BASICWORKSHOPTECHNOLO

GYANDPRACTICE

MEC113/115
MODULE1-GeneralFactoryActs,SafetyRegulationsandSafetyPrecautions

NigeriaFactoriesActsandSafetyRegulations

TheFactoriesActisoneofthelegislationsthatguidetherelationshipbetweenemployersandemployees.
TheActcameintooperationtocurtailtheincidenceofindustrialaccidentsandtopromotesafetyatworken
vironmentforthebettermentoftheemployersandemployees~aswellasgovernmentatlarge.

ThemajorobjectiveoftheActistopreventindustrialaccidentswhichoftenresulttoindustrialinjuries.Ind
ustrialinjuriesareinjuriesarisinginthecourseofemployment.Thelawrelatingtothehealthandsafetyoft
heemployeewhilstengagedinhisworkhasundergonesomeseveralchangesinyears.Thisisapparentlyb
ecauseitisnowbeingrecognizedthatindustrialsafetyisaspecialistprofessionandconsequently,allthose
concernedwithindustrialsafetymustrecognizedsuch,andensurethattheyareatleastconversantwiththo
seaspectsofitwhichaffectthem.

ThereisnowayindustrialsafetyandtheFactoriesActwillbediscussedwithoutreferencetothecommonla
wpositionasitisdifficulttocompletelyignorethecommonlawpositiononthesubjectoftheemployee'ssa
fety.Thisisbecausethecommonlawplaysacomplimentaryroleontheissueofsafety.Atcommonlaw,em
ployersareresponsibletoensurethesafetyoftheiremployees.Thisresponsibilityisdischargedbyprovid
ingthefollowing:

(i)Safeworkingsystem
(ii)Safeworkplace
(iii)Safeworkingequipment
(iv)Competentstaff

ObjectivesoftheAct
TheFactoriesActisanacttoprovidefortheregistration,etcofthefactories;toprovideforfactoryworkersa
ndawiderspectrumofworkersandotherprofessionalsexposedtooccupationalhazardsbutforwhomnoa
dequateprovisionhadbeenmade;tomakeadequateprovisionsregardingthesafetyoftheworkerstowhic
htheactappliesandtoimposepenaltiesforanybreachofitsprovisions.

ItthereforemeansthatthemainobjectiveoftheactistocaterforthesafetyneedsofthevulnerableNigerian
workerwhobeforenowwasleftunprotectedwhilebeingsubjectedtopotentiallyhazardousworkingcon
ditions.TheActimposesanadditionalliabilityontheemployerfortheprotectionoftheiremployees.The
Actimposesstrictliabilitiesontheemployertoprovidesafetyfortheemployee.

TheScopeoftheAct

TheActaswehaveittodayisdividedintoelevenpartswhichismadeupofatotalof89sectionswithfivesche
dules.Thepartsandtheirrespectivesubjectsandsectionsareasfollows:
PartIregistrationofFactoriesSections1-6
PartIIHealth(generalprovisions)Sections7-13
PartIIISafety(generalprovisions)sections14-39
PartIVWelfare(generalprovisions)Sections40-44
PartVHealth,SafetyandWelfare(specialprovisionsandregulationsSections45-50)
PartVINotificationandinvestigationofaccidentsandindustrialdiseasesSections51-53
PartVIISpecialapplicationsextensionsandmiscellaneousprovisionSections54–62
PartVIIIGeneralRegisters,etc.58-62
PartIXAdministrationSections63-68
PartXOffences,penaltiesandlegalproceedingsSections69-81
PartXIGeneralSections82-89

ItmusthoweverbenotedthattheActisquiteproactiveandnotmerelyreactive.Itworkstowardsensuringt
hesafetyofworkersandtomakeemployersliableincriminalpenaltyfornotadheringtoitssafetyprovisio
ns.

Readup:

Nigeria.FactoriesAct,1987-ILO

HealthandSafetyManagementinWorkplaces

HealthandSafetyManagementSystem(HSMS),isaprocessforminimizingincidenceofinjury,illnessa
ndevendeathatworkplaces.Severalsafetyelementshavebeenidentifiedwhichcouldinfluencethedevel
opmentofasuccessfulsafetyandhealthmanagementsystem,howeverfouroftheseelementshavebeenfo
undtobecriticalandtheyinclude:
1.Leadershipqualitiesofmanagement(employer,supervisors,foremanetc.)onsafetyandemployee’sin
volvement,
2.Worksiteanalysisofpotentialhazardspots,
3.Hazardpreventionandcontrol,and
4.Qualityandfrequencyoforganizingsafetyandhealthtrainingprogramme.

Whatisworkplace
Aworkplaceisanywhereworkisdone,oristobeperformedbyaworker,personorgroupofpersonsconduc
tinganundertakingorbusiness.Aworkplacecouldthereforebeaworkshop,abusinessshop,anoffice,afa
rmshop,home,playgroundetc.

Componentsofworkplace
Componentsofworkplacereferstoboththephysicalandenvironmentalfactorsthatconstituteaworkplac
eandinclude;physicalobjects/
hardware(suchasmachinery,furniture,structuresetc),humanbeing(operators,workers,inspectorsand
theirteam,visitorsetc)andtheenvironment(operatingenvironment).Acommondenominatorwithinthe
workplaceistheenvironmentwhichisexplainedbelow.

Environment
Anenvironmentisthetotalityofallfactorsthatconstituteaworkplace.Theenvironmentsinwhichpeoplel
ivehaveagreatdealtodowiththedeterminationofrisklevel,injury,hazardsandopportunitiesforinjuryan
dhazardprevention.
Environmenthasbeenknowntohavesomeinfluenceonworkoutputorproductivity.Forinstance,workin
ginasafeandhealthfulenvironmentcanstimulateinnovationandcreativityresultinginincreasedperfor
manceandhigherproductivity.Twoenvironmentsaregenerallyidentifiableineveryworkplace;thephy
sicalenvironmentandtheoperatingenvironment.

Physicalenvironment

Thephysicalenvironmentistheactualplaceorsitewhereworkisdone.Inotherword,itistheactualworkpl
aceanditincludes:
1.Factoryorplant
2.Workshops
3.Farms(field)andfarmsteads,
4.Roadway,
5.Vehicles/machinery,
6.Buildings,farmstructuresandthesettingsinwhichwelive,work(offices)andplay.

Operatingenvironment

Theoperatingenvironmentimpliesboththephysicalandatmosphericconditionsthatcouldhaveaninflu
enceonjobdeliveryintheworkplace.Severalfactorsinfluencestheoperatingenvironment,suchfactorsi
nclude
1.Seasonalvariations,
2.Weathervariability,
3.Temperaturevariation,
4.Relativehumidityetc.

Othercriticalfactorsthatareenvironmentallydependentinclude:
1.Exposuretoharmfulsubstances,and
2.Workingwithinconfinedandlimited(small)spaces
3.Workinginpoorlyventilatedenclosures
4.Workinginpoorlyilluminatedenvironment
5.Attackbyinsectsandwildanimalsetc.
Alltheseandfactorsenvironmentharborspotentialhazardswhennotcontrolledwithattendantconseque
ncesofinjuryandevendeathinextremecases.

Hazarddefinition

Hazardisanysituation,conditionorextremeevents(naturalorcaused)withacertaindegreeofprobability
ofhavingadverseresultorconsequencesonsafetyorhealthofworkers.Itexpressesanyactivitythathaspo
tentialtoadverselyornegativelyimpacthumanhealth,property,ortheenvironment.Itcausesharmorinju
ry.Thesehazardscouldoccuratsomespecificplacesknownashazardpoints.
Hazardpoints
Hazardpointsarethosepointswithinthephysicalandoperatingenvironmentthatcouldcauseinjurysuch
asmovingpartsofmachinery,workingatheights,slipperysurfaces,andcontactwithelectricalenergy,ex
cessivenoise,toxicsubstances,andliftingofheavyobjectsamongseveralothersources.

Workplacehazards
Thesearehazardsthatareparticularlydomicileintheworkenvironment.Thesecouldbeasaresultofhuma
ninefficiency,machinemalfunction,inclementweather(abruptweatherchange)and/
oraccidentaloccurrences.Workplacehazardhasbothshortterm(safetyimplications)andlongtermhealt
himplications)effectswhennotputunderchecks.

Classesofhazard
Theshorttermandlongtermeffectsofworkplacehazardsgivestotwobbroadclassesofhazardsvizsafety
hazardandhealthhazards.

Safetyhazards
Safetyhazardreferstocircumstancesthatcancauseimmediateinjurytoaworker.Forexample,ifelectrica
lequipmentarenotproperlygrounded,itcouldbecomeenergizedandpossiblyelectrocuteanemployee.
Or,ifaworker’shandscomeincontactwithmovingsawblade,heorshecouldhaveoneormorefingerscuto
ffinstantlyorresultininstantinjury.Safetyinjuriesarecommonlyassociatedwithphysicalenvironment.
Physicalenvironmentthatcouldcausesafetyhazardincludebutnotlimitedtothefollowings:
1.Machine/machinerysuchas:
a.Pointofoperation
b.Rotaryandreciprocatingmovements
c.In-runningnippoints(pinchpoints)etc.
2.Kickbacksfrommachineduetosuddenimpactloading,suddenblowfromworkloadetc.
3.Flyingchips,thrownobjectetc.suchasflyingstonepropelledbymowerbladeetc.
4.Sharpprojectionsfromtooledgese.g.anviledge,projectingobjectinloadvehiclesetc.
5.Fireandexplosionhazards
6.Electricalshock,stunning,burnorelectrocutionasaresultofcontactwithexposedorun-
insulatedlifewire.
Healthhazards
Healthhazardsaresituationsassociatedwithlongtermexposuretocertainsubstancesorexposuretoexce
ssivenoiselevelsorvibrations.Healthhazardscancausebothimmediate(acute)andlonger-
term(chronic)healthconditions.Forexample,exposuretoturpentine,waxesandfinishes,achemicaluse
dinfurnitureindustry,canresultinarangeofhealtheffects,rangingfromtemporaryeyesirritationandmor
edebilitatingskineffectstoseverekidneyandbladderdamage.Healthinjuriesarecommonlyassociated
withoperatingenvironment.

Operatingenvironmentthatcouldcausehealthhazardsinclude:
1.Excessivenoiseresultingfromlongtimeexposuretocontinuousmachineoperationorexposuretonois
ymachineoperation.
2.Vibration:Vibrationasaresultofworkingonplatforms,workingaroundheavyandundampedequipm
entorconstantlybeingexposedtomovingpartscouldcausemusculardisorders.
3.Wooddust:Theseareparticulatefinematerialsthatseemsharmless,however,longtimeexposuretothe
mcanheavyinhalationofquantitybigenoughtoresultinairtrackblockagetherebycausingcarcinogenice
ffectsontheskin.
4.Harmfulchemicals:Exposurestocoatings,finishing,adhesives,solventvapourscouldresultinhealth
hazards.

Typesofhazard
Hazardsinworkplacesaregroupedintofourcategoriesaccordingly.

Category1:Physicalhazards:Physicalhazardscouldcausetraumaticinjuriesasaresultofhumanexpo
suretothesource.Thesehazardsresultsfromactivitiessuchas:
 Liftingandhandlingheavyloadse.g.manualmaterialshandling
 Exposuretorepetitivemotionsresultingfromreciprocatingsystems,orsynchronousoperations
requiringintermittenthandandbodymovement.
 Slippingandtrippinghazardse.g.poorlymaintainedfloors,workingonoilysurfaces,poorlydesi
gnedstaircasesorscaffoldsorcarelessnesswhileworkingatheights.
 Exposuretomovingpartsofmachinerye.g.exposuretounguardedbelts,gearsandchainsetc.
 Exposuretoelectricalcurrentandfire,asaresultofpoorwiring,frayedcordsorlackofprecautiona
rymeasures
 Exposuretoexcessivenoisee.g.portablehandheldtools,enginesetc.
 Exposuretoextremetemperaturesfromheatingports,exhaustpipesandionizingradiationsfrom
reactors,orleakagesformionizationchambers.

Category2:Chemicalhazards:Theseareinjuriescausedbyexposureto
 Chemicalse.g.batteryacids,solvents,cleaners,pesticidesandherbicides
 Dustse.g.fromgrinding,asbestosremoval,sandblasting,sawmilldust
 Fumese.g.weldingfume,mistsandvapourfrommistapplicationsorspraysandgasemissions.
Category3:Biologicalhazards:Thesearehazardsresultingfromhumanexposuretopathogenicsubstan
cesormaterialsfromsewerages,lagoons(aerobicoranaerobic).Thesepathogensincludeviruses,fungi,
bacterialormold.Theycauseanattackonbloodandbodyfluids.

Category4:Psychologicalhazardsoccurasaresultofunfavourableworkingconditions,inadequateand
inappropriateworktools,workingwitholdorwornandoutoffashion(obsolete)toolsandequipmentandu
ndueexposuretohazardsduetopoormanagementresponsestochange.Suchsituationsoftenleadto
 Psychologicaltraumaandfrustrationwhichcouldleadtojobdepressionculminatinginworkstre
ss,strain,andfatigue.
 Othereffectsincludementalexhaustions,disillusionmentanddelirium.

Occupationalhazards
Apartfromaccidentscausedbycarelessnessandrecklessness,workersareexposedtocertainhazardsint
hecourseoftheirundertaken,aformofriskassociatedwiththeworkthatsomebodydoes.Thisisknownas
OccupationalHazardsorJobRisk.

