CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Nigeria has indeed played major roles in the development of International Organizations in

Africa such as the African Union, Food and Agriculture Organization, African, Caribbean and'

Pacific Group of States, International Monetary Fund, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization

of Petroleum Exporting Countries and many more. However our focus will be on ECOWAS

which was made into a community consisting of a number of countries linked together by

historical, geographical, cultural, economic and other ties. The acronym ECOWAS stands for

Economic Community of West African States, founded in May, 1975. It is necessary to point

out that the success of ECOWAS has always hinged on the degree of the determination and

commitment of the stronger members and Nigeria has successfully been able to manifest itself

as the strongest member (Adepoju, 2005). It is for a fact that Nigeria played a major role in the

formation as well as development of the Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS). In 1964, talks had been carried out for the Balewa government in respect to the

formation of ECOWAS, Nigeria was actively involved in series of conferences sponsored by

the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) between the period of 1966 and 1968. With the

issues of civil war that was on ground, Nigeria rekindled the enthusiasm for a West African

Economic Community. Gowon's administration sent letters to the other West African

governments seeking for their co-operations to form the Economic Community and to start

with a consideration of Nigeria-Guinea report of 1969. We must not forget that in 1968, Nigeria

and Guinea were chosen by the Monrovia Summit to study the priority areas for cooperation

between members. The report was submitted then although not considered partly because of

the weak leadership of Pan West Africa of that time. With a little result even with Gowon's

diplomatic follow up, Nigeria and Togo settled for a modest and realistic approach in a treaty

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in 1972 establishing what President Eyadema called "Embryo of West African Economic

Community". Nigerian government began choking out area of cooperative development while

not abandoning an earlier interest in the abolition of tariff barriers between states. A ministerial

level meeting was to hold in Lome in November

1973 but it was cancelled following President Pompidou of France meeting with

Francophone leaders of West Africa. Nigeria also increased bilateral trade pacts with many

West African States, it employed unofficial tactics in the formation of the Economic

Community when Gowon's government encouraged the Nigerian Chamber of Commerce and

Industry. The Federation meeting in Accra passed a resolution on the creation of Economic

Community (Agu, 2003). The Economic Community of West African States was not

officially established until 1975 but there were several events which preceded the signing and

led to what is now known as ECOWAS. On May 28 1975, 15 West African countries met in

Lagos, Nigeria, to sign the ECOWAS treaty which is also known as the Treaty of Lagos which

included Benin, Burkina Faso, previously known as Upper Volta, Cote d'lvoire,

Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal,

Sierra Leone, and Togo. The treaty which created ECOWAS was intended to promote

cooperation and integration within West Africa. Two years later in 1977, Cape Verde became

the sixteenth member of ECOWAS.

The foreign policy of a state actor towards inter-governmental organizations has become a

Predominant feature in the contemporary world order, and Nigeria is an active member of the

International Community. Its foreign policy towards ECOWAS since its formation in 1975 is

examined based on its contributions to the regional organization. The framework of Nigerian

foreign policy formed the basic perception how it sees the world from ideological, political,

economic, and religious standpoints. These factors decide its foreign policy response to

regional and continental affairs. Nigeria is a key player in West Africa sub-region, Africa, and

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global stage, especially in the activities of the regional inter-governmental organization

ECOWAS. Nigeria's foreign policy approach towards ECOWAS regional agenda is based on

Afro centric foreign policy doctrine which is the premise of its foreign policy direction after

attaining independence to support the cause of African countries struggling for independence

in the 1960s. Nigeria's Afro centric foreign policy doctrine was effective at the regional level

which was directed at its West African neighbors because Nigeria sees the West African

region as its natural territory.

The Afrocentric foreign policy doctrine is the cardinal point of Nigeria's foreign policy

direction over the years. According to Akintola, Nigeria has maintained a relatively consistent

foreign policy because the country had experienced varied forms of government within this

period. Right from independence, Africa was the centerpiece of Nigeria's foreign policy with

emphasis on the emancipation, development, and unity of Africans both within and outside the

continent (Akintola, 2007).

The enormous contribution of Nigeria to regional development coincided to the emergence of

ECOWAS in 1975 as an inter-governmental regional organization. The effort was to prove its

ability to play a larger role in the international community beyond the West African region.

The end of the bipolar world in the 1990s allowed regional state actors to play more active role

in regional affairs, which also gave rise to Nigeria's influence in West African regional affairs.

In the assessment of Otunbajo, Nigeria could play a leadership role in Africa because of the

dwindled strategic significance of major external powers (Otunbajo, 1989). However, Nigeria's

foreign policy towards ECOWAS is two-level approach through bilateral and multilateral

diplomatic dealing with state actors in regional affairs. Thus, foreign policy is a plan of action

adopted by one nation regarding its diplomatic dealings with other countries. Foreign policy is

established as a systemic way to deal with issues that may arise with other countries (Business

Dictionary, 2017). The contemporary globalization agenda of human labor in this era of

3
interdependence. Emphasis is now attached to the foreign policy direction of a nation.

Accordingly, foreign policy has a range of actions, as well as a set of Principles influencing

these actions, taken regarding external situations and factors, the summation of thoughts,

actions, and principles on external affairs taken by decision-makers with the intention of

achieving long-range goals and short-term objective (Frankel, 1978). Nigeria's involvements

in ECOWAS and any role it has played in the past few decades had been the result of strongly

held opinion by its successive leaderships. Nigeria's foreign policy objectives have allowed it

to participate in various ECOWAS regional programs to give credence to the West African

regional integration process which has led to the signing of many ECOWAS laws, treaties,

protocol agreements and conventions to advance the development and economic growth of the

region. Nigerian active role in ECOWAS is a direct response to its foreign policy plans to

accommodate the burden of its West African neighbors, to support ECOWAS specific fields

of regional initiatives, and to advance the developmental goal of the region which is also in

line with United Nations (UN) call for countries involvement in regional cooperation to

promote free trade, common market, political stability, security of lives and properties,

humanitarian and cultural cooperation.

Nigeria's foreign policy approach towards ECOWAS regional activities has remained

consistent despite various internal and external challenges confronting its application. Its ages

long foreign policy stance of Pro-Africanism which started with its independence, the West

African region has remained part of its foreign policy till date which still continues to guide its

role in ECOWAS activities. The various foreign policies of successive governments in Nigeria

have in one way or the other contributed to the continuous existence of ECOWAS regional

initiatives has directly or indirectly contributed to the growth of the organization and the

development of the region at large especially in spheres of the economic scheme, security

formation, and promotion of political stability through democracy and good governance.

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Therefore, Nigerian engagements in ECOWAS activities are carried out through bilateral and

Multilateral diplomacy to meet the expectations of the international community as a regional

leader.

1.2 Statement of Problem

In an effort to promote both economic and political cooperation among the West African states,

Nigeria pushed for the formation of ECOWAS which was established after the signing of the

treaty by 16 West African States. In the year 1993, July 24th, the 16 members of ECOWAS met

for the purpose of signing a revised treaty which was not contrary to the community

conventions, protocols, decisions and resolutions made in the 1975 treaty except for those that

were inconsistent with the revised treaty. The revision that was in the 1993 version of the treaty

were made with two basic goals of accelerating the integration of economic policy and

improving political cooperation. In respect to the acceleration of economic integration, the

revised treaty outlined necessary steps for the establishment of a common market and a shared

currency. Although ECOWAS can be regarded as the

brainchild of Nigeria but it is necessary that we consider the challenges that have risen up as a

result of the formation of the community. With the new changes and entrance of Non West

African States, where does Nigeria stand in ECOWAS? Will she be able maintain her relevance

with the current fold of events? Is ECOWAS truly fulfilling the purpose for which it was

created rather than being a figurehead?

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1.3 Research Questions

The following research question will guide this study;

i What are the main roles of Nigeria in the formation and development of ECOWAS?

ii What are the major challenges of ECOWAS?

iii What are the main objectives of ECOWAS?

iv Has ECOWAS been able to fulfill the purpose it was created for?

v What are the main interests of Nigeria in ECOWAS?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are to;

i. examine the role of Nigeria in the formation and development of ECOWAS;

ii. examine and understand Nigeria's main interest in ECOWAS;

iii. understand the main objectives of ECOWAS and examine its major successes;

iv. identify and address the main challenges of ECOWAS; and

v. determine whether the creation of ECOWAS was worthwhile or just another

organization with a name.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study covers the assessment sheet of Nigeria's contribution to the sustenance

and development of the ECOWAS community since its establishment till date.

1.6 Research Methodology

This study adopts secondary data sources such as books, journals articles, conference

proceedings and internet sources, government official publications relating to the role of

Nigeria in the development of ECOWAS.

1.7 Significance of the Study

Nigeria has remained the driving force of regional organization aimed at regional self reliance,

self-preservation and all round security. This research is significant as it will reveal the level

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of commitment of Nigeria to the development of West African states, Africa and the world, by

identifying the contribution of Nigeria to ECOWAS formation. This study will provide first

hand information for further research in the area of the Nigeria's role in the formation of

ECOWAS.

1.8 Limitation of Study

Time Constraint: Time stood as a major limitation in carrying out this research in that it was

done simultaneously with other academic work.

1.9 Definition of Terms

ECONOMY: The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of

goods and services arid the supply of money.

TREATY: A formal agreement between two or more states

ORGANIZATION: A group of people or other legal entities with explicit purpose and written

rules.

INTEGRATION: Combining two or more things together to produce a better one.

1.10 Organization of Study

This study is structured into five chapters. Chapter one is the introduction of the study, the

background of the study, statement of problem, objectives of the study, scope of the research,

significance of the study, research methodology, limitation of the study, definition of term and

the organization of the study. Chapter two reviews existing literature, while Chapter three is

the research methodology. Chapter four is the presentation of data, analysis and discussion of

findings, Chapter five, contains the summary, recommendation and the conclusion of the study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This section reviewed relevant literature related to the key research question of this paper, with

a view to clarifying the gap in knowledge that this study seeks to fill. This chapter focuses on

the conceptual, empirical and theoretical framework of Nigeria's role in the development of

ECOWAS

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 History of ECOWAS

The acronym ECOWAS stands for Economic Community of West African States. The

community was created on the 28, May 1975 for the purpose of promoting economic trade,

national cooperation and monetary union among the countries in West Africa. It was created

for the purpose of enhancing economic growth and development and this was achieved through

the Treaty of Lagos. Bruce Zagaris in his paper "The Economic Community Of West African

States (ECOWAS): An analysis and prospects" (1978) stated that the treaty represents a

landmark in the history of Africa's integration in that it establish cohesive trade relations

between French and English speaking countries among which trade and commercial

intercourse have been virtually nonexistent. It is imperative to point out that before the creation

of ECOWAS the region of West Africa was made up of a number of states who had gone

through different excruciating colonial experiences and administrations. A revised treaty that

was intended to improve political cooperation among states was signed on the 24th of July

1993.

