be angle between the given rays.

180∘ − 𝜃 180∘ − 120∘

Ray Optics, Images Formation by Convex Lenses

Geometric Optics, Angle between Two Plane Mirrors

incidence coincides with

𝐵1 is the image of source 𝐵 formed by reflection at 𝑀1 . Similarly 𝐵2 is the image of 𝐵 formed by

△ 𝑀1 𝐶𝐷 and △ 𝑀1 𝐵1 𝑁1 are similar

Frequency does not change on changing the medium.

From opposite side

(24 − 𝑥)/𝜇 = 4 cm …..(ii)

Divide (i) by (ii), we get

Thus, apparent depth of the vessel

Which of the following statement is correct?

Let the thickness is 𝑠.

Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection, Critical Angle

From, snell's law

1 × sin (90∘ − 45∘ ) = 𝜇 × sin (30∘ )

⇒ sin 45∘ = 𝜇 × sin 30∘

𝑛 = √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 = √1 × 4 = 2. It is the case of total internal reflection, so let angle of incidence is 𝜃.

Since, angle of incidence 𝑖 = 2𝑟.

Wave Refraction, Speed and Wavelength Changes

Let real depth is 𝐻,

Also, apparent path = 17.5 − 𝐻

refraction are respectively 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ . The critical angle is given by

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 ′ , From eq. (i), we have

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin (90∘ − 𝑖)

From eq. (ii), we get

𝐶 = sin−1 (tan 𝑖) = sin−1 (tan 𝑟)

Refractive index of diamond, 𝑛 = 2.42 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2.42

Let the critical angle be 𝑐.

So, refraction is not possible.

(Main 25 5th July 2nd Shift 2021)

this cone is,

light that emerges only from liquid

2𝜋(1 − cos 𝜃𝑐 ) (1 − cos 𝜃𝑐 )

Also, sin 40∘ = 𝜇sin 𝜃2

sin 40∘ 0.64 64

√(131)2 − (64)2 114