Accident

Accidentisanunforeseenoccurrencewithnegativeconsequenceasaresultofsuddenimpact,systemmal
functionhumanerrororasaresultofcarelessnesswhenweundertakeunsafeacts.Accidentresultsinpains
,lossofbodymemberordeathtovictims,awasteoftime,money,materialsanddamagetoequipment.Cons
equently,itisofinteresttodevisemeasurestopreventorreduceaccidentsinalloperationstothebarestmini
mum.

Injury

Inpublichealthpractice,injuryusuallymeansphysicalharmtoaperson’sbody.Physicalinjury(harm)res
ultsfromcontactbetweenpeopleandharmfulobjects,substances,orotherthingsintheirsurroundings.C
ommontypesofphysicalinjuryincludebrokenbones,cuts,bruises,braindamage,poisoningandburns.S
omephysicalinjuriesaretheintendedresultofactsbypeople:forinstanceharmofonepersonbyanother(a
ssault,homicideetc.)orself-
harm.Injuriesnotintendedareoftendescribedasaccidentalinjuries.Examplesofcausesofinjuryinclude
beingstruckbyacar,beingcutupinamovingmachinepart,beingcutbyaknife,bittenbyadog,orpoisoned
byinhaledfuelorotherdangerouschemicals.

Natureofbodyinjury
Theoccurrenceofaccidentsinworkplacesoftenresultsinoneormoreofthefollowinginjurytypes:

1. Crushing:Thisisinjurywhichresultsfromcaught-inhazardpointwithinmachinery
2. Fracture:Thisisinjurytoboneresultinginbreakageoftheboneasaresultofimpact
3. Sprain:Thisisatypeofinjuryresultinginmuscularstressorjointdislocation
4. Bruiseorlaceration:Thisisthepeelingoffofouterskinlayertherebyexposingsomebloodvessels
.Theinnertissuesarenotaffected.
5. Scaldingandburn:Thisisasaresultofsuddenexposureofbodyparttohotvapourorheatresultingi
nskinpeelingoff(scalding)orsufferingsomedegreeofshindamage(burn).
6. Inflammation:Thiscouldbeasaresultofimpactonbodycasinginternalbleedingorruptureofblo
odvesselswithoutvisiblecutandbloodflow
7. Superficialinjury:Injuryoccurringattheskinsurfacesuchasbruise,minorcut,orscratchesandla
cerations.
8. Amputation:Thisisacaseoffatalinjurywhichoftenresultfromcaught-inandstruck-
byaccidents,
9. Death:Thisisasituationinwhichlifeflowsoutofthebodyasaresultofinjurysustained.Suchcasei
sregardedasafatalinjurycase.

Whetherintendedoraccidental,mostphysicalinjuriescanbepreventedbyidentifyingtheircausesandre
movingthem,orreducingpeople’sexposuretothem.

DefinitionofSafety

Safetyinitssimplestformisastateofbeingatlittleornoriskofinjuryresultingfromaharmfulexternalimpa
ct,inhalation,orcontact.Itisaholisticapproachtoastateofwellbeingthatrequirespeopletofeeltheyarefr
eefrombeingharmedinadditiontoactuallybeingsafe.Tobesafeinanyworkenvironment,youmustthink
aboutthenatureofyourjobandplanaheadtoaverthazardsthatcouldbeassociatedwithit.

Inthefieldofsafety,itisgenerallyrecognizedthatconsequencesareonlynegativeandthereforethemana
gementofsafetyriskisfocusedonpreventionandmitigationofharm.

Workplacehealthandsafetylaws

TheaimoftheWorkplaceHealthandSafetyAct1995istopreventdeath,injuryorillnesscausedbyaworkp
lace,relevantworkplacearea,workactivities,plantorsubstancesforuseataworkplace.Improvinghealth
andsafetyinworkplacesreduceshumanandfinancialcostofinjuryanddisease.Workers,theirfamilies,e
mployersandthecommunitybenefitfromimprovedworkplacehealthandsafety.
TheWorkplaceHealthandSafetyActsetsoutthelawsabouthealthandsafetyguidelinesforallrelevantw
orkplaceareas,workproceduresoractivitiesbymachineryorsubstancesforuseatworkplacesaswellassa
feguardingworkers.
Allhealthandsafetylawsplacespecificdutiesofcareorlegalobligationsonvariouspartiesinthechainof
machinerydesign,supplyanduse.Workers,theirfamilies,employersandthecommunitybenefitfromth
eseobligations.Improvingworkplacehealthandsafetyinworkplacesreducesthehumanandfinancialco
stofworkplaceinjuryanddisease.

Safetyprecautionsintheworkshop

1. Alwayslistencarefullytotheteacherandfollowinstructions.
2. Donotrunintheworkshop,youcouldcauseanaccident.
3. Knowwheretheemergencystopbuttonsarepositionedintheworkshop.
4. Alwayswearanapronasitwillprotectyourclothesandholdlooseclothingsuchastiesinplace.
5. Weargoodstrongshoes.Trainingshoesarenotsuitable.
6. Whenattemptingpracticalworkallstoolsshouldbeputaway.
7. Bagsshouldnotbebroughtintoaworkshopaspeoplecantripoverthem.
8. Whenlearninghowtouseamachine,listenverycarefullytoalltheinstructions
9. Givenbytheteacher.Askquestions,ifyoudonotunderstand.
10. Donotuseamachineifyouhavenotbeenshownhowtooperateitsafely.
11. Alwaysbepatient,neverrushintheworkshop.
12. Alwaysuseaguardwhenworkingonamachine.
13. Keephandsawayfrommoving/rotatingmachinery.
14. Usehandtoolscarefully,keepingbothhandsbehindthecuttingedge.
15. Reportanydamagetomachines/equipmentasthiscouldcauseanaccident.

Consequencesofhumanerrorsinworkshop
Accidentsdonotjusthappen,theyarecaused.Itisimportanttoknowthataccidentneverhappenuntiltherei
sanerror;machineerror,humanerrororenvironmentaluncertainties.Yourresponsibilitythereforeasan
employer,operator,farm/
industryworkerandvisitoristoeliminateorminimizetheseerrorstothebarestminimumbypracticingsaf
eworkpractice.
Injuriesoccurswhenworkersare
a.Notpayingcloseattention(indifference)towork,or
b.Whentheoperatorlostconcentrationorforgotsomethingandwasnotpayingcloseattention,
c.Whenhetookarisk,ignoredawarning,or
d.Whenfailedtofollowsafetyrules.

PersonalProtectiveEquipment
Personalprotectiveequipment(PPE)includesalltypesofequipmentusedtoincreaseindividualsafetyw
hileperformingpotentiallyhazardoustasks.Thismayincludesafetyboots,goggles,coverall,handglove
sheadshield,gloves,labcoats,respirators,oranyequipmentusedtoprotectagainstinjuryorillness.

EyeProtection
Eyeprotectionisrequiredwhenthereisapossibilityofinjuryfromchemicalsorflyingparticles.Example
sofoperationrequiringtheuseofeyeprotectioninclude,butarenotlimitedto:
i. Chipping,grinding,andimpactdrilling.
ii. Weldingorhelpinginweldingofanytype.
iii. Riveting,grinding,orburningmetals.

FootProtection

Non-
skidshoesshallbewornwherefloorsmaybewetorgreasy.Wherethereisreasonableprobabilityoffootort
oeinjuryfromimpactandcompressionforces,safetyfootwearshallbeworn.
BodyProtection
Loosefittingclothing,neckties,rings,bracelets,orotherapparelthatmaybecomeentangledinmovingm
achinerywillnotbewornbymachineoperatorsortheirhelpers.
HandProtection
Multi-
useglovesshallbeworntoprotectthehandsfrominjuriescausedbyhandlingsharporjaggedobjects,woo
d,orsimilarhazard-producingmaterials.
HeadProtection
Hardhatsshallbewornbyallpersonnelworkingbelowotherworkersandinareaswheresharpprojections
orotherheadhazardsexist.
HearingProtection
Appropriatehearingprotectionshallbeusedwhereemployeesareindesignatedhazardousnoiseareaswi
thoperatingnoisesources,orusingtoolsorequipmentwhicharelabeledashazardousnoiseproducers.

MODULE2-SAFETYINSPECTION
Safetyinspectionanditspurpose

Asafetyinspectionisadocumentedchecklistorproceduretoidentifypotentialhazardsthatcanleadtoinci
dents.Everytypeofsafetyinspectionwithinacompanyshouldnamewhoisresponsibletocompletethein
spectionandfollowuponasubmittedinspectionreport.

Thepurposeofsafetyinspectionsistorectifyhazardsornon-
conformancetoensureasafeworkingplacethatmeetsalllegalhealthandsafetyrequirements.

Typesofsafetyinspections

Therearefourtypesofinspectionsintheworkplace.Theyare:
 1. Safetytours

Thisisageneralinspectionofaworkplacearea,suchasawarehouseorretailoutlet.Examplesofch
ecklistitemsforthistypeofsafetyinspectioncaninclude:
-Checkingifemployeesareusingsafetyequipment.
-Lookingoutforanydangerousbehavior.
-Monitoringsafetysystems.

Safetytoursareusuallyconductedbymanagementorseniormanagementaspartoftheircommit
menttoworkplacesafety.Italsoprovidesmanagersandseniormanagerswithupto-
dateknowledgeofworkplaceday-to-
dayactivities,aswellasanopportunityforthemtoconnectdirectlywithemployeestoimprovetea
mrelations.

2. Safetysampling

TheHSEdefinessafetysamplingasthe“systematicsamplingofparticulardangerousactivities,p
rocessesorareas.”Anexampleofsafetysamplingistakingasampleofthechemicalsorgassesthat
employeesworkwithorareexposedto,thenconductingalabanalysisonthesamples. Inthisexam
ple,theassessmentistoensurethatthechemicalsorgassesarewithinsafelevels,orthatthesafetye
quipmentemployeesusewhenexposedtothesechemicalsorgassescanadequatelyprotectthemf
romthelevelsdetected.

3. Safetysurveys

Safetysurveysaregeneralinspectionsofspecificdangerousactivities,processesorareas.Itissim
ilartoasafetytour,butfocusesonhigh-
riskworkplaceenvironmentsorprocesses.Examplesoftypicalareastoconductsafetysurveysin
cludeaminingsite,drillingrig,andalaboratorythatscreensforinfectiousdiseases.

4. Incidentinspections

Alsoknownasemergencyinspections,incidentinspectionsareconductedafteranincidentcause
dafatality,aninjury,illhealth,damagetoproperty,oranearmiss.Theseinspectionsareperforme
dtoidentifytherootcausesoitcanbemitigatedtopreventsimilarincidentsfromhappeningagaini
nthefuture.

Frequencyofsafetyinspections

Safetyinspectionscanbecategorizedintothreebroadgroupsoffrequency:routineinspections,plannedi
nspectionsandemergencyinspections.
1. Routineinspectionsareconductedonaregulartimebasis,suchasdaily,weekly,ormonthly.The
ycanalsobeconductedbasedonatrigger,suchasinspectingheavymachinerybeforestartingashi
ft.

2. Plannedinspectionsincludeinvestigatingspecificmattersthatrequireacertaintimeframe.The
seinspectionsdon’thaveablanketroutinefrequencybecauseitdependsontheparticularmatter.
Forexample,aspecificpieceofequipmentmayneeditspartstestedforsafetyeverysixmonths.Att
hesametime,theUKgovernmentrecommendsprivate-
sectoremployerstooffertheironsiteworkforceaminimumoftwolateralflowtestsforCOVID-
19everyweek.

3. Emergencyorincidentinspections,asmentionedintheprevioussection,areonlyrequiredafter
anincidentwithnoroutineorplanninginvolved.Emergencyinspectionscanalsoapplytohazards
beforeincidentshappen.Forexample,inspectingnearbymachinerytoidentifythesourceofawat
erpuddlespottedonafactoryfloor.

Nextistodeterminethefrequencyofroutineandplannedinspections.Decidingitsfrequencylarg
elydependsonthelevelofriskinvolvedin:

 Thetypeofactivity

Activitiesthatarehigh-
risktoemployeeswhenconductingthemrequiremorefrequentsafetyinspections.Oneexample
ofahigh-
riskactivityisdrivingtransportationtrucks.Theindustrybestpracticeisfordriverstoconductveh
iclesafetyinspectionsbeforestartingeveryshift.

Low-
riskactivitiessuchasworkinginanofficeenvironmentwillstillrequiresafetyinspections,suchas
inspectingthefireescapesystem,heating,orair-
conditioningsystem.These,however,donotneedtobeconductedeverydayandcansufficientlyb
eundertakenatleasteverysixmonths.

 Thetypeofenvironment

Anactivityitselfmaynotbehigh-risk,butitcouldbeconductedinahigh-
riskenvironment.Forexample,theactivityofservingfood,byitself,isnotconsideredahigh-
risktask.

However,ifyouareservingfoodtopatientsinahospitalwithCOVID-
19patients,youwillneedtotakeextraprecautions.Theseprecautionsincludetheusualsafetyprac
ticessuchassafetygearandregularsanitizingoftheirhands.Theyalsoincluderoutineandplanne
 dsafetyinspectionssuchasmonitoringthetemperatureofserversatleastonceadayandconductin
gregularCOVID-19tests.

SafetyInspectionFramework

Hereisa10-
steprecommendedframeworkthatcanhelpyouputtogethercomprehensivesafetyinspectionsinyourw
orkplace.