The community is made up of fifteen member states presently although the founding members

of ECOWAS are: Benin, Cote d'lvore, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali,

8
Mauritania (this nation state left in 2000), Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and

Burkina Faso this nation state joined as upper volta, Cape Verde later joined in the year 1977.

The community did not form itself overnight in that the first effort of integration goes far back

as 1945. In 1964, former Liberian's President William Tubman pushed the motion for economic

union for West Africa leading to an agreement that was signed in 1965 by four member states-

Cote d'lvore, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. The call for a West African Community was

made by President William Tubman of Liberia in 1964 as stated earlier, an agreements signed

among four member states in February 1965 but it came to nothing. However in April 1972,

General Gowon of Nigeria and General Eyadum of Togo relaunched the idea, drawing up

proposals, they toured 12 countries and solicited their plan from July to August 1973. A

meeting was then called at the Lome from 10-15 December 1973 to study the drafted treaty.

Finally, 15 West African countries signed the treaty of Economic Community of West African

States on the 28 May, 1975. drawing strength from the work of the ECOWAS Parliament

(2017) ECOWAS was founded to achieve collect self sufficiency by the means of economic

and monetary union thereby creating a single large trading bloc by the means of economic and

monetary union. In 1900, member states of ECOWAS signed a non- aggression protocol and

two earlier agreements in 1978 and 1981. They also signed a protocol on Mutual Defense

Assistance in Freetown, Sierra Leone on the 29th of May 1981, which made provisions for the

establishment of the Allied Armed Force of the community. ECOWAS isn't all about economic

integration but it also serves as a peace keeping force in the region. Member states occasionally

send joint military force to intervened in the following states: Ivory Coast, Liberia, Guinea

Bissau, Mali and Gambia.

Based on the data sourced from Community Computer Centre (CCC) in collaboration with the

directorate of Communication. ECOWAS (2016) ECOWAS operates with three co- official

languages which are French, English and Portuguese. The community consists of two

9
institutions for the purpose of the implementation of policies- The ECOWAS Commission and

the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) previously regarded as the Fund

for Cooperation until it was renamed in 2001.

ECOWAS is always headed by a chairman and below are the list of various chairpersons of

ECOWAS from inception till date.

Gnanssingbe Eyadema Togo 1977-1978

Olusegun Obasanjo Nigeria 1978-1979

Leopold Sedar Senghor Senegal 1979-1980

Gnassingbe Eyadema Togo 1980-1981

Siaka Stevens Sierra Leone 1981-1982

Mathieu Kerekou Benin 1982-1983

Ahmed SekouToune Guinea 1983-1984

Lansana Conte Guinea 1984-1985

Muhammadu Buhari Nigeria 1985-27th August 1985

Ibrahim Babangida Nigeria 1985-1989

DwadaJawara The Gambia 1989-1990

AbdouDiouf Senegal 1992-1993

NicephoreSoglo Benin 1993-1994

Jerry John Rawlings Ghana 1994-1996

SaniAbacha Nigeria 1996-1998

AbdusalamiAbubaka Nigeria 1998-1999

GnassingbeEyadema Togo 1999

Alpha OumarKonare Mali 199-2001

Abdulaye Wade Senegal 2001-2003

John AgyekunKufuor Ghana 2003-2005

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MamadouTandja Niger 2005-2007

BlaiseCompaore Burkina Faso 2007-2008

Umaru Musa Yar'Adua Nigeria 2008-2010

Goodluck Jonathan Nigeria 2010-2012

AlassareQuatera Cote d'lviore 2012-2014

John DramaniMahara Ghana 2014-2015

MackySall Senegal 2015-2016

Ellen Johnson Sirleaf Liberia 2016-2017

Faure Gnassingbe Togo 2017-2018

Muhammadu Buhari Nigeria 2018 -2023

Tinubu Nigeria 2023-Till Date

2.1.2 Objectives OF ECOWAS

ECOWAS was primarily established for the creation of an integrated union and to allow for

free movement as well as the removal of various barriers to trade in the region of West Africa.

Cole EsanAnde in his book "Essential Economics" (2015) listed the major objectives as well

as the challenges of ECOWAS to include:

Promotion of Cooperation and Development

A major objective of ECOWAS is to foster cooperation among the states in the region but it is

necessary to point out that the development is not limited to the economic abilities of the region

but it also includes social between representatives of various member states. The various

member states of ECOWAS also compete with each other and share various business strategies

in order to boost each others economies.

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Elimination of Custom Duties

Elimination of custom duties as well as other charges in respect to the importation and

exportation of goods and services between and among member states. Since all of the states in

ECOWAS fall within the same region, they see no need for the enactment of custom duties and

all other charges. As a matter of fact, ECOWAS "seeks to create a region of free movement of

people, goods and services within the region.

Establishment of a Common Tariff

The main aim of the establishment of a uniform tariff is to establish a common commercial

policy towards developing countries that would be favorable to them.

Harmonization of Economic and Industrial Polices of Member States

To sum this all up, ECOWAS has the vision of creating a border less region in which all

population will have direct access to various resources as well as its exploitation located within

can move freely from one country to another within the region for the purpose of engaging in

economic and commercial activities while living under the umbrella of peace, security and

cooperation.

Trade liberalization

Another major aim of ECOWAS treaty was the establishment of a common market with the

aim of liberalizing trade within the region.

Integration of both fiscal and monetary policies

The establishment of ECOWAS was also to ensure fiscal and monetary integration of West

African states.

To raise standard of living

ECOWAS was also designed to promote and raise the standard of living of the people through

cooperation within the sub-region. Since most of the states that falls within West Africa are

12
developing states, the standard of living might be low and as such ECOWAS seeks to raise this

through regional cooperation of every state within it.

Poverty reduction

A major and unfortunate characteristic of most West African states is the high rate of poverty

in those countries. Most of them have governments that can barely afford to feed the masses

much more provide for their needs, in a bid to adjust, reduce and completely eradicate this

deadly indices, ECOWAS believes that by working together towards having viable economies,

the problem of poverty can be tackled.

2.1.3 Challenges of ECOWAS

ECOWAS is faced with diverse challenges every now arid then, some of which are:

Political Instability and Poor Governance Of Member States

This is a major index that has dominated the totality of almost all African States with special

reference to West African. Although ECOWAS has series of objectives which it hopes to carry

out but this cannot be achieved under the circumstances of political instability and poor

governance. Drawing strength from the case of Nigeria, the political culture of the state has

gone from bad to worse as evident in different myopic leaders who claim to have the best

interest of Nigeria at heart. The issue of political instability is also rampant in the region as

seen in various past crisis in which the community has to intervene, which recent which was

the Gambia Crisis of 2017.

Weakness and lack of Diversification of National Economies

A dominant feature or characteristics of countries that fall under the West African region is

poor economy. The Economies of the majority of the member states are so weak and so

ECOWAS vision for economic integration cannot stand. Nigeria, the brain behind its formation

has a economy that is if anything worse than weak and the worst part about these states is that

13
they are not willing to try out economic diversion but rather follow one part even if it's the part

that leads to their unfortunate destruction.

Poor or Absent Infrastructures for Transportation and Communication

If the infrastructures of the member states are dead then ECOWAS has nothing to prove or

promote. This issue of Poor or Absent Infrastructure for Transportation and Communication

has basically put a dent on that which ECOWAS seeks to achieve. As a matter of fact,

ECOWAS cannot achieve some certain goals without presence of some necessary tools.

Corruption At The Border Hinders The Free Flow Of Humanitarians Aid

Corrupt practices by border security can stand in the way of free flow of humanitarian aid from

other states to the trouble spot of the state in question.

Divided loyalty and commitment by virtue of the participation of member states in other

organization

As a result of the fact that most of the member states of the community belong to other

organizations, there commitment as well as dedication to the community is lessened. One thing

that should be remembered about states is that they will only pursue a line of action that will

favor them and as such their loyalty to the community is at its one hundred-percent.

Ideological Differences Which Creates Tension Between And Among Member States

This is a major challenge that the community is always being constantly faced with. All states

are entitled to their various opinions and beliefs but there are some situations where we have

clashes in ideologies of states and this can lead to lack of interest of member states in the

community. Taking a quick look at the defunct OAU, they were faced with ideological

difference as the best method to eradicate colonialism and this clash in ideology led to division

within the organization where some states belonged to different group.

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Language Barriers

Official languages of member countries are foreign and varied: English, French, Portuguese,

thus complicating the communication problem. Every state within the Community has its own

official language and as such it is not easy to . get a message across to those who cant speak or

who don't understand the official language in use.

Common Currency Problem

Foreign currencies like franc, pound sterling and dollar determine the stability of currency of

member states but there is no common currency for member states.

Global Economic Recession

The issue of global economic recession stands in the way and also complicates effort of the

economy and its members.

Fear Of Domination

The fear of domination of smaller states by bigger ones stands as a barrier to unity. During the

early days of ECOWAS peacekeeping missions, the intentions of Nigeria was constantly been

questioned especially during the attempts to calm the civil war in Liberia. Some states believed

that Nigeria's activeness as well as its various suggestions as to what steps to take was seen as

an overbearing attitude by some states and an attempt to .dominate the Community. As a matter

of fact, many feared that it would lead to the aged long rivalry between the Francophone states

and the Anglophone states.

2.2 Structure Of ECOWAS

The structure of the Economic Community of West African States is not really a complex one,

it is made up of three major arms of governance which are the Executive branch, the legislative

branch as well as the Judiciary branch. The community is headed by the Chairman of Authority

of Head of States and Government, the Chairman is the current Head of State and Government

appointed by other Heads of States and Government and presently it is no one other than the

15
current president of Nigeria, President Muhammed Buhari. The Chairman of the Community

is responsible for overseeing the affairs of the Community, the Community is expected to meet

every year even if it is just once. At the Executive arm of governance of the Community we

have the President of ECOWAS Commission appointed by the Authority for a period of four

years which is non-renewable. He is assisted by a Vice

President and several commissioners which are:

• Administration and Finance

• Agriculture and Wafer Resources

• Human Development and Gender

• Infrastructure

• Macroeconomic Policy

• Political Affairs, Peace and Security

• Trade, Customs and Free Movement

The legislative arm of governance of the Community is made up of the Community Parliament

which is headed by the Speaker of the Parliament. The administrative function of the parliament

are directed by the Secretary General of the Parliament.

The judicial arm of governance of the Community is the Community Court of Justice headed

by the President. The court ensures the interpretation and application of the Community laws,

protocols and conventions.

It is imperative that we point out that although we have stated the three major institutions in

the Community, there is a fourth one which is known as the ECOWAS Bank for Investment

and Development (EBID). The EBID deals with the economic affairs of Community.