1. Conductariskassessment.Thiswillhelpyoudeterminetherisksintheworkplacethatrequiremon
itoring.
2. Listdowntherisksthatrequiremonitoringwithsafetyinspections.
3. Gradeeachriskusingtheriskanalysismatrix.Refertothisriskmanagementframeworkforfurthe
rdetailsonhowtouseariskanalysismatrix.
4. Determinethefrequencyofeachsafetyinspectionaccordingtoitsgradedriskvalue.
5. Determinethechecklistofitemstoassessduringthesafetyinspectionandmonitorallpotentialris
ks.
6. Checkindustrybestpracticestoguideyouwhendraftingthischecklist.
7. Consultwithspecialiststoensureyoudon’tmissoutonanythingimportant.
8. Usingthefinalchecklist,createthesafetyinspectionformsforyouremployeestouse.
9. Trainyouremployeesonhowtoconductanddocumenteachsafetyinspectiontheyareresponsibl
efor.
10. Reviewyoursafetyinspectionprocessesregularlyandconductsurveyswithyouremployeestore
ceiveanyfeedbackthatcancontributetoimprovements.

Personnelresponsibleforsafetyinspectionswithinanorganization

Differentpartieswithinacompanyareresponsibleforvariousaspectsofsafetyinspections.Hereisanove
rview.

1. SeniorManagement

Thoseinseniormanagementpositions,suchasheadsofdepartments,areresponsibleto:
o Ensureproceduresareinplacetokeepallemployees,contractors,vendors,volunteers,cli
ents,andcustomerssafewithinthecompany’spremises.
o Monitorreportsfrommanagerstomakesureworkplacesafetyinspectionsareconducted
regularlyforallactivitiesandareaswithintheirresponsibility.
 o Makesurethatsafetyinspectionsareconductedtoastandardthatmeetslegalcompliance.
o Assignsafetyinspectionsofdifferentactivitiesandareastorelevantmanagersundertheir
department.
o Providethenecessarysystemsfordocumentingsafetyinspectionsandkeepingitsrecord
s.

2. Managers:

Managersareresponsibleto:

o Determinethefrequencyforeverytypeofsafetyinspectionassignedwithintheirareasofr
esponsibility.
o Assignsafetyinspectionstocompetentemployeesundertheirresponsibility.
o Trainemployeesonhowtoproperlyconductthesafetyinspectionsassignedtothem.
o Trainemployeesonhowtotakecorrectiveactionwithintheirscopeofskillsandresponsib
ility.
o Trainemployeesonthechainofcommandofwhotoreportto(andhowtoreachthem)ifthe
yneedhelptourgentlyrectifyahazardornon-conformance.
o Coordinateanyjointsafetyinspectionswithintheirarea.
o Ensuresubmittedsafetyinspectionsmeetallrequirements.
o Followupandinvestigateanyincompletesafetyinspectionswiththepersonresponsible.
o Determineanddelegateanypreventiveandcorrectiveactionstomitigatethehazardsiden
tifiedinasafetyinspection.
o Providecopiesofthesafetyinspectionreporttoanyothermanagersforactionwheneverre
levant.
o Followuponallpreventiveandcorrectiveactions.
o Provideseniormanagementwithrelevantreportsformonitoring.

3. Employees:

Employeeswhohavebeenassignedtoconductsafetyinspectionsareresponsibleto:
o Conductsafetyinspectionsaccordingtotheinstructedfrequency.
o Completeallitemswithinthesafetyinspectionchecklist.
o Conductthesafetyinspectionwithduediligenceandcare.
o Reportanyhazardornon-conformancethattheysee.
o Informanynearbycolleaguesofanyhazardornon-
conformancespottedwhichcouldaffecttheirsafetysootherscantakeprecautionswhile
waitingforpreventiveorcorrectiveactionstobedeterminedandimplemented.
o Providemanagerswithanyfeedbackonhowtoimprovesafetyinspections.
 o Beawareofanyhazardtrendssotheyknowwhichareasorproceduresrequireheightened
awarenesstospothazardsorprecautiontostaysafe.

Howtodeterminethefrequencyofsafetyinspections

Decidingitsfrequencylargelydependsonthelevelofriskinvolvedin:

 Thetypeofactivity

Activitiesthatarehigh-
risktoemployeeswhenconductingthemrequiremorefrequentsafetyinspections.Oneexample
ofahigh-
riskactivityisdrivingtransportationtrucks.Theindustrybestpracticeisfordriverstoconductveh
iclesafetyinspectionsbeforestartingeveryshift.Low-
riskactivitiessuchasworkinginanofficeenvironmentwillstillrequiresafetyinspections,suchas
inspectingthefireescapesystem,heating,orair-
conditioningsystem.These,however,donotneedtobeconductedeverydayandcansufficientlyb
eundertakenatleasteverysixmonths.

 Thetypeofenvironment

Anactivityitselfmaynotbehigh-risk,butitcouldbeconductedinahigh-
riskenvironment.Forexample,theactivityofservingfood,byitself,isnotconsideredahigh-
risktask.

Howtocarryoutsafetyinspectionsonthefollowingequipment
A. Airreceivers
Airreceivers(oraircompressors,airvesselsandairtanksastheyareoftencalled)areusedinawiderangeof
industriesandcanbe foundonfarms,ingarages,intyrerepairdepotsandanywherethatrequirescompress
edair.

1. Topreventinternalcorrosion,thedrainvalveshouldbeoperatedtoremoveanyaccumulatedwate
rinthevessel.Thefrequencycanbedailywherethereisnodrierinthecompressedairsystemupstre
amofthevessel,toweekly.Notesomeairreceivershaveautomateddrainagesystems.Automated
drainsystemswithanadditionalmanualcheckvalveisstronglyrecommended.
2. Thesafetyreliefvalveandpressuregaugeshouldbecheckedmonthlyforcorrectoperation.There
liefvalvecannormallybecarefullyactivatedbypullingaleverorapullring.Note:wheretheenvir
onmentis“dirty”alightplasticbagcanbeusedtoprotectbothofthesedevices.
3. Checkforandreportphysicaldamageofvesselandattachmentsandpaintbreakdown(wherecorr
osionhasinitiatedconsiderrepairingthecoating).Thiscouldbecombinedwithamonthlycheck.
4. Theairreceivershouldbe“externally”inspectedevery2yearsand“internally”inspectedevery4
yearsbyacompetentperson.Followingthisstandardisgenerallyconsideredbestpractice.Acom
petentperson(e.g.inspector)canrecommendvaryingthefrequencyoftheinspectionregimedep
endingoncondition,service,etc.

B. RopesandChains

Allslings(new,altered,modified,orrepaired)shouldbeinspectedbyacompetentpersonbeforetheyareu
sedintheworkplacetomakesuretheyarebuilttospecifications,notdamaged,andwillbeappropriateforth
eworkbeingperformed.Forrecordkeepingpurposesitisusefulifeachchainhasametaltagwithanidentifi
cationnumberandloadlimitinformation.Informationaboutthechainlengthandothercharacteristicsan
daninspectionscheduleshouldberecordedinalogbook.

Howtocheckchainslingsduringinspection
1. Cleanslingbeforeinspection.
2. Checkidentificationtag
3. Hangthechainuporstretchthechainoutonalevelfloorinawell-
lightedarea.Removealltwists.Measuretheslinglength.Discardifaslinghasbeenstretched.
4. Makealink-by-linkinspectionanddiscardif:
  Wearexceeds15%ofalinkdiameter.
 Cut,nicked,cracked,gouged,burned,weldsplattered,orcorrosionpitted.
 Deformed,twistedorbentchainlinksorcomponents.
 Stretched.Linkstendtocloseupandgetlonger.
5. Checkmasterlink,loadpinsandhooksforanyoftheabovefaults.Hooksshouldberemovedfroms
erviceiftheyhavebeenopenedmorethan15%ofthenormalthroatopening,measuredatthenarro
westpoint,ortwistedmorethan10°fromtheplaneoftheunbenthook.
6. Manufacturers'referencechartsshowslingandhitchcapacities.Recordmanufacturer,type,load
limitandinspectiondates.

C. PulleyBlocks

APulleyblockisatoolforheavyworkthatthecommonpeoplecallaChainBlock,isamechanismusedtolif
t,holdandloweranitem.Thistoolusesachainasthemainpullingelementwrappedaroundtwoserratediro
nwheels,attheendofthetowchainthereisahooktobeattachedtotheitemtoberaisedorlowered.

1. Tomaintaincontinuousandsatisfactoryoperation,aregularinspectionproceduremustbeinitiat
edsothatwornordamagedpartscanbereplacedbeforetheybecomeunsafe.
2. Iffaultsaredefectedthepulleyblockmustbeputoutofserviceimmediately.Theintervalsofinspe
ctionmustbedeterminedbytheindividualapplicationandarebaseduponthetypeofservicetowhi
chtheblockissubjected.
3. Theunitshouldbeinspectedforfaultlessoperationandatleastannuallyinvestigatedbyanexpert.
Thewireropeistobeinspectedtonationalstandard.Inspectsheaveforwear.Inspecthookforflaw
s,cracks,distortion,wearandfreedomofrotation.Repairsmayonlybecarriedoutbyaspecialistw
orkshopthatusesoriginalspareparts
4. Keeploadchainslubricatedandchecktheoperationofthebrake.Brakesmustbekeptfreeofoil,g
reaseetc.
 5. Regularlyinspecttheblockand,intheeventofthefollowingdefects,refertheblocktoaCompeten
tPersonforthoroughexamination:wear;damagetotrolley,hooksandfittings;damagedordistort
edslackendanchor;chainsworn,bent,notched,stretched,corroded,donothangfreely,twistedor
jump;loadslipsorwillnotlift;damagedblockcasing;illegiblemarkings.
6. Checktheblockanditsassociatedequipmentdailyforobviousfaultsandsignsofdamage.

D. ForkliftCarriage

Regularlyinspectingaforkliftaspartofroutineoperationsandmaintenanceisimperativeforbothsafetya
ndensuringitisoptimallyfunctioning.Thechecklistguidesoperatorsthroughtheseriesofcheckstoensur
etheirforkliftissafeforoperation.

Operationalforkliftinspectionsshouldincludethefollowingchecks:

 Checkingtheforkliftshandbrakeholdstheunitinplacetopreventitunnecessaryrolling
 Checkthetransmissionisworking
 Checkthebrakesandinchingpedalworktoensuretheoperatorcanstoptheforkliftduringoperatio
nsorinanemergency
 Checktheforklifthasfullrangeofsteeringmovement
 Checkthattheforkliftslift,tiltandside-
shiftcontrolsworkbeforetheyhavealoadpositionedonthetynesandcommenceliftingoperation
s
 Checkthatanywarningdevicessuchaslights,horns,indicatorsandreversingbeepersorsafetysy
stemsareoperatingcorrectly
 Checkthedashboardgaugesareworkingcorrectly.
 E. MobileandOverheadCranes

MobileCranesInspectionsareanimportantpartofconstructionandgeneralindustry.Theiruseincludess
ettingsteel,tiltupconstruction,liftingconcretepanelsandmanyusesinplantsandfacilities.Onadailybas
is,oroneveryshiftchange,thecraneoperatorneedstocarryoutafullsafetyinspectionofthecranetheyarea
bouttooperate.

1. Theoperatorshouldcheckthepowersourcetothevehicle,alllimitswitches,andtestemergencyp
owershutdownbuttons.
2. Checkallaudiblewarningdevicesareoperational.
3. Checkthesteelliftingcableisseatedcorrectlyinthedrumgrooves.
4. Ensurethebottomblockisfreeandnottwisted.
5. Visuallycheckallliftinggearincludingchainsandsteelcablesforsignsofwearorfatigue.
6. TestthehoistbrakesbyturningthemasterswitchtoOFF,orhittingtheemergencyOFFbutton,wit
haloadraisedafewinchesoffthefloor.Theloadshouldbeheldfirm.Ifitdrops,thecranemustnotbe
operateduntilthefaulthasbeenrectified.
7. Inspectallflexibleandrigidhydraulicpipesandjointsforsignsofhydraulicoilseepage,splits,orfr
aying.
8. Checkalltankfluidlevels.

MODULE3-BASICMARKINGOUT,METALREMOVAL
ANDFILINGTOOLS

Thetermmarkingoutmeansthescribingoflinesonametalsurfacetoshowtheprofileoroutlineofthefinish
edcomponent,theprofileoroutlineofanyholethatistobecutinthecomponentandthepositionofanyhole
centers.Itisadvisabletomarkoutacomponentbeforecommencingtoworkonitbyhandormachine.
Reasonsformarkingout

1. Toprovideguidelinestoworkto
2. Toprovidetheonlycontrolofthesizeandshapeofthecomponent,and
3. Toprovidethecontrolofthepositionandsizeofanyfeaturessuchasholesrequiredinthecompone
nt.

MarkingOutTools

Themarkingtoolisusedtomarkonajoborworkpiecetoobtainaccuratesizeandshape.Beforeusingmarki
ngtoolsonajoborworkpiece,firstlyweshouldusemarkingmediaonitsothatwecanclearlyseewhenmark
ing.

TypesofMarkingTool

Therearefollowingtypesofmarkingtoolsinworkshop:SurfaceGauge,SurfacePlate,MarkingTable,Sc
riber,PrickPunch,CenterPunch,Divider,Trammel,HermaphroditeCaliper,‘V’–
Block,AnglePlates,Parallels,BevelSquare,CombinationSet

1) Surface Gauge

Asurface gauge is amarkingouttoolwhichisused to drawlines oflayoutofaworkby placing itona sur

face plate.

2) Surface Plate
Itis used forcheckingthealignmentandflatnessofanobject.

3) VeeBlock

TheyarerectangularwithaV-
shapedrecessinonesideandareusedonthesurfaceplatetosupportcylindricalworks.Veeblocksaremade
ofcastiron.

4) Surfacetable

O
 Thisisusedformarkingoutlargeobjects,forcheckingaccuracy,forheightalignmentandcheckingparall
elism.

5) Scriber

Thesepopularhandtools helptomarkalineonamaterial.Itcontainsasharppointandactsasapenciltoengr
aveafinelineonsurfaceslikemetalorplastic,wherepensmightnotcorrectlywork.

6) CenterPunch

Thecenterpunchhelpstoindicateacenterdotfordrilling.Ahammerisusedtodrivethepointofthecenterp
unchintothemetal,leavingasmallsurfaceimpression.

7) Divider
This is a marking toolormarkingouttoolsused to mark circles, arcs,segments andothergeometrical
texturesonmetaljobs,measuredistancebetweentwopoints,andmakedirecttransferofmeasurementsfr
omsteelrule.

8) Trammel

Itisusedtodrawcirclesandcircleswithmoreradiusesthatcannotbedrawnbyadivider.

9) Angle Plates
Angleplatesareusedtoholdtheworkinparallelandrightanglestothesurface.

10) BevelSquare

This markingouttoolisusedinafittingshoptomark agivenanglewithan edge orto check theangularpr

ecisionofobliquesurfaces.

11) CombinationSet

Combinationsetis used formarkingoutandtakingmeasurements. Itisusuallymadeofalloysteel. Itsme

asuringfacesarewell-grinded.
 12) Steel Rule

Itisusedasastraightedgeorfortakingmeasurements.

13) Markinggauge

Themarkingindicatorsaretypesofmarking-
outtoolsthatscribelinesparalleltoedgessothatwastematerialcanbecleanoff.Forinstants,inawoodwor
kprojectwhereasmallpartneedstobecutoff,amarkinggaugecanbeusedtoscribeouttheunwantedpartth
atwillbechiseledaway.

14) Trysquare
Thetrysquareisusedtodrawperpendicularlinesonamaterialtomarkoutonaworkpiece.Thepurposeoftr
ysquaresistoensurepathsareparalleltoeachotherandhelpstodrawthelineatright-anglestoanedge.

15) Slidingbevel

Theslidingbevelisusedtomarkoutapart,adjustedtocreatetherequiredangle.Apencilisthenusedtomark
thelineonthematerial.

16) Engineer’ssquare

Thesehandtoolsareusedtodrawaperpendicularlineonmaterialwithascribe.Itisplacedonaworkpieces
urfacewiththeflatedgebeingfirmontheworkpiece.

17) Odd-legcalipers
Theold-
legcalipersassistininscribingaparallelmarkonmetalorplastic.Ithastwolegswithpurposes,onewithagu
idingedgewithafootandtheotherwithascribepoint.Theguidingsiderunsalongtheedgeoftheobjecttobe
scoredwhilethescribingedgemarksalineparalleltotheedge.

18) Insidecalipers

Thesetypesofmarking-
outtoolslookmuchsimilartotheoddlegcalipers.Theyareusedtomeasuredistancesontheinsideofmateri
alsliketubes.

Thesecalipersalsohavetwolegswithguidingfeetpointingoutwards.Thebracesareplacedinsidethemat
erialorobjecttobemeasuredandthenextendeduntilthefeetmakecontactwiththematerial.

19) Outsidecalipers
Theoutsidecalipersaidthemeasurementofthicknessesandoutsidediametersofmaterials.Theyareplac
edaroundamaterialwiththelegstightenedsotheguidingfeetmeettheworkpiecebutcanberemovedwith
outbeingadjusted.Thespanofthelegsisthenmeasuredagainstasteelruletogiveanaccuratereading.

20) Micrometer

Thisisusedtogiveaprecisemeasurementofanobject.Itisamoreaccurateversionofoutsidecalipersandc
angiveanaccuratemeasurementoftheoutsideedgesofthematerial.

FILESANDFILING
 Afileisusedtocut,trimorfinishajobofmetalorwood,inordertogivethemashapeaccordingtoourneedssu
chasmakingthejobround,squareorangular.Fileismadefromhighcarbonsteel.Thefileisahardsteelinstr
umentwithnumerouscuttingpoints.Metaliscutinsmallortinyparticleswiththehelpofafile.Therefore,
mostlyafileisusedforgivingfinalfinishingtouchestoajobofmetalorwood.

Inaddition,afileisusedwhereothercuttingtoolscannotbeused.Filesarealsousedforsharpeningtheedge
ofsomeothercuttingtools.

PartsofaFile

iHandleiiTangiiiHeelivFacevEdgeviTiporPoint

Awoodenhandleisfittedonitstang.Teetharecutonitsfaceandedgesothatitcanperformthejobofcutting.
Theparthavingnoteethiscalledasheel.Thicksideoffileiscallededgeanditslowerendisknownastiporpo
int.

TypesofFileTools

Whilemakingaselectionoffileforaspecificjob,someimportantpointsshouldbeconsidered.Inotherwor
ds,wecansaythatfilescanbeclassifiedintothefollowingcategories:

1. Onthebasisoflength
2. Onthebasisofshape

i. Flatfile
ii. Roundfile
iii. Half-roundfile
iv. Triangularfile
v. Squarefile
vi. Handfile
vii. Knifefile

3. Onthebasisofgrades

a. RoughFile
 b. BastardFile
c. SecondcutFile
d. SmoothFile
e. DeadSmoothFile

4. Onthebasisofcut

i. SingleCutFile
ii. DoubleCutFile
iii. CurvedCutFile
iv. SpiralCutFile
v. RaspCutFile

1.ClassificationAccordingtoLength

Afileismeasuredaccordingtoitslength.Thislengthincludeswholefileexceptitstangportioni.e.lengthfr
omheeltotipisthemeasurementofthefile.Infittertrade,fileof100mmto450mmlengthareused.

2.ClassificationAccordingtoShape

Thefollowingarethedifferenttypesoffiletoolsaccordingtoshape:

i.FlatFile-Thisfileisofrectangularcross-
sectioninshape.Itismadeslightlytaperedbothinwidthandthickness.Doublecutteetharecutonthefacea
ndsimple-cutteetharecutontheedge.Theseareusedtoreduceflatsurfacebyfilingoffinishing.

ii.RoundFile-
Thistypeoffilehasaroundsection.Itisusedforrubbingorfinishingkeyholeofsmalldiameter.
iii.Half-roundFile-
Itisafilewhichisonthesideandcurvedontheotherside.Doublecutdentsarecutonitandlikearoundfile,iti
salsotapered.Withthisfile,thedamagedholecanbesetinorderagain.

iv.TriangularFile-
Itistriangularinshape.Itsanglesareof60°.Filingof“V”slotsjob,squareandrectangularjobsofabove60°
andbelow90°anglearedonewiththisfile.Itisalsoknownasthreesquarefiles.

v.SquareFile-
Itissquareinshapeandissomewhattapered.Filingofrectangular,squaregroove,slotsandkey-
wayisdonewiththisfile.

vi.HandFile-
Thisfileisalmostsimilartotheflatfile.Itisusedforfilingofinternalrightanglesideofajob.Itisalsocalleds
afeedgefile.
viii. KnifeEdgeFile-
Itsshapeisliketheedgeofaknife.Itsthinedgeisabout10°angle.Itisusedforfilingsmallgroovesand
slotswhoseangleislessthan60°.Itisgenerallyusedinthelockindustryformakingkeys.

3.ClassificationAccordingtoGrade

Followingarethedifferenttypesoffiletoolsaccordingtothebasisofthenumberofteeth:

a.RoughFile-
Inthistypeoffile,teethareofbigsizeandlessinnumber.Itisusedforcuttingsoftmaterialsbecauseitscuttin
gisrough.Becauseofroughcutting,itcannotbeusedforhardmetal.
b.BastardFile-
Teethofthisfilearecomparativelysmallerthanthoseoftheroughfile.Itisusedinitiallytoshedmetal(thro
ughfiling)inlargequantity.
c.Second-cutFile-
Thisisafileofmediumgrade.Inthefillertrade,thisfileismostlyusedtobringthejobinthepropersize.Asco
mparedtothebastardfile,filingdonewiththisfilemakesthesurfaceplain.
d.SmoothFile-
Thisfilemakesthesurfacequiteplain,inadditiontomakingajobofaccuratesizethroughfiling.
e.DeadSmoothFile-
Itsteethareveryclosetoeachotheranditrubsoffthemetalinverylittlequantity.Itisusedforbringingshinn
ingonthejobafterfinishinghasbeendone.
4.ClassificationofFilesontheBasisofCut

Followingarethedifferenttypesoffiletoolsaccordingtothecut:

i.Single-cutFile-
Thisisfilehasparallellinesofteethrunningdiagonallyacrossitsfaceinonedirectiononly.Metalsurfaceis
rubbedinlittlequantityandthusthesurfacebecomessmooth.Thereforeitisusedforhardmetalandforfini
shing.
ii.Double-cutFile-Thisfilehastworowsofteethcrossingeachotheratanangleof40° to45° andtheother
rowhasanglesof70° to80°.Becauseofdoubleteeth,thisfilecutsmetalquicklybutitcannotmakethesurfa
ceverysmooth.Thatiswhyitisgenerallyusedfornormalfilingasshowninfig(B).Itisalsocalledacoarsety
pefile.In30°to35°andtheotherrowisof80°to87°anglesasshowninfig(C).
iii.Curved-cutFile-ItisalsoknownasVixenfile.Thecurved-
cutfileisusedforfilingofthewidesurfacesofsoftmetallikealuminium,zinc,copperandbrass.Ithascircul
arteeth.
iv.Spiral-cutFile-Thesetypesofteetharecutinroundorsemi-
roundfiles.Theshapeoftheirteethislikethatofthreads.
v.Rasp-cutFile-
Thisisafileofspecialthickteeth.Theseteethareoftriangleshapeandareinabulgingstate.Itisusedforjobs
ofwoods,plastic,fiber,hardrubber,andjobofhornsandhoofofanimals.

MODULE4-BASICMEASURINGANDTESTING
EQUIPMENT

MICROMETERSCREWGAUGE

Amicrometerisaninstrumentusedtogathermeasurementsthatrequiregreaterprecisionthanacaliperca
nachieve.However,theyboastsuperiorprecisionbecausetheycanonlymeasureaverysmalldistance,sot
heyaren’tidealfordeterminingthedimensionsoflargeobjects.

MicrometerScrewGaugeisusedtomeasuresmallerlengthordistancesuchasthediameterofanobjectm
oreaccurately.
DIAGRAMOFMICROMETERSCREWGUAGE

ConstructionofMicrometerScrewGauge

ThemainpartsofMicrometerScrewGaugeare:

1. U-shapedsteelframe
2. Anvilandspindle
3. LockNut
4. SleeveorBarrel
5. Thimble
6. Ratchet

U-shapedSteelFrame

UshapedorCshapedframewillholdalltheotherpartstogether. ThegapbetweenthetwoframesintheUor
Cshapedframedeterminesthemaximumdiameteroftheworkpiecethatcanbemeasuredwiththatscrewg
auge.

Anvilandspindle

Anvilsareatthemeasuringfaces.Theywereattachedtothespindlefaceandfixedfaceontheframe.Thespi
ndlewill havethethreadsactsasascrewanditshouldberunfreely andsmoothlythrough thelengthofitstr
avelandthereshouldbenobacklashbetweenthescrewandnut.
LockNut

Thelocknutistolockthespindle withoutalteringthedistancebetweenthe measuringfaceswhentheMic

rometerisatitscorrectreading.

SleeveorBarrel

Thisishavinga0.5mmdivisionlengthalongthelengthofthesleeve.ThisisthemainscalefortheMicromet
erscrewgauge.

Thimble

Thisisthemainpartofthescrewgauge,whichishaving50divisionsonits circumference. Itwillbemoved

overthebarrel.

Ratchet

Theratchet willbeprovidedattheendofthethimbletoassuretheaccuratemeasurementbypreventingthe
toomuchpressure beingappliedonthemicrometer.Thisslipsthethimbleoverthebarrelwhenthespindle
reachesthesurfaceoftheworkpiece.

DifferentTypesofMicrometers

Inadditiontodigitalmicrometersandmechanicalmicrometers,therearedifferenttypesbasedontheirap
plications.Thethreemostcommonusesincludemeasuringinternalborediameters,theexternaldimensi
onsofobjects(suchasshaftsandholes),anddeterminingaveragewearonrollingsurfaces,suchasgearsor
ballbearings.

1. AngularMicrometer:Thesedeterminetheanglebetweentwoplanes.
2. BladeMicrometer:Thesemeasurethenarrowgrooveofano-ring.
3. BallMicrometer:Thesemeasurethedistancebetweenaholeandtheedgeofasurface;thewallthi
cknessinatube;andanyinstanceinwhichoneanvilmustbeplacedagainstaroundedsurface.
4. BoreGageMicrometer:ABoreGagemeasurestheinternaldiameterofahole,cylinder,orsimila
rsurface.
5. DepthMicrometer:Thesetoolsmeasuresolidheight.
6. OutsideMicrometer:Thesemeasureexternaldiameter.
7. Pitch-
DiameterMicrometer(ThreadMicrometer):Theseareusedtomeasurethepitchdiameterofscr
ewthreads.
8. TubeMicrometer:Theseareanothertypethatisusedtodeterminethethicknessofatube.
SCALESOFMICROMETRESCREWGUAGE

Amicrometerscrewgaugehastwoscales:themainscaleandthevernierscale.

MAINSCALE

Themainscaleofamicrometeriscalibratedinmm.Thecalibrationsofthemainscaleofmicrometerscrew
gaugevarydependingontherangeofmeasurementthatthemicrometerscrewgaugesaremeanttomeasur
e.

VERNIERSCALE:

Thevernierscalehas50equaldivisions.Eachdivisionisobtainedbydividing5by10.Thevernierscalemo
vesadistanceof0.5mmalongthemainscalewhenitmakes1revolutionbyturningroundonce.Onedivisio
nonthevernierscaleequalto0.5/50whichequalto0.01mmonthemainscale.