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

The inauguration of ECOWAS in Lagos on 28 may 1975 was hailed as a breakthrough in the

long series of effort to institute some form of economic cooperation and integration embracing

16
the entire West African sub region. While Nigeria's role as leader in the process of forming

ECOWAS is generally acknowledged, no systematic analysis exists of the nature of Nigeria's

role or its impact on and probable consequences for the organization however despite the fact

that Nigeria is one of the leading forces behind the creation of ECOWAS and stands to gain a

lot from its membership, Monica Oluchi in her paper "Membership in the Multilateral

Economic Organizations...(1985-2014) argued that the activities of the Nigerian government

in ECOWAS shows that Nigeria is bearing most of the burdens of keeping the organization

alive; in spite of the fact that ECOWAS treaty provided for equal rights, duties and benefits.

The treaty that was signed which led to the formation of the Economic Community of West

Africa on the 28th May 1975 in Lagos is made up of fourteen chapters and about sixty five

articles. Mostly, the objectives of this community is basically economic in that it is concerned

with the promotion of cooperation and development in every aspects of the economies, means

in which the economies of the member states can be accelerated and sustained as well as

fostering economic growth and development through economic cooperation of states and

integration of economies. To assist in the attainment of these objectives, Article 2 of the treaty

established a customs union among Member States and instituted a common external tariff,

ultimate elimination of import duties and application of a community tariff treatment. It is

important to point out that in a bid to attain economic integration in the region, the initial treaty

emphasized on cooperation and policy harmonization in areas of industrial development,

monetary and financial matters, energy and mineral resources, cultural and social matters.

Aside from the various economic objectives of the initial treaty, the treaty which founded the

community allowed freedom of movement and residence to all member states in that citizens

of Member States were to be considered cens of Community, free to travel from one country

to another without a visa, and stay there was without a residence permit. Some initiatives which

were undertaken after the formation of the Community has brought about various attainments

17
and achievements in the regional integration process and also assisted in the firm establishment

of its; common policies.

2.3.1 Nigeria's Foreign Policy Approach Towards The Formation of ECOWAS

Nigeria gained its independence in 1960, it's role and influence in the international system is

traceable to the activities of TafewaBalewa who made major efforts in the formation as well as

implementation of Nigerian's foreign policy. According to Bondarenko (2008, p.3) the foreign

policy of most African states are still patterned in line with the colonial ideologies of their

previous colonial masters.

Nigerian's foreign policy towards ECOWAS during its formative years were as a result of the

prevailing circumstances in the region which allowed for the foreign policy to be carefully

crafted as a response to the frequent political instabilities, as a result of various incessant

military coups, religious intolerance, lack of socioeconomic development and the struggle for

supremacy between the Anglophone and Francophone countries in the region. According to

Akintola (2007, p.439) Nigeria has maintained a consistent foreign policy because the country

has experienced varied forms of government, right from independence Africa was the

centerpiece of Nigeria's foreign policy which had emphasis on the emancipation, development

and unity of Africans both within and outside the continent. It is important to point out that

during the formative years or even the greater parts of the existence of ECOWAS, Nigeria was

governed by military rules with the exception of 1979- 1983 under the civilian rulership of

Sheu Shagari, the military regime dictated the foreign policy of Nigeria towards ECOWAS and

West African integration process. Since the military dictated the direction of Nigerian's foreign

policy approach towards ECOWAS, it is worth mentioning that much emphasis was placed on

security in the region rather than economic advancement which was the sole purpose ECOWAS

was created for. It is necessary to point out that the constant changing of government through

18
unconstitutional processes was highly prevalent among ECOWAS, members and this aided in

making the political and security situation in the region take turns for the worse.

The issue of political instability and security matters dominated the activities of ECOWAS

during the period of 1980-1990, as a matter of fact, ECOWAS was created during a period of

oil bloom which allowed Nigeria to posses huge oil revenue to be able to address various

problems that confronted the region and sustain the survival of ECOWAS. The issues of West

Africa's instability was created to the indices of poverty and underdevelopment and Nigeria

believed that in order to tackle such problems the physical challenges must also be addressed.

In 1983 under the Buhari's administration, Nigeria attempted to create an allegiance with its

three neighbors in the West: Benin, Ghana and Togo. A multilateral agreement was therefore

signed to promote cooperation among the four nation states in areas of economic, security and

culture in line with ECOWAS agenda for integration of its member states. It is important to

point out that when Nigeria carried out political and military gestures to individual states or

group of states in west Africa, it was also addressing the problems of the sub-region

(Danjuma,2012) contrary to this, Zabadi (2011) argued that even though the world treats

Nigeria as a regional and sub-regional leader and listens to her opinion on Africa and even

world issues, there is a contradiction in that Nigeria is an underperformer in domesti^ affairs,

with poor representation in international fora and poorly coordinated positions on in any issues.

Akindele (2003) explains that Nigeria’s leadership position has become a kind .pf affliction

and the fear and suspicion that Nigeria’s has some imperialistic design on its neighbors.

The doctrine of Reciprocity in Nigeria's foreign policy formulated during Ibrahim

Babaginda's military regime was the first serious effort made in identifying and defining

Nigeria's national interest in political, economic, social and security terms. It is important to

point out that Nigeria's approach towards ECOWAS regional agenda at integration is guided

by its foreign policy direction which were formulated by the Nigerian Ministry of Foreign

19
Affairs. The main features of Nigeria's foreign policy towards the West African region is

anchored on three basic doctrinal concepts whiby its ch are: Anti colonialism, Anti-apartheid

and Anti-racism principles. In Obasanjo's inaugural speech of 1999 he stated " we shall pursue

a dynamic foreign policy to promote friendly relations with all nations and will continue to

play a constructive role in the United Nations and the organization of African unity and other

international bodies..." according to Ajetunmobi (2011, p.308-315) lie opined that Nigeria's

new found democratic credentials allows its foreign policy to support and promote democratic

value in ECOWAS member states and beyond.

2.4 ECOWAS And The Concept Of Regional Security

According to Eze (2010), security deals with the broad issues of the management of multiple

threats to the core and content-specific values in the international system. Although ECOWAS

was initially created as an organization for the promotion of integration of the economies of

states that of all within the West African region as well as the promotion of collective

economies of its members through the effective economic cooperation largely through a

determined policy of self-reliance. It has become evident that union of the states to the

attachment of the set objectives of the organization was highly vulnerable to threat as constant

disputes between states as well as various groups within states. Frempong, Kaakyire (2003)

explained that West Africa has experienced series and more series of unprecedented crises ever

since the begimiing of the treaty that led to the establishment of the formation of ECOWAS.

According to Dn George A. 0biozar.(2014), most notable of which are:

 Some mercenary soldiers allegedly organized and financed by some African states

landed at Cotonu Airport in the Republic of Benin and attempted to shoot their way to

the President's Palace in 1977. Although the attack failed but a great deal of damage

was done to lives and properties, This Experience however undermined the confidence

of the Beninois government in the good intentions of some fellow African' countries

20
 and encouraged them to seek defense arrangements with states that will provide them

with more effective military support in the future.

 The incessant disputes between Togo and Ghana whose root lies in the Togolese

territorial claims to the Voltage region of Ghana. It is necessary to point out that the

Voltage region of Ghana is a region which was a United Nations Trust territory to the

British colonial powers in the former Gold Coast.

 The territorial dispute between Mali and Burkina Faso which resulted into an armed

conflicts reached its peak in 1985 when a six day war was fought. However, Nigeria,

Libya and some of the Francophone members of ANAD successfully persuaded the two

parties to return to the International Court of Justice and await judgment on the issue,

both countries later accepted the ruling of the World Court giving each of them

jurisdiction over a portion.

 Liberia and Cote d'lvoire have had occasional tense periods on their mutual boundaries,

especially since the overthrow of the former Liberian President, William Tolbert by

Samuel Doe. The climax of the bilateral problems was reached in 1990 when Cote

d'lvoire was accused of providing sanctuary to the Liberian rebel" forces, the National

Patriotic Front of Liberia, led by Charles Taylor who started his armed incursion from

the Nimba country on the Liberian border with the Cote d'lvoire.

 Armed incursions between Mauritania and Senegal resulting from disputes generated

by an accusation that the nationals of the countries were being singled out for attacks

by the other.

In 1989, black Mauritanians were expelled by the thousands across the Senegal River.

Accusation of racism in Mauritania resulted in hostile reactions against nationals of the latter

country residing in Senegal and vice versa. The tension caused was so severe that the national

forces were mobilized, armed clashes were recorded and diplomatic relations were broken.

21
It is necessary to point, out that Marshall Paul Dike in Saturday Sun (2009) observed that threats

to national and regional security in West Africa is deeply rooted in political, unsocial and

economic factors

Even though the Economic Community of West African States was primarily designed to

integrate the economies of the member countries through the creation of a common market and

through the adoption of uniform economic policies, the above record of events have proven to

be a major barrier to any meaningful progress towards the achievement of the objectives of the

Community and also accompanied by the of severe decline of the economies of practically

almost all the Member States. Just as observed by Sesay and Ikouni (2011) ECOWAS

possesses the most sophisticated conflict prevention management in the continent.

2.4.1 ECOWAS PEACE KEEPING OPERATION; an overview of the cases of Liberia

and Sierra Leone

The outbreak of the civil war in Liberia can be credited to the launched attack against security

personnel in Nimbacounty by Charles Taylor and his group known as the National Patriotic

Front of Liberia (NPFL).and advancement towards the capital to crush the Armed Forces of

Liberia (AFL) under Samuel Doe's government in 1989. As time went on, in 1990 to be precise

the then President Samuel Doe had lost control of most of the states in Liberia except Monrovia

in that the-NPFL led by Charles Taylor had acquired more territory unto itself. Doe had no

other option but to make an appeal to ECOWAS on the 14th of July after his own Armed Forces

i.e AFL suffered great losses in the battle field to bring in peacekeeping forces to Liberia. In

the 13th summit of the Heads of states of ECOWAS member countries a five member Standing

Mediation Committee (SMT) was established with a single mandate of achieving a peaceful

agreement in Liberia despite the fact that Doe's government was regarded by many as

fraudulent. As a matter of fact, both internationally and domestically, it was believed that his

22
government was void of legitimacy. According to Adeyemi, Segun (2003) during this period

ECOWAS was established to restore law and order and to create necessary conditions for free

and fair elections although on October 1990, ECOWAS's ability to maintain its neutrality and

play its peacekeeping role became questionable due to the fact that it was seen assuming a

combinative role alliance with conflicting actions. As if this was not enough reason to worry,

most of the member states had ulterior motives as to why they wanted to interfere in the conflict

it had. Burkina faso, Cote d'ivore as well as Libya were said to have supplied Taylor in

ammunition while Nigeria wanted to intervene to prevent and protect the Nigerians living in

Liberia from attacks.

Asides this, it is believed that the crises in Liberia provided Nigeria an opportunity to prove

itself as an influential mediator in the sub-region. A bone of contention among the francophone

states was that the role Nigeria played in the conflict of Liberia was a means of exerting its

dominance in the region. It is necessary to point out that some member countries were against

the idea of sending in peacekeeping forces in Liberia most especially francophone states with

special interests to Burkina faso and Cote d'ivore. Their disagreement with this action, was not

hidden as evident in the message that was sent to the Chairman of ECOWAS in which the

government of Burkina faso declared his total disagreement with the operation and that

ECOWAS had no competence to interfere in member states internal conflicts but only in

conflicts freaking out of between member states. Nigeria conceded leadership of the force to

Lt. General A. Quainou of Ghana to allay the fears that the age old rivalry between Anglophone

and francophone countries would be rekindled and also to ward off wrong impressions that

Nigeria wanted to dominate ECOWAS'S operation. The UN involvement in the crises did not

begin until five months after th'e struggle had stated within thee the territory. In 1993, the

Security Council adopted a Resolution866 when called for the creation of UN observer mission

in Liberia (UNOMIL). It was more of a joint operation and effort between the UN and

23
ECOWAS. After seven years of mixed resorts and alternating between peacekeeping and peace

enforcement, elections were held and Charles Taylor came out victorious in 1997. The second

Liberian civil war broke out in 1999 and ended in October 2003 when ECOWAS intervened to

stop the rebel siege in Monrovia and exiled Charles Taylor to Nigeria until he was arrested in

2006 and taken to the Hague for trials. Liberia had its first democratic election in 2005 with

President Ellen Sirleaf emerging was the winner and inaugurated in'2006.

ECOWAS in Sierra Leone

The constitutionally elected government of Sierra Leone was overthrown by a revolutionary

force that did not accept the results of the elections that had occurred in 1996 known as

Revolutionary United Front (RUF), The rebel soldiers of the RUF forced out the then elected

President into exile and established themselves as the new government of Sierra Leone. George

(2012) stated that the Sierra Leone conflict was an overflow of the Liberian civil war. Before

President Kabbah left for Guinea, he requested that in order to prevent conflict and restore

order in the country, Nigeria and ECOWAS should intervene, Nigeria responded positively to

this request by sending peacekeeping forces to the state but unfortunately the military efforts

failed and Nigeria had to withdraw their troops. However this was not the end of their fight

against the rebels as they were later successful in pushing back the rebels and securing the

country. ECOWAS has not been an organization that favors military intervention in other

countries but it took a change of turns when it decided to intensify the embargoes to Sierra

Leone and it authorized ECOMOGs to take defensive action in the restoration of peace and

security in the country on August 30th, 1997. Although the international community did not

reject the intervention, the UN Security Council did not authorize the actions within Sierra

Leone.

A peace agreement was made of Sierra Leone in 1997 meant to be carried out in the space of

six months and the content stipulated that the rebels in the region were to bedemobilized and

24
demilitarized and that the president Kabbah was to be returned back to power on or before

April 22, 1998. Few months to the implementation Nigerian troops under ECOMOG's mandate

were able to capture Freetown and overthrow the rebel government which was well appreciated

by the Sierra Leoneans. The UN Security Council commended ECOWAS on its significant

role in the peaceful resolution of the crisis in the region. On March 16th 1998,

President Kabbah was successfully returned back to power.

The Gambian Crisis

The ECOWAS intervened militarily in the constitutional crisis of Gambia as a result of the

refusal of the president in person of YahyaJammeh to step down. YahyaJammeh the then

president of Gambia attained power through a bloodless coup and ruled the nation for twenty

two years (1994-2017), promising to rule for one billion years. On 1, December 2016, Jammeh

lost the presidential election to his opponent Adam Barrow who was the leader of the Coalition

Party. Although Jammeh accepted the results of the largely accepted free and fair election, he

later declared a state of emergency, a desperate attempt to hold onto power.

As observed by Ricci Shryock (2017) Gambian president showed no sign of leaving office after

election defeat. He rejected the results and accused the electoral officers of falsifying the

electoral results. As observed by the AfricanNews (2017), Jammeh went as far as filling an

action in the Supreme Court: of Gambia but nevertheless, Adam Barrow was sworn in as the

president of Gambia on the 19th January 2017. he called upon ECOWAS, the AU, the UN

Security Council to support the people of Gambia and assist in the inaugration of a

democratically elected government. The operation of ECOWAS was codenamed "Operation

Restore Democracy. ECOWAS troops were deployed and assembled around the borders of

Gambia. According to the president of ECOWAS, "By air, land and s$a, Gambia is surrounded.

A total of 7000 men will participate in the mission to reestablish democracy in Gambia. On the

19th of January the president-elect Adam Barrow was sworn in as president in the Gambian

25
embassy in Dakar, Senegal. It is rather very strange that the president elect of a particular

country gets inaugurated in a different country entirely and this was the case for Barrow

because according to Quartz (2017) "Gambia's new president has been sworn in at an embassy

in Senegal because the old one wont leave". Although the United Nations Security

Council did not approve of the use of military force, Senegalese armed forces entered into

Gambia as well as some forces from Ghana with air and naval support from Nigeria. An

offensive clash took place between the Senegalese and the pro-Jammeh forces near the border

of the village of Kanilai which is Jammeh's hometown. According to EwubareKess (2017) the

military of Gambia deserted Jammeh in the struggle,pledging their allegiances to Barrow.

At a point, Senegal halted its offensive attack, giving Jammeh a chance to surrender but he still

refused to relinquish power. Various attempts were made by significant individuals to persuade

him to step down which fell on deaf ears but later, Barrow and a Senegalese offical stated that

Jammeh had agreed to step down but despite this, the Senegalese troops remained in Gambia

for fear that Jammeh might go back on his word. A deal was later made for him to leave the

country for exile and after a short period of time, he announced to the whole world that hde

was stepping down. According to Dennis Foretia (2017) Gambia's election gave hope for

Africa's democracy.

26
Ecowas And The Herdsmen Crisis

Nigeria has been under severe internal and security threat as the threat has political, economic

and environmental dimensions. Each of these dimensions has critically affected the stability of

the nation and can be traced to many factors in which the Fulani herdsmen appears to be a

major factor. According to Okereke (2012) and Bello (2013) the crisis in Nigeria especially of

the Fulani' herdsmen are totally uncalled for. Farmers can no longer farm peacefully because

of Fulani herdsmen. These' Fulani herdsmen and clash have pitched Christians and

Muslims against themselves. Recent studies carried out by Okereke (2012) and Kasarachi

(2016) have shown that serious conflict erupt between Fulani herdsmen and farmers leading to

loss of lives, valuable properties and destruction of vast expanse of arable agricultural farmland

thereby posing serious threat to food security since farmers for fear of attack could no longer

go to farm and harvest their farm produce. The recent wave of violence in Nigeria as observed

by Kasarchi (2016) has disrupted socio-economic, religious and educational activities, political

instability and threatened the national unity in Nigeria. These extra judiciary killings have

forced thousands of people to abandon their homes and farmlands for safety. A major cause of

Fulani Herdsmen and farmers clashes was destruction of crops, harassment of nomads by host

youths, disregard for traditional authority, stray catties, sexual harassment of women by

nomads and indiscriminate bush burning and theft of cattle.

The Nigerian government called for the support of the Economic Community of West African

States (ECOWAS) in providing lasting solutions to the farmers and herdsmen crisis in the

country. The minister of interior, Abdulrahman Dambazau disclosed this after a meeting with

the president of ECOWAS commission, Marcel De Souza at the ECOWAS secretariat Abuja.

Dambazau after the meeting told newsmen that the discussion was bordered on regional

security as herder/farmers clashes alongside terrorist attacks became worrisome.

27
He called for a ministerial conference of ECOWAS member states in order to come up with a

framework that will address the trans-border crimes, which he said had contributed to the

conflict. The ECOWAS Commission in view of crisis announced a high level interministerial

conference to be held on February 2018, where the 16 member states will be attendance to

proffer solution to the problems. The president of ECOWAS commission Mai'cel de Souza

said there was need to implement the 1978 protocol, which he said would help resolve the

crisis.

ECOWAS and the West African Network For Peace' Building (WANEP)

The Economic Community of West African States assured the Independent National Electoral

Commission of its support, including finance, for the conduct of 2019 general elections. As

part of the measures to prevent violence and other threats to the 2019 general elections, the

West Africa Network for Peace Building (WANEP) Nigeria has launched the Online National

Early Warning System (NEWS) platform. Speaking during the launch and training of 80

Election Conflict Monitors in Abuja, WANEP Executive Director, Dr. ChukuemekaEze said

despite the widespread success of the 2015 general elections, there were reports of over 60

violent incidences resulting in 58 deaths and wanton destruction of properties. According to

him, this necessitated the series of activities by the organization partnering with ECOWAS,

African Union and others to ensure the peaceful and credible conduct of the election. ECOWAS

is very concerned about elections happenings in ECOWAS member states in order to promote

peace within the region. On the part of the information Systems Officer, Taye Abdulkadir, she

said that there are series of threats and signs, saying that was why they started the project in

collaboration with ECOWAS and

WANEP in October.

28
2.5 Theoretical Framework

2.5.1 Theory of Regionalism

The theory of regionalism is a theory of integration which based on the assumption that states

that are homogeneous with certain common experiences, values, interests, and aspirations

would gain more by agreeing to a treaty and by working together. The regional integration

theory is one which supports the creation and development of economic integration ideas such

as European Union (EU), Economic- Community of West African States (ECOWAS), South

African Development Community (SADC), COMECON, to mention but a few.

Regional integration can be explained as a process in which neighboring states enter into an

agreement in order to upgrade cooperation through common institutions and rules. The

objectives of the agreement could range from economic to political to environmental.

Although, these agreements has always taken a form of political economy initiative in which

commercial interests are the: focus for achieving broader sociopolitical and security objectives

as defined by the national government. It is necessary to point out that regional integration has

always been organized either through supranational institutional structures or through

intergovernmental decision making or combination of both. Past efforts at regional integration

have mostly focused on removing barriers to trade in the region, increasing the free movement

of people, labor, goods and capital across national borders, reducing the possibility of regional

armed conflict. Regional integration theory is one which seeks to explain the establishment and

the development of regional international organizations. The Regional integration theory

started with a broad comparative regional and organizational scope in 1950s and 1960s, it has

ever since focused on European integration and European Union. On the 1st January 1999, the

Euro was introduced as a single currency for the EU, It was applauded as a unique step in

Europe's longest quest for stronger trade linkages that would ultimately establish sustainable

unity.