ACCURACYOFMICROMETERSCREWGAUGE

Theaccuracyofamicrometerscrewgaugeis0.01mmor0.001cm.Thismeansthatthesmallestdistanceth
atamicrometerscrewgaugecanmeasureis0.01mmor0.001cm.

ACCURACYOFANINSTRUMENT

Accuracyofaninstrumentisthesmallestdistance(orvalueofaparticularquantity)thattheinstrumentcan
measurecorrectly.

STEPSTOFOLLOWWHENREADINGAMICROMETERSCREWGAUGE:

StepI-Readandrecordthereadingofthemainscale
StepII-
Readandrecordthereadingofthevernierscaleatthepointwherethemainscaleandthevernierscalecoinci
de.
StepIII-Multiplythereadingofthevernierscalebytheaccuracyofthevernierscalewhichis0.01mm
StepIV-
AddtheresultofstepIIItothemainscalereadingofstepItogetthefinalanswerwhichisthereadingofthever
niercaliper.

WorkedExamples
Whatisthereadingofthereadingofthemicrometermeterscrewgaugesasshowninthefiguresbelow?

Solution
Readingofmainscale. = 4.50mm
Readingofvernierscale = 10
Readingofvernierscalexaccuracyofverniercaliper=10x0.01=0.10mm
AddtheresultofstepIIIandstepItogetthereadingofthemicrometerscrewgauge. =4.50+0.10 =
4.60mm
Readingofverniercaliper = 4.60mm

Solution:
Readingofmainscale. = 22.0mm
Readingofvernierscale = 33

Readingofvernierscalexaccuracyofverniercaliper=33x0.01= 0.33mm
AddtheresultofstepIIIandstepItogetthereadingofthemicrometerscrewgauge. =22.0+0.33 =
22.33mm
Readingofverniercaliper = 22.33mm
Solution:
Readingofmainscale. = 3.25mm
Readingofvernierscale = 13

Readingofvernierscalexaccuracyofverniercaliper =13x0.01=0.13mm
AddtheresultofstepIIIandstepItogetthereadingofthemicrometerscrewgauge. =3.25+0.13=3.38mm
Readingofthemicrometermeterscrewgauge= 3.38mm

CareandProperUseofaMicrometer

1. Beforeyourotatethethimbleortheratchetknob,unlockthelockinglever.Makesuretocleanthem
easuringfaceswiththehelpofacleanclothbeforeyoubegintakingmeasurements.
2. Asyoubeginmeasuring,startrotatingtheratchetknob(notthethimble).Theratchetknobwillens
ureyoudon’tovertightenthethimble,asthatwillnotonlygiveanerroneousreadingbutcandamag
etheinstrumenttoo.
3. Thehorizontallineonthesleeveshouldbealignedtozerowhenthemicrometerfunctionisatitsmi
nimumreading.Incaseitdoesnothappen,theinstrumentmustbecalibrated.Forcalibration,each
devicecomeswithahalf-moonadjustingwrench.
4. Remembertousethethimblelockwhilethemicrometerisstillholdingtheobject.Ifyoudonotdoth
is,thespindlemightmovealittlewhiletakingthereadingortakingtheobjectofffromthemicromet
er.It’salsoadvisablethatyoudon’tkeeptheinstrumentexposedtothesunforlong.

VernierCaliper
Averniercaliperisaninstrumentwhichismostcommonlyused foravarietyofexactmeasurement
s,whichwasnotnecessarilyrelatedtotheengineeringmanufacturer.

The main useofthe verniercaliperistomeasuretheinternalandexternaldiametersofanobject.Theword

calipermeansanyinstrumentwithtwojawswhichisusedtodeterminethediametersofobjects.

PartsofVernierCaliper
Themainelementsoftheverniercaliperarethe

i. MainScale
ii. Vernierscale
iii. Thumbscrew
iv. Lockscrew
v. DepthRod
vi. Fixedjaw,and
vii. Slidingjaw

Descriptionoftheparts
Verniercaliperconsistsoftwosteelrulesandtheycanslidealongwitheachother.

Oneisalongrectangularmetalstripthathasafixedjawononeend.Itisgraduatedininchesatitsupperendan
dcentimeteratitslowerendwhichiscalledthemainscale.

ThemainscaleismarkedonsolidLshapeframes,onwhichcmgraduatesaredividedinto20partssothatas
malldivisionisequalto0.05cm.Thisallowsimprovementsinthecommonlyusedmeasuringtechniques,
overdirectmeasurementwithlinegraduated method.

Thereisanothersmallrectangularmetalstripwhichisgraduatedwithaspecialrelationtothatofthemainsc
ale,whichiscalledthevernierscalewhichslidesoverthislongmetalstrip.Ithasajawsimilartothatofthem
ainscale.
Therearetwojawsonverniercaliperupperjawandlowerjaw.Thesejawstogetherareusedtoholdtheobje
ctfirmlywhilemeasuringitslengthwhichisnotpossiblewithametrescale.

Theexternalorlowerjawsaregenerallyusedtomeasurethediameterofasphereoracylinder.Theinternalj
awsorupperjaws aregenerallyusedtomeasuretheinternaldiameterofahollowcylinder.

Thereisalsoametalstripattachedatthebackoftheverniercaliperswhichisusedtomeasuretheinternaldep
thofacylinder.

TypesofVernierCaliper
FollowingarethedifferenttypesofVernierCaliper:

1. Flatedgeverniercaliper
2. Knifeedgeverniercaliper
3. Verniergeartoothcaliper
4. Vernierdepthgauge
5. Flatandknifeedgeverniercaliper
6. Vernierheightgauge
7. Vernierdialcaliper

1.FlatEdgeVernierCaliper

Thistypeofvernierisusedfornormalfunctions.Wecantakeoutermeasurementofajob’slength,breadth,
thickness,anddiameter,etc.

Asthejibofitsedgeisofaspecialtype,theinnermeasurementcanalsobetakenwithit.Butfromthatmeasur
ementthejobsbreadthhastobesubtracted.Thismeasurementisoftenwrittenonthejawotherwiseitshoul
dbemeasuredwithamicrometer.

2.KnifeEdgeVernierCaliper

Theedgeofthisverniercaliperislikeaknife.Otherpartsofthisverniercaliperarelikeotherverniercalipers
asshowninthefigure.Thisverniercaliperisusedformeasuringnarrowspace,adistanceofholesofIbolt,et
c.

Itsmainshortcomingisthatbecauseofthethinedgeofitsjaw,itwearsoutquicklyandstartsgivinginaccura
temeasurements.Itshouldbeusedsparinglyandcarefully.

3.FlatandKnifeEdgeVernierCaliper
Somecompaniesalsomakeverniercaliperswhichhavetheirjawlikeanordinaryverniercaliperfromone
sidebuthaveknife-
edgejawattheotherside,asshowninthefigure.Withthisverniercaliper,alltypesofjobscanbemeasurede
asily.

4.VernierGearToothCaliper

Thisisaspecialtypeofinstrument,whichismadelikeacombinedformoftwoverniercalipers.Itcontainst
woseparatescalesverticalandhorizontal.Withtheverniercaliper,thethicknessofatoothofgearcanbeta
kenformitspitchcircle.Inotherwords,theverniercaliperisusedtomeasuredifferentpartsofgear.

5.VernierDepthGauge

Asisevidentfromitsname,thisinstrumentisusedformeasuringthedepthoftheslotofajob,itsholeorgroo
ve.Thisisalmostsimilartoverniercaliper.Itsreadingisalsotakeninthesameway.Butinsteadofajaw,afla
t-shapedbaseisusedinitasshowninfigure.

Thisdepthgaugeismadeofathinbeamlikeanarrowrule.Mainscaleandvernierscalearealsoininchormet
ricsysteminit.Itsspecialtyisthatwecantakemeasurementofthreetypeswithit:

 Itsmainscaleismarkedinpartsofincheswhichisdividedinto64sub-sections.
 Theotherendisdividedinto40sub-
sectionsandeveryfourthlineisslightlybigger.Itcontainsthelocalsizein1,2,3,to9.Onthesamean
d,thereisavernierscale,withwhosehelpaminimumof0.001″measurementcanbetaken.
 Onitsbackgraduationisinmmwhichcantakeaminimummeasurementof0.02mmwiththehelpo
favernierscale.

6.VernierHeightGauge

Itisusedfortakingaccuratemeasurementofheightofajoborformarking.Itisalmostsimilartoverniercali
perbutitisusedbyattachingsomeadditionalattachments.Beamremainsfittedonabaseinlengthform.Of
f-
setscriberisfittedonthebeamitselfwithwhichheightofajobismeasuredormarkingisdone.Itsbasesareo
ftwotypes:

i. SolidBase
ii. MoveableBase

7.VernierDialCaliper
Inordinaryverniercaliper,therearechancesofmistakesasfarasclearreadingisconcerned.Forthispurpo
se,nowadaysVernierDialcalipersarebeingused.Inplaceofthevernierscale,itcontainsagraduationdial
asshowninthefigure.

Likeverniercalipers,itcanmeasureininchesaswellasinmillimeters.Likeadialtestindicator,rackandpi
nionsareusedinit.Therackremainsonthemainscalewhichisconnectedtothepinionofthedial.

GeneralErrorsinMeasurementwithVernierCaliper
1. Theerrorsoccurredinverniercaliperduetoitsincorrecthandlingofthejawsontheworkpiece.In
measuringoutsidediameter,itmustbeensuredthatthecaliperbarandtheplaneofthecaliperjawsa
retrulyperpendiculartotheworkpiece.
2. Toavoiderroryoumustbeensuredthatcaliperisnottiltedortwisted.Butithappensbecauseofrela
tivelylongextendingthemainbaroftheaverageverniercalipers.Theaccuracydependsonthegre
aterextentontheconditionofthejawsofthecaliper.
3. Theaccuracyandthenaturalwear,warpingofverniercaliperjawsshouldbetestedfrequentlybyc
oolingthemtogethertightlyorsettingthemtothe0.0pointofthemainandvernierscale.
4. Inabovepositionwhenitisheldagainstalightsource,incaseofwear,springorwarp,aknock-
kneedconditionobservedandofmeasurementerrorisgreaterthan0.005mmtheinstrumentshoul
dnotbeusedandsentforrepair.
5. Wheneverthewearorwrappingofslidingjawframeplaceitdoesnotslidesquarelyandsnuglyont
hemaincaliperbeam,thenjawswillappear.Thejawsofverniercalipermaybecomebowleggedor
itsoutsideedgesareworndownwhilemeasuringinsidediameter.

AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofVernierScales
Advantages

1. Amplificationisachievedbydesignanditisnotdependentonthepartsthatcangooutofwearorcali
bration.
2. Nointerpolationispossibleinreading,letalonerequired.
3. Zerosettingadjustmentiseasy.
4. Thereisnotheoreticallimittothescalerange.

Disadvantages

1. Themaindisadvantageslieintheinstrumentsonwhichverniersareused.
2. Thereliabilityofreadingdependsmoreupontheobserverthatmustinstruments.
 3. Nowaytoadjustforanyerrorsotherthanzerosettings.
4. Thediscriminationislimited.

PrecautionsintheUseofVernierCaliper
Thefollowingprecautionsshouldbeconsideredwhileusingaverniercaliper. Theseprecautionsarenece
ssarytominimizeanyerrorswhichcanaffecttheaccuracyofthemeasurement.

1. Themostcommonformoferroristheparallaxerror.Thismeans“alteration”.Thiserroroccurswh
enanobjectisobservedfromanangle.Thismakestheobjectappearataslightlydifferentpositiont
hanitreallyisandcanleadustotakeawrongreadingonameasuringscale.Toeliminatethiserrorth
eobservershouldpositionhiseyesdirectlyabovethescalewhentakingtheMainScalereadingand
theVernierCoincidence.
2. Makesureyoutotakeallthereadingsinthesameunitsystemwhilemeasuring.forexample,
 MKSunitsmetre,kilogramandsecondformeasurementoflength,weightandtime.
 CGSsystemwhichusestheunitsofacentimetre,gramandsecond.
Ifanymeasurementsaretakeninaunitinanothersystemitshouldbeconvertedtotheappropriateu
nitsbeforebeingusedinanycalculations.
3. Avoid excessiveforceonthejaws,whilegrippingtheobjecttobemeasured.Theobjectshouldal
waysbegrippedgentlybetweenthejaws.Thisisextremelyimportantwhilemeasuringobjectswh
ichareeasilydeformablee.gwires.
4. Beforetakinganymeasurements,makesuretheverniercaliperdoesnothaveazeroerror.Ifthereis
zeroerrortheappropriatecorrectionsshouldbeapplied.
5. Theaccuracyofmeasurementprimarilydependsontwosenses:
 Senseofsight
 Senseoftouch
6. Thesurfaceoftheobjectandinstrumentcovershouldbecleanedanddriedwithaclothsoakedincle
aningoil.
7. Loosenthelockingkeyoftheverniercaliperandmakesurethereisnofrictionbetweenthescalesw
hilemovingthejawsoftheverniercaliper.
8. Inthecaseofadigitalverniercaliperthefollowingadditionalstepsshouldbetaken:
 Bringthejawsincontactwitheachotherandthenpresstheon/offbutton.
 Checkthereadingandmakesureitiszero.
 MovethesliderandcheckwhetherallthebuttonsandtheLCD(LiquidCrystalDisplay)displa
yareworkingproperly.

DialIndicators
WorkingPrincipleofaDialIndicator
Itoperatesontheprinciple,thataveryslightupwardpressureonthespindleorplungeratthe contactpointi
smultipliedthroughasystemofgearsandlevers.Itisindicatedonthefaceofthedialbythepointerofthedial
indicator.Dialindicatorsconsistsofabodywitharoundgraduated dialandacontactpointconnectedwith
aspiralorgeartrainsothathandonthedialface indicatestheamountofmovementofthecontactpoint.The
yaredesignedforuseonawide rangeofstandardmeasuringdevicessuchasdialboxgauges,portaldial,ha
ndgauges,dial depthgauges,diametergaugesanddialindicatorsnapgauge.

Themovementmechanismofthe instrumentishousedinametalcaseforitsprotection.Thelargedialscal
eisgraduatedinto 100divisions.Theindicatorissettozerobytheuseofslipgaugesrepresentingthebasics
ize ofthepart.

SomeofthemajorpartsofaDialIndicatorareasfollows:

i. Contactpoint.
ii. Theplunger(spindle).
iii. Indicator(Needle).
iv. LockscreworBezelclamp.
v. Minidialorrevolutioncounter.
vi. GraduatedorMagnificationscale.
TypesofDialIndicators:

EnormouscategoriesofDialIndicatorshaveexisted,whichisveryeffectivetomeasuretheprecisionofa
workpiece.

ThecategoriesofDialIndicatorsareasfollows:

i. BalancereadingDialIndicators
ii. ReversedBalanceDialIndicators
iii. ContinuousDialIndicators
iv. ReversecontinuousDialIndicators
v. PrelingerDialIndicators
vi. TestDialIndicators
vii. LeverDialIndicators

1. BalancereadingDialIndicators:Inthistypeofdialindicator,alltheinformationonthisindicato
risarrangeduponitsface.Thenumbersareprintedintwodirections.Positivenumbersarecalibrat
edtotheright-handsideofzeroandnegativenumbersarefeaturedontheleft-handsideofzero.
2. ReversedBalanceDialIndicators:Inthisindicator,numbersarecalibratedintheoppositedirec
tionascomparedtotheaforementioneddialindicator.
3. ContinuousDialIndicators:Figuresarecalibratedinonedirectiononlywithoutanysortofsepa
ration.
4. ReversecontinuousDialIndicators:ItistheoppositeofcontinuousDialindicators.
5. PrelingerDialIndicators:Ithasaclock-
likeface,andthistoolisusedtomeasureinjectionmolding.
6. TestDialIndicators:Thesetoolsareadjustable.
7. LeverDialIndicators:Thistoolischaracterizedbyascrollandlevermechanism.Thistypeofind
icatorismorecompactandflawlesstouse.

AdvantagesofDialIndicators

i. Dialindicatoristhemostflawlesstoolintakinglinearmeasurements.
ii. Thetoolisveryefficienttoassurethequalityofaworkpiece.
iii. Duetosmalltolerances,thesizeofthetoolisverycompactandthus,itcanbeusedseamlesslyinmas
sproduction.
iv. Dialindicatorisalsousefulindimensioncontrol.
v. DialIndicatorsarealsobeusedtomeasureseveraldeviationsbyaligningwithsomeotherattachm
ents.
 vi. Outofroundness,theamountoftappercanalsobemeasuredefficientlybyDialIndicators.

DisadvantagesofDialIndicators

i. TheprecisionofDialIndicatorsisoftenlostduetothevibrationofmachinery.
ii. Spaceconstraintscanleadtoinstallingthetoolatanangleduetowhichprecisionofthemeasuringd
evicelost.
iii. Anothercrucialdisadvantageofthetoolistheparallaxeffect.
iv. EndfloatcanresultintoproblemsforDialIndicators.ThisaffectstheaccuracylevelofDialIndicat
ors.

RequirementsofaGoodDialIndicator

1.Itshouldgivetrouble-freeanddependablereadingsoveralongperiod.
2.Thepressurerequiredonmeasuringheadtoobtainzeroreadingmustremainconstantoverthewholeran
ge.
3.Thepointershouldindicatethedirectionofthemovementofthemeasuringplunger.
4.Theaccuracyofthereadingsshouldbewithincloselimitsofthevarioussizesandranges
5.Themovementofthemeasuringplungershouldbeineitherdirectionwithoutaffectingtheaccuracy.
6.Thepointermovementshouldbedamped,sothatitwillnotoscillatewhenthereadingsarebeingtaken.

UsesofDialIndicators

Dialindicatorsareusedinenormousways.Someofthemaregivenbelow:

1. Comparingtwoheightsordistancesbetweennarrowlimits.
2. Todeterminetheerrorsinthegeometricalformsuchasovality,roundness,andtaper.
3. Fortakingaccuratemeasurementsofdeformationsuchasintensionandcompression.
4. Todeterminepositionalerrorsofsurfacessuchasparallelism,squareness,andalignment.
5. Tocheckthealignmentoflathecentersbyusingasuitableaccuratebarbetweenthecenters.
6. Tocheckthetruenessofmillingmachinearborsandtochecktheparallelismofshaperarmwithtab
lesurfaceorvice.
 MODULE5:DRILLINGOPERATIONS

THETWISTDRILL
Adrillortwistdrillisagroovedend-
cuttingtoolusedformanufacturingholesinfirmmaterial.Itbasicallyconsistsoftwoparts:

 Thebodyconsistingofthecuttingedges,and
 Theshankusedforholdingpurposes.

Thevariouspartsandangleofthetwistdrillareshownbelow

1. Body
Thebodyofthetwistdrillspiralgroovescutonit.Thesegroovesservetoofferclearancetothechipsformed
atthecuttingedge.Theyalsopermitthecuttingfluidtospreadtothecuttingedges.
 2. Shank
Itisapartthatgetsfittedintothedrillchuckorsleeve.Itmightbeparallelshankortapershank.Smallerdiam
eterdrillshavestraightshank.Morsetaperisgenerallyprovidedforlargediametertapereddrills.Thetaper
shankbringsthetangattheendofshank.Thisfitsintoaslotinthemachinespindle,sleeveorsocketandgive
sapositivegrip.

3. Neck
Itistheundercutportionbetweenthebodyandtheshank.Usually,sizeandotherdetailsaremarkedatthene
ck.
4. Point
Itistheconefashionedendofthedrill.Thepointisshapedtoproducelip,face,andflankandchiseledgeorde
adcenter.

5. LandorMargin
Itisanarrowstrip.Itrangesbackontheedgeofthedrillflutes.Thesizeofdrillismeasuredacrossthelandsatt
hepointend.Landretainsthedrillaligned.

6. Web
Itisthecentralportionofdrilllocatedbetweentherootsofthegroovesandlengtheningfromthepointtowar
dstheshank.

7. Chiseledge
Theintersectionofflankformsthechiseledge.Thisactsasaflatdrill.Itcutsasmallholeintheworkpieceatt
hebeginning.Thereforecuttingedgesremovesfurthermaterialstocompletethehole.

8. Cuttingedge
Thecuttingedgesofadrillareknownaslips.Bothlipsshouldhaveequallength,sameangleofinclinationa
ndcorrectclearance.

9. Flank
Thesurfacebehindtheliptothefollowingfluteiscalledflank.

10.FluteLength
Thelengthofthefluteisrepresentedbythedepthofthehole,thelengthofthebush,andtheamountofregrind
ingallowance.Becausetheeffectonthetool’slifeissignificant,itisvitaltokeepittoabareminimumasmuc
hasfeasible.

AdvantagesofTwistDrill
 TwistDrilltoolefficiencyishigher.
 Itsavestimealsobecauseofhigherspeedandfeedcandrilltheworkpiecefast.
 Ittakeslesspowerforperforminganoperationwhileothertoolstakehighpowerforperformingtheope
ration.
 Throughtheflute,theunwantedmaterialcutsfromtheworkpieceeasilycomeout.
 Itisdurable;onetwistdrillcanbeusedforalongtimewithoutfrequent regrinding.
 Thechipsandcuttingsareautomaticallydrivenoutoftheholethroughthefluteofthetwistdrill

DisadvantagesofTwistDrill

 Ifthetoolhasasmallerdiametertherearechancesofbreaking.
 Thefinishisnotasgoodascomparetoothertoolslike SinglePointCuttingTool andMulti-Point.
 Ifthetoolworkscontinuouslyforalongduration,itmaybreakbecauseofheating.Sothereiscoolantreq
uiredasitmaybewaterorother.
 Regrindingoflipsisadelicateprocess

TwistDrillApplication

Atwistdrillisatoolthatisusedinthe drillingmachine foroperationslikemakingholesintheworkpiece.T

heholeintheworkpiecedependsonthediameterofthetwistdrilltool.

TwistDrillMaterials

Manyofthetwistdrillsaremadeupof High-speedsteel withorwithoutacarbonsteelshankjoinedtotheb

ody.SomeTwistdrillsaremadeupof cobaltalloys andothershaveinsertsofcementcarbide.

Drillingspeed
CuttingspeedmaybereferredtoastheratethatapointonacircumferenceofadrillwilltravelinIminute.Itis
expressedinsurfacefeetperminute(SFPM).Cuttingspeedisoneofthemostimportantfactorsthatdeterm
inethelifeofadrill.Ifthecuttingspeedistooslow,thedrillmightchiporbreak.Acuttingspeedthatistoofast
rapidlydullsthecuttinglips.
Cuttingspeedsdependonthefollowingsevenvariables:

1. Thetypeofmaterialbeingdrilled.(Theharderthematerial,theslowerthecuttingspeed.)
2. Thecuttingtoolmaterialanddiameter.
(Theharderthecuttingtoolmaterial,thefasteritcanmachinethematerial.Thelargerthedrill,thesl
owerthedrillmustrevolve.)
3. Thetypesanduseofcuttingfluidsallowanincreaseincuttingspeed.
4. Therigidityofthedrillpress.
5. Therigidityofthedrill.(Theshorterthedrill,thebetter.)
6. Therigidityoftheworkset-up.
7. Thequalityoftheholetobedrilled.

Eachvariableshouldbeconsideredpriortodrillingahole.Eachvariableisimportant,buttheworkmateria
landitscuttingspeedarethemostimportantfactors.

CuttingFormulas
CuttingSpeed(VC)
TheCuttingspeedisthespeedofthetool.

Thisformulabelowisusedtocalculatethecuttingspeedfromthespindlespeedandthediameterofthewor
kpiece.

InmathematicaltermsthecuttingspeedisrepresentedasthesymbolVc.The'V'standsfor'velocity'(speed
)andthesmall'c'standsfor'cut'.Itisawayofmeasuringthevelocityofthecutinmetrespersecond(m/sec):

VC=π•Dm•n(m/min)
1000
where:
 π(3.14):Circularconstant
 Dm(mm):Diameterofworkpiece
 n(m/min):Spindlespeed

Toconvertm/mintom/sec,dividetheresultby60.
Example1:

Diameter(Dm)=60mm
Spindlespeed(n)=500m/min.
Inthiscase,thecuttingspeed(VC)isapproximately94m/min=1.6m/s

Example2:

Diameter(Dm)=80mm
(n)=18000m/min
π(pi)=3.14
Inthiscase,thecuttingspeed(VC)isapproximately4521.6m/min=75.4m/s.

Example3:

Atwistdrillwithacuttingspeedof30m/
minisusedtodrilla12mmdiametermildsteel.Calculatethespindlespeedofthedrill.Assumingthedrillw
hichhasacuttingfeedrateof0.2mm/
revisnowusedtopenetratea15mmthicksteelplate,calculatethetimetakeninsecondsforthedrilltoperfor
mthisoperation.

Diameter(Dm)=12mm
(n)=?
π(pi)=3.14
Cuttingspeed(VC)=30m/min.
Inthiscase,thespindlespeedisapproximately796.2m/min=13.27m/s.

Thetimetakeninsecondsforthedrilltoperformthisoperationisgivenas:
t=60P
NF

where:t=timeinseconds
P=depthofpenetration(mm)
N=spindlespeed(rev/min)
F=feed(mm/rev)
=60x15
796x0.2
=5.7seconds(to1d.p)
Exercise
CalculatethecuttingspeedsoftheshanktypetoolsgiventhedifferentRPMbelow.

Cuttingspeedofshanktypetools
CuttingØmm Vc(18,000RPM)m/sVc(24,000RPM)m/sVc(30,000RPM)m/s

DRILLINGMACHINE
Adrillingmachineisatypeofmachineinwhichtheholesarebeingmadeontheworkpiecebymakinguseof
arotatingtoolcalleddrillbitorthetwistdrill.Drillingisbasicallyatechnologyofcreatingholes.

DrillingoperationcanalsobeperformedonLatheMachine.Inthelathemachine,theworkpiecerotatesan
dthedrillingtoolisheldstationaryinthetailstock.

Boring:Whenwetalkaboutdrilling,boringismostlydiscussed.

Basically,Boringisaprocessinwhichtheholesareenlargedthatisalreadybeingdrilledorcored.Toperfor
mboringactionbyamachineaspecialholderfortheboringtoolisrequired.

DrillingMachineParts
DrillingMachineconsistsoffollowingmainparts:

i. Bed
ii. Pillar
iii. Swiveltable
iv. Motor
v. Steepedpulley
vi. Spindle
vii. Chuck
viii. DrillBitand
ix. Hand-wheel.
Bed:

Thebedisthemainpartofthemachineonwhichthewholemachineisbeingmounted.Thebedismadeupof
castiron,soithashighcompressivestrengthandgoodwearresistance.

Pillar:

Thepillarisatypeofverticalcolumnthatrestsonthebed.Pillarispresentatthecenterofthebed.Thepillarh
elpsthemotorandthespindlehead.