29
Regionalism is now concerned with the enlargement and the deepening of the European Union

as part of a new development in regionalism. It is important to point out that the government

uses regional integration to maximize their national security and economic interest, it is

necessary to iiote that the growth of regionalism and the rise of preferential trading agreement

in the 1990s were defined by two major phenomena which are:

The U.S involvement in the regionalism process

The trend to integrate countries with different levels of development.

Presently, we have various new regional arrangements that have emerged, some of which are

Mercosur and the Andrean Pact. It is imperative to point out that Mexico is now engaged in a

network of free trade arrangements with Latin America and North America.

30
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

The chapter seeks to discuss the method of research that was undertaken in carrying out the

research work. The chapter covers the research design, method of data collection and the

method of data analysis relating to the subject matter in question.

3.1 Research Design

The type of research design adopted in the proper and complete carrying out of this research

work was derived from textbooks, academic articles which are in line with the subject matter,

magazines, newspapers, internet materials which allowed for us to be able to effectively

address the research questions that were presented earlier in the course of this work.

3.2 Method of Data Collection

Basically this seeks to explain the process of gathering and measuring information about

specific variables that will enable us answer relevant questions and also will allows us to

evaluate or analyze the outcome. The secondary sources of data were employed in carrying out

this research in that secondary data are facts that are collected from already existing sources.

The secondary sources of data in question here were generated from text books, journals,

newspapers, magazines, lecture notes as well as articles relating to the subject matter. In order

to avoid confusion in totally understanding the focus as well as the various objectives in which

this research work seeks to achieve, Quantitative method of data collection was not adopted in

this research rather a non-statistical technique which involves the collection of words, symbols,

pictures and non-numerical means which will aid our understanding and widen the scope of

our knowledge was adopted in carrying out the research, a qualitative method of data collection

was used in this research work. The purpose

33

31
of the adoption of the qualitative method of data collection is to create a wide and broad

understanding as well as subjecting it to critical analysis and evaluation. The subject matter

being addressed or rather being attended to is one in which non numerical method of data

collection will definitely aid understanding considering the fact that what we are dealing with

here has little or nothing to do with statistics, diagram?, charts and so on rather our research is

grounded upon historical, events, roles of governmental and governmental officials in its

formation, legacies which has being laid down as well as different roles that have been played

by the organization under review.

This study relied on institutional and official documents from organizations such as The

Nigerian Institute of International Affairs: Nigeria and the ECOWAS since 1985 Towards a

Dynamic Regional Integration. The institutional and official document were complemented by

other secondary sources of data such as textbooks, materials sourced from the internet, journals,

magazines, articles and other works related to the research work.

3.3 The Politics of ECOWAS's Formation, Structure and Development

The following discussion will focus on the politics towards ECOWAS's formation, it's structure

and subsequent developments that transformed it into a security integrative scheme. Such a

discussion is useful because it shows a logical development in West Africa, and continues the

earlier discussions under the OAU, which did not resolve how the OAU's response to security

issues should be dealt with.

This section begins with the political discourses that occurred in the aftermath of the Second

World War, and immediate post-independence period from 1960. Discussions of the need for

economic integration in Africa have been Eurocentric, with the efforts by western European

countries to implement economic integration programmes being the archetype to follow. In the

immediate post-independence period, several economic unions were formed which aspired to

32
establish some form of economic co-operative schemes.32 While such efforts were usually

among West African states, others cut across the regional divisions that were present.

Due to the dire economic situation in which several signatory states found themselves, the OAU

Charter sought to "co-ordinate and intensify co-operation and efforts to achieve a better life for

the peoples of Africa". In recognition of the need for rapid economic development, signatory

Heads of State and Government created an Economic and Social Commission

(ECOSOC) as one of the five specialised commissions of the OAU in 1965. A preparatory

Economic committee was established to study the whole issue of "economic cooperation and

development among member states", in collaboration with the Economic Commission for

Africa (ECA). Among other things, the committee was charged with studying the "possibility

of establishing a free trade area between the various African countries"

The major rationale, therefore, for establishing ECOWAS gravitated more towards the

anticipated accumulation of economic gains, which would improve and facilitate the economic

development of the sub-region. Encompassed in this philosophy is what John Sloan has

described as developmental regionalism &; that is, an integrative scheme that aims at speeding

the development of %both the member-states and the geographical region & as a whole.

For the purposes of the thesis, the Treaty also provided that the community should by stages

ensure "such other activities calculated to further the aims of the Community as the member

states may from time to time undertake in common" (Article 9 (2)). Added to this, the

Authority is also empowered to establish other commissions "as it deems necessary" (Article 9

(2)). The inclusion of security related protocols were a progression from the economic

rationales underpinning the economic integrative scheme. Thus, under the provisions provided

by the Treaty, ECOWAS's leaders were empowered to make extensions to" the original Treaty

as and when the Authority saw appropriate. The implications of this addition was that it enables

ECOWAS leaders to respond to situations on the sub-region that needed the expansion of the

33
original Treaty objectives without having to go through a whole renegotiation process. Within

the first few years of its conceptualization phase, several schemes dealing with diverse issues

and topics were put in place. At its inception, three stages were designated for fulfilling the

aims of ECOWAS. Stage One, lasting two years, was to be devoted to fact-finding and

organization of community institutions. Stage Two lasting eight years was to result in the

gradual elimination of customs duties and quantitative restrictions in accordance with a

schedule to be agreed upon in a protocol. Stage Three lasting five years was a period for the

abolition of existing differences in member states' external tariffs. Under Article 4 of the Treaty

establishing ECOWAS, four main organs were established. The main policy-making

institutions are the" Authority of Heads of State and Government, the Fund, Executive

Secretariat and the Council of Ministers. This meets twice a year and is composed of tyo

ministers from each member state. Its responsibilities are to monitor the functioning of the

community. Four specialised and technical commissions were initially established:

i. Trade, Customs, Immigration, Monetary and Payments Commission;

ii. Agriculture, Industry and Natural Resources Commission; iii.

Transport, Telecommunications and Energy; iv. Social and

Cultural Affairs. (Weber, M.2016.)

3.4 Method of Data Analysis

For the purpose of carrying out data analysis for this research work, various sources relating

the subject matter were consulted in addressing the research questions that were highlighted in

the course of the study; other researches providing direct answers to the questions were

consulted in that five crucial research questions were listed in the first chapter of this research

work, so far so good, the research work has been able to provide accurate and broad answers

to the research questions. The objectives which the study had earlier hoped to achieve have

been attained after thorough analysis of information sourced from various textbooks, journals,

34
academic literatures, online material, magazines, newspaper, to mention but a few. This is to

say that this study consulted more than one source in carrying out a complete and successful

research. The various information and details that were derived from the listed sources have

been subjected to thorough and critical analysis to be able to bring forth standard and accurate

information relating to the subject matter which is capable ofgiving to us a very wide and vast

understanding about the subject matter. During this research work, we have critically analyzed

the formation of the organization ECOWAS which was brought about by the Treaty of Lagos,

this research work also deeply analyzed the various objectives of ECOWAS as stated by Cole

Esan Ande ifi his book "Essential Economics" (2015) we looked closely at the objectives and

made deep evaluation concerning them to be able to come to a conclusion as to whether the

stated objectives can be described as realistic or if it were just more of wishful thinking.

Critical analysis of this study has shown that for the organization to actually function properly

and attain targeted goals then commitment of its member states to attain such must not lax just

as opined by (Adepoju, 2005) It is necessary to point out that the success of ECOWAS has

always hinged on the degree of the determination and commitment of the stronger members

and Nigeria has successfully been able to manifest itself as the strongest member. This research

work went further into taking a deep and thorough analysis into the foreign policy of Nigeria

concerning the formation of ECOWAS, from it we were able to conclude that Foreign policy.

is established as a systemic way to deal with issues that may arise with other countries

(Business Dictionary, 2017). For the purpose of attaining a clearer insight about the subject

matter we considered various arguments concerning the direction of the foreign policy of

Nigeria.

According to Bondarenko (2008, p.3) the foreign policy of most African states are still

patterned in line with the cQlojiial ideologies of their previous colonial masters. On the other

hand Akintola (2007, p.439) opined that Nigeria has maintained a consistent foreign policy

35
because the country has experienced varied forms of government, right from independence

Africa was the centerpiece of Nigeria's foreign policy which had emphasis on the emancipation,

development and unity of Africans both within and outside the continent. We went further in

analyzing some of many interventions of ECOWAS in various crises in its member states

ranging from the crisis in Sierra Leone, Liberia and even the Gambia crisis of 2017. Inspite of

all of its major efforts in maintaining peace within the subregion the community has been for

ears faced with diverse challenges has explained in Esam (2015) Essential Economics and

George Ibenegbu (2017) "Aims and Objectives of ECOWAS", we however tried to understand

and determine how its variou's challenges influences and affects the role it seeks to play within

the region. Wilson Center (2007) "The role of ECOWAS in achieving the Economic Integration

of West Africa" it seeks to integrate regional trade and increase external trade of processed

goods, thereby creating jobs. This study defines and explains major and important roles that

Nigeria has played and even still playing in the formation and the sustenance of the community.

We understand and have considered various important roles that ECOWAS has played in the

past years till date but the dominant questions here remains Is ECOWAS fulfilling the purposes

for which it was created? Can the formation of ECOWAS be considered a success or a failure?

36
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Introduction

In this Chapter the challenges and successes of ECOWAS will be considered for the purpose

of making standard academic arguments as to whether its formation from 1975 thus far has

been a success or a failure. It shall however cover the various attempts made by the

Community in fostering economic growth as well as regional security within West Africa,

Nigeria's role in the development of the community will not be left out.

4.1 Formation of ECOWAS; a Success or Failure

The community was created on the 28, May 1975 for the purpose of promoting economic trade,

national cooperation and monetary union among the countries in West Africa. It was created

for the purpose of enhancing economic growth and development. ECOWAS has certain

objectives for which it was created and has been able to attain success in the following areas

Free Movement Protocol

According to Agyei, & Clottey, (2005) the recognition of the need for economic integration

includes free flow of persons, goods and services, and the right of residence and establishment

of businesses. As a result of this, Article 27 of the ECOWAS Treaty of 1975 provided for free

flow economic interaction that would bring about a community citizenship and relations among

member nations and this is regarded as a vital step and stage in process of integration. For the

purpose of the attainment of the free movement protocol, three stages were developed. First,

the protocol relating to the Right of Entry and abolition of Visa was implemented from 1980 -

1985.

The second phase was the Right of Residence that was signed in 1986 but leave the host state

to determine the criteria for guarantee the employment of migrant workers and members of

their family.

37
The third phase was the right of establishment that was adopted in 1990. The third was

envisaged to provide the opportunity for a community citizen to settle or establish in any of the

member States and have access to economic activities, to carry out these activities as well as

to set up and manage enterprises, in line with the legislation of the host member state as

inapplicable to its own nationals.