SwivelTable:

Thetableistheplacewheretheworkpieceisbeingmounted.Thetableisattachedtothecolumnanditcanbe
rotatedaroundthecolumnandcanhaveanupwardanddownwardmoment.Atablecanbeadjustedatanya
ngleaspertherequirement.

Motor:

Themotorispresentatthetopofthecolumn.Theinsidemotorshaftistherewhichisconnectedtoasteppedp
ulleysothatwecanincreaseordecreasethespeedoftherotationofthemotor.

Steppedpulley:

Twosteepedpulleysarepresentoneithersideofthecolumnatthetop.Outofthesetwo,onepulleywillbein
anupwarddirectionwhiletheotherpulleyisinverted.Bothpulleyswillalwaysbethereintheoppositedire
ction.Thebasicfunctionofthesteppedpulleyistocontrolthespeedoftherotationofthemotor.
Spindle:

Spindlearrangementispresentattopofthecolumnoppositetothearrangementofthemotor.

Thetopofthespindleisattachedtooneofthesteppedpulleys.Thebottomofthespindleisconnectedtothec
huck.

Chuck:

Chuckispresentatthebottomofthespindle.Thebasicfunctionofthechuckistoholdthecuttingtoolfirmly
.

Drillbit:

Adrillbitisanactualcuttingtoolthatisusedtocreateaholeintheworkpiece.

HandWheel:

Thebasicfunctionofthehandwheelistoadjustthespindlepositionaspertherequirement.
PrecautionsinUsingtheDrillingMachine
Safetyisthemostimportantfactorthatshouldbetakencareofwhileusingadrillmachinetoavoidanykindo
fharmtotheoperator.Improperuseofthedrillmachinecancauseseriousinjurytotheoperator.

Theprecautionswhichshouldbefollowedwhileusingthedrillingmachineareasfollows:

i)Themachinetoolshouldbestrongenoughtodrillaholeintheworkpiece,otherwise,thepartsmaybedefo
rmedduetothecuttingforcegenerated.Drillfeedingarrangementmustbedirectionallystable.

ii)ToavoidanykindoferroritmustmakesurethattheAxisofthespindle,adapter,andtoolmustcoincide.

iii)Accuratelygrounddrillshouldbeusedsothattheuniformchipsareproducedbybothcuttingedges,oth
erwise,unbalancedforcesmaydeflectthetoolduringmachining.

iv)Theworkpiecemustbeheldrigidlyotherwiseitcanleadto:

 ErrorinShape.
 Burrsand
 Errorinholelocation.

DrillingMachineOperation
Thevariousoperationsperformedbythedrillingmachineare:

 DrillingOperation
 BoringOperation
 ReamingOperation
 CounterboringOperation
 CountersinkingOperation
 TappingOperation
 SpotFacingOperation
 TrepanningOperationand
 HoningOperation.

Eachofthesewillbebrieflydiscussed.

DrillingOperation:
Drillingistheprocessofcreatingcircularholesonthejob(workpiece)usingadrill.

BoringOperation:

Boringistheprocessofenlargingaholebymeansofanadjustablecuttingtoolwithonlyonecuttingedge.

ReamingOperation:

Itisbasicallyatypeoffinishingoperation.Itisaprocessofsizingandfinishingaholebymeansofareamerh
avingseveralcuttingedges.

CounterboringOperation:

Counterboringisatypeofoperationinwhichitisusedtoenlargetheparticularportionofthehole.

CountersinkingOperation:

Countersinkingcanbedefinedastheprocessofenlargingtheendoftheholetogiveitaconicalshapeforsho
rtdistance.

TappingOperation:

Tappingistheprocessofcreatinginternalthreadsbymeansofatoolcalledthetap.

SpotFacingOperation:

Operationofremovingthechippresentonthesurfaceoftheholeforproperseatingofheadnutsetc.Thiscan
bedonebyanendmillcutterwithdrillmachines.

TrepanningOperation:

Itistheoperationusedforproducinglargesizeholeswithoutdrilling.Thisoperationismostlyusedforhole
sthataremorethan50mmindiameter.Itcannotbeusedforblindholes.

HoningOperation:

Honingistheprocessofproducingverysmoothholes.Inhoningoperation,thetoolwillreciprocateandrot
ateaboutitsaxis.ItismainlyusedforfinishingtheICenginecylinder.
TypesofDrillingMachines
ThedifferenttypesofDrillingMachineare:

a. PortableDrillingMachine
b. SensitiveDrillingMachine
c. UprightorColumnDrillMachine
d. RadialDrillingMachine
e. GangDrilling
f. Multi-SpindleDrilling
g. VerticalTurretTypeDrilling
h. AutomaticDrillingMachine
i. DeepholeDrilling
j. TurretDrilling
k. AutomaticsDrillingMachine.

Eachofthesewillbediscussedindetails.

PortableDrillingMachine:

PortableDrillingMachineisthetypeofmachinewhichconsistsofasmallelectricMotorwhichgivespow
erforrotationofthedrillbit.HandDrillisthebestexampleoftheportablehandDrill.

PortableMachineismosthelpfulinthecasewherethejobcannotbetakentotheworkshopduetotheirlarge
sizeorweightsoinsuchcasesPortabledrillingmachinesarebestastheycanbetakentothejob(workpiece)
anddrillingcanbedonethereitself.

Thus,itsavesalotoftimeandpreventsthetransportationcosts.

SensitiveDrillingMachine:
AsensitiveDrillingmachineisamachinethatishand-
fedandoperatesontheprincipleofrackandpiniondrive.

Thisisalightandsimplebench-typemachineusedforlight-
dutywork.Inthis,thedrillheadiscounterbalancedandfedthroughahandleversystem.Theoperatorputst
heforceonthedrillbitbymanualrotationofthewheel,thuscreatingaholeontheworkpiece.

UprightorColumnDrillingMachine:

Uprightorcolumndrillissimilartothesensitivedrillmachinetheonlydifferenceisthatthepowerfeeding
mechanismisusedfortherotationofthedrill.

Thismachineismostlysuitedforheavywork.Thesizeofworkthatcanbeaccommodatedislimitedbythed
istancebetweenthespindleandcolumn.

Thesemachinesmostlyhaveaboxtypecolumnandaremostlyusedforheavierwork.
RadialDrillingMachine:

Aradialdrillmachineisthemostadvancedformofthedrillmachine.Itisthemostversatiledrillmachinean
dbestsuitedfordrillingalargenumberofholes.

Radialdrillmachinehasasingle-
spindlemachineintendedforhandlinglargeandheavyworkwhichisbeyondthecapacityofthesimplema
chine.

Itconsistsofaverticalcolumnwitharadialarmthatcanswingthroughanarcof180degreesormore.

Thedrillingheadisequippedwithapowerfeed.Thedrillingheadmaybemovedalongthearmbyhandorpo
werongearandthetrackarrangement.

GangDrillingMachine:

GangDrillingMachinesoftwoormoredillheadsmountedonthesametable.Thesecanrunsimultaneousl
yorinsequence.Thenumberofspindlesthatcanbemountedisunlimitedbutmostlyfourspindlesareused.

Itismostusefulinthecasewhenmultipleoperationsaretobeperformedsuchasdrilling,counterboring,re
aming,etc.fordrillingholesofseveraldifferentsizes.
Application:Machinesareusedforthestraightline,multipleholedrillingapplicationsasinthepipe,chan
nels,castings,plates,andangle.

Multi-spindleDrillingMachine:

Amulti-spindledrillMachineisdevelopedforthepurposeofdrillingseveralholessimultaneously.

Thesemachinesaremostlyusedforlargerproductionworkwhereitisrequiredtodrillmanypartswithsuc
haccuracythatallthepartsareinterchangeable.

Fordrillingcloselyspacedholes,someoftheholesaredrilledfirstbyasetofspindlesthenthejobisrepositi
onedandothersetsofclosely-spacedholesarethendrilledbyanothersetofspindles.
 Thespecialtypeofmulti-spindleistheway-
type.Thistypeofmachineisusedinthecasewhereseveralholesinthedifferentplanesaretobedrilled.

VerticalturrettypedrillingMachine:

Verticalturrettypedrillmachineconsistsofaturretwhichhousesvarioustoolssuchasdrill,ream,spot-
face,counterbore,andtapinanydesiredsequence.

Thevariousspindlesonthisturretcanbeindexedmanuallyorautomatically.Thespindlesdriveonlyaftert
heycometothedrillingposition.

AutomaticDrillingMachine

AnautomaticdrillmachineisusedmostlyintheplacesofhigherProductionwork.Theyconsistofanumbe
rofunitheadswithsingleormultiplespindlesinangular,verticalorhorizontalpositionsonvariouscombi
nationsonaspecialcase.

Eachstationisalsoprovidedwithanindexingtableandworkholdingfixtures.

Deep-holeDrillingMachine:
DeepholeDrillingMachineareusedfordrillingsuchholeswhoselengthexceedsthreetimesthedrillsize.

ThespecialfeaturesoftheDeepDrillMachineare:

 Robustdesign.
 Extremeshotsetuptime.
 Goodqualityofproduction.
 High-speedoperation.
 Versatility:Thevariousexampleofthisclassarerifflebarrels,longSpindles,ConnectingRods,a
ndcertainoilwelldrillingequipment.

AdvantagesofDrillingMachines
Variousadvantagesofthedrillingmachineare:

i. Highspeed
ii. Highoutput
iii. Easytooperate
iv. Highflexibility
v. Lowmaintenancecostandlongerlife.

i)Highspeed:

Themainadvantageofthedrillmachineisthattheholescanbemadeintheworkpiecewithgreaterspeedan
dotherdrillingoperationscanalsobeperformedatadecentspeed.

ii)HighOutput:

Itiscapableofgivinghighoutput.

AspertheadvancementoftheMachine,thespeedofthemachineincreasedandespeciallyaftertheintrodu
ctionofautomaticandradialdrillingmachinestheoutputbecameveryhigh.

iii)Easytooperate:
Itisveryeasytooperate.Itseasymomentmaintainstheefficiencyoftheoperatorsallthetime.

iv)Highflexibility:

Themoderndrillingmachinesarehighlyflexibleastheyhavemultiplespindles,areautomatic,andthehol
escanbedilledatanyangleandmanymorefeaturesaretherewhichmakesithighlyflexible.

v)Lowmaintenancecostandlongerlife:

Themaintenancecostofamachineisverylessandtheyhaveaverylonglife.Withverylessamountofmaint
enancecost,theycanbeusedforalongerperiodoftime.

DisadvantagesofDrillingMachines
Thevarioustroublesexperiencedduringdrillingalongwiththeirremediesareasfollows:

i. Limitedsizeworkpiece
ii. Roughhole
iii. Chippedcuttinglips
iv. Oversizedholes
v. Breakingofdrill

i)Limitedsizeworkpiece:

Alimitedsizeworkpiececanonlybemachined.Workpiecewhichisverylargecannotbeoperated.

ii)RoughHole:

Theroughholesmightbeproducedsometimeduringdrilling.

Roughholesarecanbeavoidedby:

 Thefeedshouldbereduced.
 Pointreground.
 Coolantused.
 Therigidityofthefixtureensured.

iii)Chippedcuttinglips:

Chippedcuttinglipscanbeformed.Thishappensbecauseofhighfeedandhighclearanceangle.
Toavoidchippedcuttinglipsproperfeedspeedandproperclearanceshouldbeusedaspertherequirement
.

iv) Oversizehole:

Anoversizedholemaybeproducedduetothelossofaspindleorunequalangle/lengthofthecuttingedges.

v)BreakingofDrill:

Thedrillmaybreakduetothefollowingreasons:

1. Thedrillmaybreakifitgetsdull.
2. Thefluteiscloggedbythechips.
3. Duetohighfeed.
4. Improperclampingofthedrillandwork.

ApplicationsofDrillingMachines
ThefollowingapplicationsoftheDrillingMachinesare:

 TheDrillingmachineisusedinalmosteverymanufacturingindustryformakingholesinthework
pieceaspertherequirement.
 Thisisalsousedincarpentryworkfordrillingtheholesinthewoodandfixingthewoodstructures.
 Theyareusedinconstructionsites,glasswork.
 Handdrillorportabledrillsareusedforscrewingandfastening.
 Thismachinetoolcanperformavarietyofoperationslikereaming,boring,counter-
boring,tapping,andmanyothers,whichmakesitapplicableinvastfields.

HowtoObtainHighAccuracyinDrillingMachine:
 Thefirststepistheproperclampingoftheworkpiece.
 ProperlygroundDrill.
 Oneshouldensurethattheaxisofthespindle,sleeve,andtoolmustcoincide.
 UseofRigidMachinetool.
 Oneshouldensurethatthedirectionallystabletoolfeedisusedforcarryingoutthedrillingoperati
on.
 Oneshoulduseappropriateguidebushesfortheguidanceofdrills.
MODULE6:VARIOUSMETALJOINING
OPERATIONS

1.Soldering
Solderingisaprocessofjoiningtwopiecesofmetalsheetsbytheadditionoffillermetalwithameltingtem
peraturebelow450°C.Thesolderingmaterialusedinthesolderingprocessiscalledsolder,whichismade
upofanalloyoftinandlead.

Thefluxmaterialisalsousedinthesolderingprocess,andismadeupofzincchlorideandammoniumchlori
de.Thefunctionoffluxistopreventthemoltensoldertowetandflowintothejoint.Generally,soldersareus
edinvariouscompositionsdependingonthetypeofjoint.

Thestrengthofthesolderingjointdependsuponthestrengthofthealloysanditsadhesivequalities.Afters
oldering,theresiduesoffluxshouldberemovedbywashingthoroughlywithwatertoavoidcorrosion.The
strengthofthesolderingjointisrelativelylow.Solderingiscommonly usedinelectricandelectronicappl
ications,Sheetmetalworkwireterminals,sealingofmetalcontainersandsimilar smallparts.