It could be observed that the right of residence in the protocol was enforceable as from July,

1988 but that of establishment is yet to be fully implemented (Adepoju et al, (2007). ECOWAS

on May 12, 2000 agreed to introduce a new passport consisting of three categories that is for

citizens of the sub-region; Red passport was designed for the diplomatic personnel, blue for the

service and green for the ordinary group (ECOWAS, 2000).In addition, common approach on

migration was adopted that entail protocol on free movement, promoting management of

regular migration, policy harmonization, control of irregular migration and human trafficking.

The advantage of the implementation of the protocol was evident in the volume of human and

goods traffic witnessed on the daily basis despite the official and artificial border restriction.

The flow of population from the sub-region constitutes a relatively large proportion of all

immigrants in most of the member States. However, a major problem here is the high level of

corrupt practices at the border, expulsion of citizens from member states, lack of coordination

between ECOWAS secretariat arid security personnel in all the border posts as well as language

barriers.

Trade Liberalization

ECOWAS developed a Trade Liberalization Scheme which was designed to establish a

customs union among member states, the purpose of this was to facilitate free movement of

transport, goods and persons within ECOWAS and also the complete removal of all tariffs

including all barriers to free trade within the region. The Free Trade Area (FTA) stipulates that

no tariff be charged on fellow members goods. The Custom Union on FTA provides for the

38
usage of common tariffs on imports from non-member nations while the common market was

designed to ensure the free movement of factors of production. The study opines that in spite

of inherent constraints, the implementation of the protocol has achieved some measure of

success.

It is necessary to point out that check points were dismantled and border patrols were installed

by Niger, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Burkina Faso and Mali to monitor and police national

frontiers.

Creation of Community Citizenship

ECOWAS sought to promote and build a community citizenship among the member nations.

According to Yaya (2012) this can be perceived as the creation of a homogenous society bring

about unity of the countries of West Africa, by elimination of all types of obstacles to the free

movement of goods, capital and persons' as contained in the Article 7 of the Treaty. The Treaty

allows for Community citizenship on the citizens of member States, and also enjoins member

States to abolish all obstacles to freedom of movement and residence within the Community.

Aaccording to Chatterjee, (2010) Citizen is defined as the relationship between the state and

its population. Rights and privileges, duties and obligations are the main elements that define

this relationship. The political and legal frameworks instituted were pointers in the right

direction that ECOWAS was committed to ensure that the goals of community citizenship are

achieved but the institutional framework to make it a reality is lacking. Nonetheless, significant

achievements have not been recorded because of some of the challenges earlier mentioned.

Peace Making

ECOWAS has played a major role as well as attained significant progress in conflict

management and resolution within the sub-region. The Community has been very active in

preventing new crisis that could truncate the peace and tranquility of the Community. The

establishment OF ECOMOG and the deployment of troops to Liberia, Sierra Lone, even in the

39
recent Gambian crisis of 2017 among others have in np small way stabilized peace in the

nations. ECOWAS suspended Guinea, Niger and Cote d'lvoire following coups and worked

relentlessly to frustrate dissent in those countries. Through these concerted efforts, Guinea now

has democratically elected leaders since 2010 while same is true of Niger. Also, ECOWAS

supported the legitimate winner of Cote DTvorie presidential election. They intervened in

Guinea Bissau by sending 600 peace keepers helped significantly to stabilize the government.

In Mali with UN resolution 2056 of July 6, 2012, about 3000 military personnel is on ground

while members States refused to recognize the secessionist region but exhibited the preference

to adopt negotiation with the rebels.

Having fully considered the successes which the community has attained, for the purpose of

making an argument as to whether the formation of the community has been a success or a

failure, we will have to consider setbacks as well as challenges that has continually undermined

the attainment of the goal of the community and they are thoroughly explained below;

Economy of ECOWAS and Issues of Trade

One of the biggest and greatest challenges towards the integration of ECOWAS is issues related

to economy of its member states. Issues and factors related to economy have posed serious

challenges towards the intention of ECOWAS member states, to establish and operate an

integrated market system under the umbrella of a Common External Tariff (CET). The

economy of the member states of ECOWAS is in total shambles and disarray, and has therefore

always posed serious threats and challenges towards the goals and objectives of the regional

organization. It is on record with statistics, that most member states of ECOWAS are regarded

as the poorest and most impoverished nations on earth, as they also remain highly indebted to

various international financial institutions like World Bank and IMF (International Monetary

Fund). The rural economies of most member states of ECOWAS are in tatters as poverty and

underdevelopment continue to spread like wide fire. The market system of member states of

40
ECOWAS is very thin and narrow, and so therefore, it has always posed a very serious threat

towards the development of the economy of member states within the ECOWAS region, as the

amount of trade among member states of ECOWAS is also very

tiny.

Political instability and poor governance of member states

This is a major index that has dominated the totality of almost all African States with special

reference to West African. Although ECOWAS has series of objectives which it hopes to cany

out but this cannot be achieved under the circumstances of political instability and poor

governance. Drawing strength from the case of Nigeria, the political culture of the state has

gone from bad to worse as evident in different myopic leaders who claim to have the best

interest of Nigeria at heart. The issue of political instability is also rampant in the region as

seen in various past crisis in which the community has to intervene, which recent which was

the Gambia Crisis of 2017

Weakness and lack of Diversification of National Economies

A dominant feature or characteristics of countries that fall under the West African region is

poor economy. The Economies of the majority of the member states are so weak and so

ECOWAS vision for economic integration cannot stand. Nigeria, the brain behind its formation

has a economy that is if anything worse than weak and the worst part about these states is that

they are not willing to try out economic diversion but rather follow one part even if it's the part

that leads to their unfortunate destruction.

41
Poor or Absent Infrastructures for Transportation and Communication

If the infrastructures of the member states are dead then ECOWAS has nothing to prove or

promote. This issue of Poor or Absent Infrastructure for Transportation and Communication

has basically put a dent on that which ECOWAS seeks to achieve. As a matter of fact,

ECOWAS cannot achieve some certain goals without presence of some necessary tools.

Language barriers

Official languages of member countries are foreign and varied: English, French, Portuguese,

thus complicating the communication problem. Every state within the Community has its own

official language and as such it is not easy to get a message across to those who cant speak or

who don't understand the official language in use.

Common currency problem

Foreign currencies like franc, pound sterling and dollar determine the stability of currency of

member states but there is no common currency for member states. Although the community

have sought to create a uniform currency which all members in the community will be using

but this has not been successful.

Fear of domination

The fear of domination of smaller states by bigger ones stands as a barrier to unity. During the

early days of ECOWAS peacekeeping missions, the intentions of Nigeria was constantly been

questioned especially during the attempts to calm the civil war in Liberia. Some states believed

that Nigeria's activeness as well as its various suggestions as to what steps to take was seen as

an overbearing attitude by some states and an attempt to dominate the Community. As a matter

of fact, many feared that it would lead to the aged long rivalry between the Francophone states

and the Anglophone states.

42
Political, Administration and Socio-culture disputes

It should be noted that, it is the responsibility of the governments of the various countries that

makes up the ECOWAS bloc to push for developments in their various countries, in other to

attaining integration with other ECOWAS member states. Also, it is the constitutional rights

of the governments of the various ECOWAS member states to support or give a stamp of

approval to, or having to withhold decisions on policies related to Conventions or Protocols, as

well as also making purposeful policies towards executing them.

Since its inception on the 28th May, 1975, ECOWAS as a regional West African organization

have always suffered many setbacks, which have always endangered or put its existence at risk.

However, despite the fact that ECOWAS as a regional organization lacks the political will and

motivational force which helps to generate a very viable political action. ECOWAS is also very

much suffering from problems related to social and cultural factors. The continuance of these

threats, and the inability of ECOWAS to deal decisively with them, has turned or made

ECOWAS a laughing stock among other global regional bodies. ECOWAS is therefore seen

as a very unreliable and faulty regional organization. The issue of lack of supportive

infrastructure such as roads are poorly connected, so also the communication network has not

been harmonized. It is important to point out that the attitude of state officials who constitute

unnecessary bureaucratic bottlenecks at border posts coupled with intimidating road blocks,

extortions and unfriendly behaviors poses as a major challenge. However, inspite of all of these

shortcomings of the organization, it has continually played a major role in the development of

the countries within the region, it has assisted in the maintenance of peace and orderliness and

have continued to champion the principle of democracy within its region. This is simply to

argue that we cannot totally term up the formation and the existence of the community as a

failure irrespective of the problems that have characterized the region. It is however important

to point out that according to the ECOWAS Parliament (2017) ECOWAS was founded to

43
achieve collect self sufficiency by the means of economic and monetary union thereby creating

a single large trading bloc by the means of economic and monetary union. Although it hasn't

been able to successfully attain this but that doesn't mean it is incapable of attaining it, maybe

not now but surely in the nearest future.

4.2 The Role of ECOWAS in Fostering Regional Security and Economic Growth

Regional security as a concept of its own has a long tradition in international relations and can

be explained as the effective implementation of protection of the system of mutual relations

between countries in the region against the threats of instability, crises, armed conflicts and

regional wars, to mention but a few. Most of the time, it is imperative to point out that the

security at the regional level is built based upon a system or an alliance operating within the

defined region, and it is also important to recognize that regional security institutions are often,

but net always, established on the basis of geographical boundaries of the region, at the

interface of functional cooperation Frempong, Kaakyire (2003) explained that West Africa has

experienced series and more series of unprecedented crises ever since the beginning of the

treaty that led to the establishment of the formation of ECOWAS, it is also worthy of note that

sometimes the scope of regional security institutions can be different in the sense of common

security may cut across functional interests (e.g. trade) but it is majorly concerned in the case

of military alliances which in the post-war international system often concerned with.

When it comes to regional security, it is also necessary to identify the main threats in this

sphere. These main threats to security in the regional context are identical to the catalogue

based on the guidelines of many of contemporary security strategies. They attach particular

importance to the elements of threats such as the possibility of the outbreak of a war, the

proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and means of their delivery, international

terrorism, organized crime, uncontrolled migration, social tensions, environment disasters,

44
corruption, epidemics or demographic threats associated with low population growth and aging

of populations in the states of a given region.

Regional integration is viewed as a veritable means of leveraging comparative advantage

within a common market for the purpose of promoting the growth and development of trade.

It is the recognition of the inevitable role of trade to stimulate rapid socio-economic as well as

political development within West African sub-region that pushed for the establishment of the

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). In the last four decades of its

existence, the community has been able to achieve remarkable progress in some areas.

ECOWAS has remained united, even though it has been reduced from sixteen to fifteen

members with the exit of Mauritania, although its present stance still remains unknown with

the application of Morocco to join the community on the 24th February 2017 which has led to

the lift of few eyebrows from international spectators (Riccardo, 2018). The future of

ECOWAS still remains unknown with the inclusion of this rather foreign country into the

community. Aside from all these, the organization can pride itself as the largest regional

grouping in Africa. It has also demonstrated a measure of effectiveness in matters of security

and conflict resolution by the establishment of ECOMOG and this is also evident in the call

made by ECOWAS leaders for synergized actions against Boko Haram by accepting the

establishment of the Multinational Joint Task Force as well as the commitment demonstrated

by Benin, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad in the fight against the terrorist group.

According to Sesay and Ikouni (2011) ECOWAS possesses the most sophisticated conflict

prevention management in the continent which was evident in the resolving of the recent

Gambian crisis. According to (Dennis Foretia 2016). ECOWAS deployed troops against

Gambia in January 2017 in response to the democratic crisis that had begun to erupt in the

country after the 2016 presidential elections. Priorly, Yahya Jammeh, who gained power in a

bloodless coup in 1994, had ruled Gambia and had remained in power until January 2017

45
winning all presidential elections from then until 2011. On 1 December 2016, Jammeh lost the

presidential elections to Adama Barrow, the leader of the Coalition Party in what was widely

agreed to be a free and fair election.7 In a twist of events, Jammeh, who had earlier accepted

the results of the election, subsequently rejected the results and accused the electoral officers

of falsifying the election results.8 Jammeh filed an action in the Supreme Court of Gambia

challenging the election results. Nevertheless, the President-elect, Adama Barrow was sworn

in as President of Gambia on 19 January 2017 at the Gambian embassy in Senegal.9 Upon

taking the oath of office, Barrow made a request to ECOWAS, the African Union ('AU') and

the UN Security Council to support the people of Gambia in enforcing and installing the

democratically elected government. 10 ECOWAS troops entered into Gambia immediately

after the inauguration of Adama Barrow as President. Yahya Jammeh stepped down from office

on 21 January 2017.

ECOWAS is the biggest and the most inclusive having among its members seven francophone

countries belonging to Communaute Economies del’ Afrique de I'Ouest (CEAO); three Mano

River Union (MANU) and the rest made up of Anglophone and Luxophone countries totaling

sixteen in number with the exception of Mauritania which withdrew its membership in the year

2000. Other countries are: Nigeria, Togo, Ghana, Benin Republic, Burkina Faso, Cote d'lvoire,

Senegal, Guinea, Gambia, Liberia, Niger, Mali,

Sierra-Leone and Guinea Bissau. It has a population of roughly 300million and a GDP of US

$29.4billion (ECOWAS, 2007). Whereas, the community has made some marks in certain

sectors in particular in the area of security, conflicts resolution and peace and to a lesser extent

in the promotion of democracy and good governance (Adetula, 2009). There is no doubt that

regional integration remains the most potent economic mechanism to foster development in

counteracting the negative effect of globalization. Also for ECOWAS, trade liberalization is

seen as the appropriate policy to foster higher inflows of foreign investment, capital and new

46
technologies that will end up transforming the economy of the sub-region. (Adams and Sanni,

2010). However, presently in the West African Sub-region, the economies are competitive

rather than complementary in that countries that have similar comparative advantages simply

trade among themselves rather than with one another and so the economic union has not been

able to stimulate trade creation that would be profitable for regional integration (Adetula,

2009). Trading in the sub- region has not brought much of encouragement as there is no

convertible currency; the situation where there are competing currencies or different currencies

brings frustration because there is no single official currency which all members of the

community uses. The main goal of the ECOWAS was the economic integration of the region

as reflected in the 1975 ECOWAS Treaty thu?: "It shall be the aim of the Community to

promote co-operation and development in all fields of economic pactivity for the purpose of

increasing and maintaining economic stability and contributing to the progress and

development of the African continent." In order to attain that goal, the Member States were

required to harmonize their economic and industrial policies and eliminate the disparities in the

level of development of the Member States. For the purpose of the facilitation of this objective,

a Trade, Customs, Immigration, Monetary and Payments Commission was setup. The Treaty

laid the foundation for the liberalization of trade, a Customs Union, Common Tariff treatment

for community goods. Thel993 Revision Treaty reemphasized that the aims of the Community

are to promote cooperation and integration, leading to the establishment of an economic union

in West Africa, in order to raise the living standards of its people and maintain and also enhance

economic stability

4.3 Nigeria's Role In The Maintenance And Sustenance Of ECOWAS

As argued by Imobighe (1987), Nigerian's ambition to be the leader of Africa has driven the

idea to concentrate on the defence of the physical territory from external aggression or

intervention in the nation's affairs . According to Abbass (2012), Under-Secretary of African

47
Affairs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs who was interviewed, the capability of Nigeria

concerning the military and economic spheres, define in a critical sense the role it plays in

regional security policy and this begs the question; what policy goals does Nigeria hope to

achieve through ECOWAS in that the country is bearing most of the burden of keeping the

organization alive? Nigeria has without no doubt contributed immensely to the sustenance of

ECOWAS in the areas of trade.

Nigeria's participation in ECOWAS, is an area that has attracted a lot of attention, so many

people have tried to identify specific interest which Nigeria has pursued. As a result of the

leadership role that Nigeria is playing a leading role in the West African Sub-region, it has

greatly increased the cost she. incurs as part of her membership obligation as stated by

ECOWAS Committee Report (2005).

Accoring to Bassey (2015) The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was

established in 1975 to promote economic co-operation and integration in the West African sub-

region. . It is necessary to point out that the success of ECOWAS has always hinged on the
:
degree of the determination and commitment of the stronger members and Nigeria has

successfully been able to manifest itself as the strongest member (Adepoju, 2005). It is for a

fact that Nigeria played a major role in the formation as well as development of the Economic

Community of West African States (ECOWAS). In 1964, talks were carried out by the Balewa

government in respect to the formation of ECOWAS. Nigeria was actively involved in series

of conferences sponsored by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) between the period

of 1966 and 1968. With the issues of civil war that was on ground,

Nigeria strengthened the desire for a West African Economic Community. . The call for a West

African Community was made by President William Tubman of Liberia in 1964 as stated

earlier, an agreement signed among four member states in February 1965 but it came to

nothing. However in April 1972, General Govvon of Nigeria and General Eyadum of Togo

48
relaunched the idea, drawing up proposals. A meeting was then called at the Lome from 10- 15

December 1973 to study the drafted treaty. Finally, 15 West African countries signed the treaty

of Economic Community of West-African States on the 28 May, 1975. Drawing strength from

the report of the ECOWAS Parliament (2017) ECOWAS was founded to achieve collect self

sufficiency by the means of economic and monetary union thereby creating a single large

trading bloc by the means of economic and monetary union. Nigeria has helped to develop

international legal culture by sponsoring enactment of international law and policies to initiate

sustainable development in the ECOWAS.

Apart from sponsoring the formation of the ECOWAS, Nigeria did a number of things to

promote the West African economic cooperation and sustainability. Nigeria used the

instrument of law to reverse adverse economic situation. To achieve this, Nigeria called for and

sponsored the review of the 1975 ECOWAS Treaty. The 1975 ECOWAS Treaty was the legal

instrument that established the ECOWAS. Nigeria sponsored ECOWAS meeting of the

Authority of Heads of State and Government in Abuja on 6 July 1991 where a Committee of

Persons was- set up to submit proposals for the review of the Treaty. Be that as it may, the

Revised ECOWAS Treaty signed oh 24th July, 1993 making provisions for more economic

policies and programmes, which reflected the Nigerian economic diplomacy objectives. Article

3(1) (c) (i) of the Revised Treaty provides as follows: (a) Establishment of joint production

enterprises;

a. The establishment of a common market through

b. Liberalization of trade by. abolishing custom duties on import and export among

member states as well as the complete removal of tariffs for the purpose of establishing

free trade among Member State.

c. The adoption of a common external tariff and a common trade policy

49
 d. The removal, between Member States, of obstacles to the free movement of persons,

goods,

e. services and capital, and to the right of residence and establishment;

f. The establishment of an economic union through tile adoption of common policies in

the economic, financial, social and cultural sectors, and the creation of a monetary

union.

g. The promotion of joint ventures by private sector enterprises and other economic

operators, in particular through the adoption of a regional agreement on cross-border

investments;

h. the adoption of measures for the integration of the private sector through the creation

of an enabling environment to promote small and medium scale enterprises;

Nigeria's position in ECOWAS is a self contradictory one in that the country is as rich as all

the other states put together but does not have the corresponding political influence. Nigeria's

strategy must be to gain influence through economic penetration for the purpose of promoting

subtle influence over its neighbors.

It is indisputable that the sub-region acknowledges the leadership role being played by Nigeria

through her vast display of wealth and military power despite her depressed economy. With

regard to the effort to restore peace for the war-ravaged Liberia and other troubled West African

states, Nigeria's participation brought its own burden on Nigerians. ECOMOG received

personnel and financial assistance from Nigeria, although ECOWAS member-states in general

were to bear the cost of ECOWAS operations (ECOWAS Report, 2005). The military and

strategic nature of the operations caused their real cost to be kept away from the Nigerian public

Based on facts from a Lagos correspondent, Adeoye (1991) he estimated that Nigeria has spent

between $250 to $500 million on the operations. According to Kohou (2000), the ECOMOG

troops for peacekeeping or cease fire monitoring group in the two wars in Sierra Leone and

50
Liberia in 1991 and 1989 respectively, started with 3,000 troops and expanded to reach 17,500

troops with 75% from Nigeria while the rest of the other member countries produced the

remaining 25%. The maintenance of such number of troops was not an easy task for either

ECOWAS as-a whole or Nigeria whose development programmes was hindered by financial

constraints (ECOWAS, 2005). Nevertheless, Nigeria enjoys enormous prestige in the

ECOWAS sub-region because of her leadership role. Beyond reasonable doubt, it is clear that

the major objective behind the continuous participation of Nigeria in ECOWAS has to do with

the achievement and protection of her national interest but in order to even attain this,

ECOWAS itself must survive. For this reason, the survival of ECOWAS is majorly in the best

interest of Nigeria in that its survival is inseparably interwoven in the achievement of the goals

contained in Nigeria's national

interest.

Nigeria has sustained ECOWAS financially more than an^ other member of the organization

(ECOWAS Report 2005). Her financial contributions can be classified into three types:

statutory financial contributions, voluntary contributions and voluntary assistance to individual

member-states of ECOWAS. Statutory financial contributions are obligatory contributions

which Nigeria must make as a member of ECOWAS. ECOWAS was

established as an organization of legally equal member-states, which principally implies the

enjoyment by members of equal rights and presumably equal duties. Nigeria voluntarily

assisted individual member states of ECOWAS to demonstrate and confirm her leadership

position and show that she can be her brother's keeper in spite of her own economic difficulties.

According to Adamu, (1992) Nigeria, between 1977 and 1987 donated two buses to Benin

Republic to enable her host ECOWAS games, financed road projects in Benin and

51
Niger, trained Benin military personnel, sent Nigerian judges to offer legal assistance to

Gambia and offered scholarships and technical assistance to Gambia, Guinea and Liberia.

Nigeria sent food worth millions of dollars to Ghana, Guinea and Cape Verde, etc.

Nigeria has been hosting not only the organization (ECOWAS), but the Commissions of

ECOWAS as reported by Uzondu, (2008).

52
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter being the last of this research project will cover the general overview of the

complete study, observations made from this research project, conclusion as well as

recommendations about steps that can be taken to ensure the sustenance and the survival of the

organization.

5.1 Summary

The Economic Community of WestAfrican States has always had its root buried deep in

Nigeria, as a matter of fact we can confidently assert that ECOWAS is the brainchild of

Nigeria, its success stories coupled with its sustenance since its formation can be credited to

Nigeria, it is necessary to point out that the success of ECOWAS has always hinged on the

degree of the determination and commitment of the stronger members and Nigeria has

successfully been able to manifest itself as the strongest member (Adepoju, 2005). It is for a

fact that Nigeria played a major role in the formation as well as development of the Economic

Community of West African States. Nigeria carried out political and military gestures to

individual states or group of states in west Africa, it was also addressing the problems of the

sub-region (Danjuma,2012) according to Ajetunmobi (2011, p.308-315) he opined that

Nigeria's new found democratic credentials allows its foreign policy to support and promote

democratic value in ECOWAS member states and beyond. Frempong, Kaakyire (2003)

explained that West Africa has experienced series and more series of unprecedented crises ever

since the beginning of the treaty that led to the establishment of the formation of ECOWAS.

For instance, Liberia and Cote d'lvoire have had occasional tense periods on their mutual

boundaries, especially since the overthrow of the former Liberian President, William Tolbert

by Samuel Doe. According to Adeyemi, Segun (2003) during this period ECOWAS was

established to restore law and order and to create necessary conditions fqr free and fair elections

53
although on October 1990. According to Adepoju, (2005) It is necessary to point out that the

success of ECOWAS has always hinged on the degree of the determination and commitment

of the stronger members and Nigeria has successfully been able to manifest itself as the

strongest member. The wave of violence in Nigeria as observed by Kasarchi (2016) has

disrupted socio-economic, religious and educational activities, political instability and

threantened the national unity in Nigeria. These extra judiciary killings have forced thousands

of people to abandon their homesand farmlands for safety, studies carried out by Okereke

(2012) and Kasarachi (2016) have shown that serious conflict erupt between Fulani herdsmen

and farmers leading to.loss of lives, valuable properties and destruction of vast expanse of

arable agricultural farmland thereby posing serious threat to food security since farmers for

fear of attack could no longer go to farm and harvest their farm produce. In response to this

The ECOWAS Commission in view of crisis announced a high level inter- ministerial

conference to be held on February 2018, where the 16 member states will be attendance to

proffer solution to the problems. The president of ECOWAS commission Marcel de Souza said

there was need to implement the 1978 protocol, which he said would help resolve the crisis.

On May 28 1975, 15 West African countries met in Lagos, Nigeria, to sign the ECOWAS treaty

which is also known as the Treaty of Lagos which included Benin, Burkina Faso, previously

known as Upper Volta, Cote d'lvoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali,

Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. The treaty which created

ECOWAS was intended to promote cooperation and integration within West Africa. Two years

later in 1977, Cape Verde became the sixteenth member of ECOWAS, although recently there

has been a rather troubling addition to the membership of ECOWAS- Morocco. The West

African regional group has in principle approved Morocco's membership application despite

the fact that the state is a North African state. Morocco's application comes after it joined the

African union in January.

54
5.1.1 Morocco's Membership into ECOWAS

Over the last decade, Morocco has undertaken numerous reforms in order to successfully

integrate itself into the global economy in general and Africa in particular with the aim of

diversifying and strengthening its competitive export potentials. According to Fabiani (2018)

although Morocco is aiming to diversify its trade into West Africa, political and social

opposition within ECOWAS raises questions about its real intentions. Over the past few years,

Morocco's economic integration with sub saharan Africa has accelerated. As at 2008 and'2016,

Moroccan exports to the rest of the continent grew an average of 9% every year while its FDI

rose to 4.4%, Mr! Mustapha El Khalfi the spokesman for the Moroccan government and

parliament said that the country's interest in joining ECOWAS stems from its desire to build a

strong South-South partnership. However according to the opinion given by the ace lawyer and

human right activist Femi Falana published by Ameh Godwin(2018), he claimed that despite

the so called Morocco's strong ties with the ECOWAS member states, trade between them

remains low as it is less than 1 USD billion a year. In January 2017, Morocco returned to the

African Union after 31 years of absence. Under King Mohammed VI of Morocco, there has

been in the last seven years a concerted diplomatic effort to assert Morocco's Africanism and

reach out to other African countries outside North Africa. Having returned to the AU, Morocco

took the additional step of seeking the membership of ECOWAS. In June 2017, at the 51st

meeting of ECOWAS Heads of state and government held in Monrovia, Liberia, ECOWAS

agreed in principle to Morocco's application for membership.

55
5.2 Major Discoveries of the Study

Nigeria has played pivotal roles in the formation, establishment and development of various

international organizations aside ECOWAS such as African Union, Food and Agriculture

Organization, • African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States, International Monetary Fund,

Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Drawing strength

from the work of the ECOWAS Parliament (2017) ECOWAS was founded to achieve collect

self-sufficiency by the means of economic and monetary union thereby creating a single large

trading bloc by the means of economic and monetary union. Based on the data sourced from

Community Computer Centre (CCC) in collaboration with the directorate of Communication.

ECOWAS (2016) ECOWAS operates with three co-official languages which are French,

English and Portuguese. The community consists of two institutions for the purpose of the

implementation of policies- The ECOWAS Commission and the ECOWAS Bank for

Investment and Development (EBID) previously regarded as the Fund for Cooperation until it

was renamed in 2001.

It is imperative to point out that he Economies of the majority of the member states are so weak

and so ECOWAS vision for economic integration cannot stand. Nigeria, the brain behind its

formation has an economy that is if anything worse than weak and the worst part about these

states is that they are not willing to try out economic diversion but rather follow one part even

if it's the part that leads to their unfortunate destruction. Monica Oluchi in her paper

"Membership in the Multilateral Economic Organizations...(1985-2014) argued that the

activities of the Nigerian government in ECOWAS shows that Nigeria is bearing most of the

burdens of keeping the organization alive; in spite of the fact that ECOWAS treaty provided

for equal rights, duties and benefits. Nigeria has without no doubt contributed immensely to

the sustenance of ECOWAS in the areas of trade. As a result of the leadership role that

56
Nigeria is playing a in the West African Sub-region, it has greatly increased the cost she incurs

as part of her membership obligation as stated by ECOWAS Committee Report

(2005). It is clear that the major objective behind the continuous participation of Nigeria m

ECOWAS has to do with the achievement and protection of her national interest. Nigeria has

sustained ECOWAS financially more than any other fnember of the organization (ECOWAS

Report 2005). Her financial contributions can be classified into three types: statutory financial

contributions, voluntary contributions and voluntary assistance to individual member-states of

ECOWAS. However, contrary to this, Zabadi (2011) argued that even though the world treats

Nigeria as a regional and sub regional leader and listens to her opinion on Africa and even

world issues, there is a contradiction in that Nigeria is an underperformer in domestic affairs,

with poor representation and poorly coordinated positions on many issues.

ECOWAS is also very much suffering from problems related to social and cultural factors. The

continuance of these threats, and the inability of ECOWAS to deal decisively with them, has

turned or made ECOWAS a laughing stock 'among other global regional bodies. ECOWAS is

therefore seen ab a very unreliable and faulty regional organization. The issues of lack of

supportive infrastructure such as roads are poorly connected, so also the communication

network has not been harmonized. It is important to point out that the attitude of state officials

who constitute unnecessary bureaucratic bottlenecks at border posts coupled with intimidating

road blocks, extortions and unfrien3ly behaviors poses as a major challenge. However, in spite

of all of these shortcomings of the organization, it has continually played a major role in the

development of the countries within the region, it has assisted in the maintenance, of peace and

orderliness and have continued to champion the principle of democracy within its tegion. This

is simply to argue that we cannot totally term up the formation and the existence of the

community as a failure irrespective of the problems that have characterized the region.

57
5.3 Conclusion and Recommendations

It is without any doubt that we-firmly assert that Nigeria has indeed played a major role in the

formation, establishment, development as well as sustenance of the Economic Community of

West African States. She has contributed immensely in the financial assistance of her sister

countries within West Africa and fought hard to uphold and maintain the principle of

democracy in West Africa. A classic example of this act was witnessed during the Gambian

Crisis of 2017 whereby Nigeria went out of her way to ensure that the principle of democracy

is entrenched and respected in Gambia thereby ending an over ten years dictatorial rule of

Yayeh Jammeh. To say that Nigeria is the backbone of ECOWAS wouldn't be an exaggeration

although the move to create the community itself was first made by President Turbman of

Liberia who failed but this idea was later picked up by the then ruling head of state President

Yakubu Gowon, his efforts, determination as well as the support that he received from other

African leaders therefore led to the formation of the community. Although some argue that

Nigeria is only interested in developing ECOWAS for the protection of its own interest as well

as to grasp £t a desperate attempt to maintain its relevance despite the various alarming

situations that have erupted in Nigeria over the years. Although this claims are wrong to an

extent but not also far from he truth in that the interest of Nigeria and that of ECOWAS are

interwoven to an extent and as such it is only natural for Nigeria to want to protect that which

will aid her interest. The big brother role that Nigeria is still trying to play in West Africa is

seen by others a waste of time in that how can a country that cannot even quell a bu^ch of

terrorist in its backyard want to ensure peace and stability within the region or even defend the

region? The activities of Boko Haram in Nigeria particularly with the kidnapping of the chibok

girls many of whom are yet to be recovered is seen as a national slap and disgrace to Nigeria.

How can a nation claim that it wants to improve the economy of an entire region when the state

of its economy is almost laughable?

58
In spite of all of the challenges that Nigeria is facing within her nation, she continues to stand

firm to her dedication of improving west Africa, upholding democracy, sustaining peace and

stability within the region through ECOWAS and all Organizations.

For ECOWAS to attain her goals and objectives, there must be unity amidst then as well as the

elimination of thoughts and feelings that one state is superior to the other which will help in

allaying the fear of domination by smaller states, ECOWAS should make an attempt at making

more realistic goals and truly integrate, making unified economic policies as well as make a

concrete attempt as well as striving to achieve the goal of a single currency.

59
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