TypesofSoldering

a.Softsoldering-Itisusedinsheet-
metalworkforjoiningpartsthatarenotexposedtohightemperaturesandarenotsubjectedtoextremeload
sandforces.Softsolderingisalsousedforjoiningwiresandsmallcomponents.Thesolder,whichismostly
composedofleadandtin,hasameltingrangeof150to350°C.Asuitablefluxisalwaysusedinsoftsoldering
.Itsfunctionistopreventoxidationofthesurfacestobesolderedortodissolveoxidesthatsettledonthemet
alsurfacesduringthehealingprocess.Althoughcorrosive,Zincchlorideisthemostcommonsolderingfl
ux.

b.HardorSilversoldering-
Itemployssolderwhichmetalathighertemperaturesandarestrongerthanthoseusedinsoftsoldering.Sil
versolderingisahardsolderingmethod,andsilvermixedwithtinisutilizedasasolder.Thetemperatureso
fthevarioushardsoldervaryfromabout600to900°.Thefluxesaremostlyinpasteformandareappliedtoth
ejointwithabrushbeforeheating.Inhardsoldering,theequipmentusedisablowtorch.
Thedifferentcompositionsofsolderfordifferentpurposesareasfollows:

1. Softsolder-lead37%,tin63%.
2. Mediumsolder-lead50%,tin%.
3. Plumber’ssolder-lead70%,tin30%.
4. Electrician’ssolder-lead58%,tin42%

c.Brazing-
Thesetypesofsolderingmetaluseaveryhighermeltingpointthanthemetalsusedinhardandsoftsolderin
g.However,itissimilartohardsoldering;themetalbeingbondedisheatedasopposedtomelting.Oncebot
hmaterialsaresufficientlyheated,youcanthensetthesolderingmetalbetweenthemwhichmeltsandacts
asabondingagent.Duringbrazingnoforgingactionispresentandalsotheparentmetalpartsdonotmelt.

Solderingwithacopperbit(solderingiron)
Solderingbitismadeupofcopper.Thisisbecause:

1. Copperhassufficientheatenergyandiscapableoftransferringheatenergytothejointbei
ngsoldered.
2. Copperhashighthermalconductivity
3. Coppercanbereadily‘wetted’or‘tinned’withmoltensolder.

DifferencesbetweenWelding,SolderingandBrazing

i.Strength

 Weldingjointsarethestrongestjointsusedtobeartheload.Strengthoftheweldedportionofjointis
usuallymorethanthestrengthofbasemetal.
 Solderingjointsareweakestjointsoutofthree.Notmeanttobeartheload.Usetomakeelectricalco
ntactsgenerally.
 Brazingjointsareweakerthanweldingjointsbutstrongerthansolderingjoints.Thiscanbeusedto
beartheloaduptosomeextent.

ii.Temperature

 Welding:Temperaturerequiredis3800°Cinweldingjoints.
 Soldering:Temperaturerequirementisupto450°Cinsolderingjoints.
 Brazing:Temperaturemaygoto600°Cinbrazingjoints.
iii.HeatingofWorkPieces

 Welding: Tojoinworkpiecesneedtobeheatedtilltheirmeltingpoint.
 Soldering: Heatingoftheworkpiecesisnotrequired.
 Brazing:Workpiecesareheatedbutbelowtheirmeltingpoint.

iv.ChangeinMechanicalProperties

 Welding: Mechanicalproperties ofbasemetalmaychangeatthejointduetoheatingandcooling.

 Soldering: Nochangeinmechanicalpropertiesafterjoining.
 Brazing:Maychangeinmechanicalpropertiesofjointbutitisalmostnegligible.

v.HeatTreatment

 Welding: Heattreatmentisgenerallyrequiredtoeliminateundesirableeffectsofwelding.
 Soldering: Noheattreatmentisrequired.
 Brazing:Noheattreatmentisrequiredafterbrazing.

vi.PreheatingofWorkpiece

 Welding: Nopreheatingofworkpieceisrequiredbeforeweldingasitiscarriedoutathightempera
ture.
 Soldering: Preheatingofworkpiecesbeforesolderingisgoodformakinggoodqualityjoint.
 Brazing:Preheatingisdesirabletomakestrongjointasbrazingiscarriedoutatrelativelylowtemp
erature.

2.Welding
Weldingisaprocessofjoiningtwopiecesofmetalsbyheatingthem.Nowadaysweldingisusedinalmostal
ltheindustriessinceitistheeasiestandrapidmethodofjoiningthemetals.

WeldingApplications
Itisusedinjoiningmetalsinfollowingfields:

(a)Infabricationoftanks,vessels,boilers.
(b)Inautomobileindustry.
(c)Instructuralwork,i.e.,tofabricatetrusses,frames.
(d)Inpipelinefabrication.
(e)Inshipbuilding,motorbuildingi.e.,ingeneral,inallthetypesofjoiningmetals,weldingisused.

AdvantagesofWeldingInclude:
  Producesstrongerjointsthanbrazingorsoldering
 Producesweldedjointsthatarebettersuitedforhigh-temperatureapplications
 Beingabletojointhinandthicksectionsofmetal(dependingonprocesstype)

DisadvantagesofWeldingInclude:

 Producinggreaterthermaldistortionandresidualstressesinthejointcomparedtosolderingandbr
azing
 Requiringapost-
processingheattreatmenttorelievejointresidualstress(dependingonapplicationandprocess)
 Onlybeingabletojoinsimilarbasematerials(formostprocesses,butnotall).

3.Riveting
Rivetingisametaljoiningprocessinwhichthetwometallicpartsarejoinedbytheuseofrivets.Therivetco
nsistsofacylindricaltube,knownasarod,whichhasaheadtoitsendthatcanhavedifferentshapes.Theseh
eadshavealargerdiameterthantherestoftherivetsothatthiscanbeinsertedintoaholeandcanbefitted.Riv
etingisusedindifferentsectorssuchastheautomotiveorindustrialsectorstofixresistant,rigidandfixedm
etalparts.Itisalsousedinaerospaceindustryandinmanyotherapplicationswherewerequirepermanent/
semi-
permanentbondingandwhereboltingandweldingisnotanoption.Itismostlycarriedoutonlowthickness
sheetmetalsandAluminium.Inthisprocess,themetallicpartstobejoineddonotundergoanychangeinthe
irphysicalstructureoratomicstructure.HoweverForceisrequiredforriveting.Rivetingisusedwidelyin
automobileandaerospaceindustryandinmanyotherapplicationswherewerequirepermanent/semi-
permanentbondingandwhereboltingandweldingisnotanoption.

4.MechanicalFasteners
Mechanicaljoiningisaprocessforjoiningpartsthroughclampingorfasteningusingscrews,boltsorrivet
s.Advantagesofmechanicaljoiningincludeversatility,easeofuse,andtheoptiontodismantletheproduc
tincaseswhereregularmaintenancerequiresit.Theabilitytojoindissimilarmaterialsisanotherbenefit.A
drawbackofusingmechanicaljoiningisthelackofacontinuousconnectionbetweenparts,becausethejoi
ntisachievedthroughdiscretepoints.Also,holescreatedforjoiningarevulnerabletofracturesandcorrosi
on.
MODULE7:WOODWORKINGTOOLSAND
OPERATIONS

MARKINGANDMEASURINGTOOLS

1.Carpenters’foldingrule

Thisisawoodenscaleusedformeasuringandsettingoutdimensions.Itconsistsoffourpieceseach15cml
onghingedattheendstomakefolding.Whenopenedoutitstotallengthis60cm.

2Straightedge
Thestraightedgeisamachinedflatpieceofwoodormetalusedfortestingthetruenessofsurfaces.

3Trysquare

Trysquaresareusedforavarietyofpurposeslikemeasuringandsettingoutdimensions,testingflatness,dr
awingparallellinesatrightanglestoaplanesurfaceandcheckingsquarenessoftwoadjacentsurfaces.Atr
ysquareconsistsofasteelbladewithawoodenorcastironstock.Sizesvaryfrom150to300mmaccordingt
othelengthoftheblade.Thebladeisgraduatedtoserveasascale.

4Gauges

Gaugesareveryimportantcarpentrytoolsusedformarkingandforcutting.Agaugeessentiallyconsistsof
asmallsquareorrectangularwoodenstemslidinginawoodenstock.Thestemcarriesoneormoresteelmar
kingpointsoracuttingknife.Thegaugeisthenheldfirmlyagainstaplannedsurfaceandpushedalongtoget
therequiredmarkings.

Thethreecommonlyusedgaugesaremarkinggauge,mortisegaugeandcuttinggauge.

Themarkinggaugehasonemarkingpoint.Itgivesanaccuratecutlineparalleltoatrueedge,usuallyalongt
hegrain.Themortisegaugehastwomarkingpointsonefixedneartheendofthestemandtheotherattachedt
oaslidingbar.Thetwoteethcuttwoparallellines,calledmortiselinesneededforjointsetc.
Thecuttinggaugeissimilartoamarkinggaugebutinsteadofamarkingpinitconsistsofasteelcuttingknife
heldinpositionbyawedge.Thewedgeenablesthedepthofcuttobevaried.Thisgaugeisusedforcuttingpa
rallelstripsofthinsheetsofwoodupto3mmthick,forgaugingfinedeeplinesandcuttingsmallrebates.

CUTTINGTOOLS

5Saws:

Allthesawsusedinwoodworkingessentiallyconsistoftwomainparts-
thebladeandthehandle.Thebladecarriesthecuttingteethandismadeofsteel.Thehandleismadeofwood
andisusedforholdingthebladeandapplyingpressure.Theteethofthesawaregivenasettopreventthesaw
frombindingduringthesawingoperation.

Thesawsareclassifiedaspushcutsawsorpullcutsawsdependinguponwhethertheycutintheforwardstro
keorinthereturnstroke.Pushcutsawsareinmorecommonusethanpullcutsaws.

Sawsaregenerallyspecifiedbythelengthoftheblademeasuredalongthetoothededgeandpitchofteethex
pressedinmillimeters.

Thecommontypesofsawsusedinwoodworkingarethefollowing:

a. RipSaw

Ripsawsareusedforcuttingalongthegrainsinthickwood.Thebladeisabout120to200mmwideneartheh
andleandabout60to100mmnearthetip.Thecuttingactionstartsfromnearthetipandgraduallythewholel
engthisinvolved.Thelengthofthebladeisabout700mmandthetoothpitch5to8mm.
b. HandSaw

Thecrosscutorhandsawisdesignedprimarilyforcuttingacrossthegrainsbutisusedasageneral
purposesawinwoodworking.Itsbladeis500to700mmlong.Abladewithfinerpitchispreferred
forhardwoodandthathavingcoarsepitchforsoftwood.Thissawcanbeusedforcuttingalongthe
grainsbutisslowcomparedtoripsaw.

c. CompassSaw:

Thissawhasanarrowtaperingbladeabout250to400mmlongfixedtoanopenwoodenhandle.Iti
susedforcuttingcurvesinconfinedspaces.Thebladeisquiteflexibleandcanthusbeeasilyusedf
ortakingstraightorcurvedcutsontheinsideoroutsidesurfacesoftheworkpiece.Compasssaws
arecommerciallyavailableintwodesignsonewithafixedbladeandtheotherinwhichthreeinter
changeablebladesofdifferentwidthscanbefitted.

d. TennonorbackSaw
Morecommonlyusedforcross-
cuttingwhenafinerandmoreaccuratefinishisrequired.Bladebeingverythin,israinforcedwitharigidste
elback.Bladesareof250to400mmlongwith13teethper25mm.

6Chisels

Alargevarietyofchiselsisusedincarpentryworkforremovingwoodvaryingfromveryfineshavingsrem
ovedbyhandpressuretothicksectionsremovedwiththehelpofamallet.

Chiselshaveforgedsteelbladesfittedintowoodenhandlesandarespecifiedbytheshapeandwidthoftheb
lade.

Thefourcommontypesofchiselsarefollowing

i. FirmerChisel:Thischiselhasaflatbladeabout100to150mmlongand3to5mmthick.Itisthemo
stgeneralpurposechisel.Itisusedbyhandpressureormalletdependingontheamountofmaterial
toberemoved.Widthvariesfrom3to50mm.
ii. BevelledEdgeFirmerChisel:Alsoknownasdovetailchiselthistypeofchiselhasbevelededge
sasshown.Thebevelingoftheedgesreducesthethicknessofthechiselatthesidesenablingittoen
tersharpcornersandfinishthem.Thischiselisusedforfineanddelicatework
iii. ParingChisel:Firmerandbevelededgefirmerchiselswhenmadewithlongthinbladeareknow
nasparingchisels.Suchchiselsaregenerallymanipulatedbyhandandare5to50mmwideand22
5to500mmlong.
iv. MortiseChisel:Thistypeofchiselisusedfortakingheavyanddeepcutsresultinginmorestockr
emovalasinmakingmortises.Itismadewithaheavybladewithgenerousshoulderorcollartowit
 hstandthelargerforceofthemalletblows.Bladesvaryinwidthfrom3to16mm.Thebladethickn
essisform6to15mm.

7Axe

Theaxeconsistsofasteelheadandawoodenhandle.Itisusedforremovingthebacketc.fromthewoodandf
orsplittingthelogs.

PLANNINGTOOLS

Inthepastallplanesweremadeoutofhighqualitywoodbutmetalplaneshavenowreplacedwoodenplanes
.Ascomparedtowoodenplanesmetalplanesaremoreefficient,canbeusedwithgreatercontrol,canbeeas
ilyadjustedandgivebetterfinish.Theplanesmorecommonlyusedincludethefollowing:

8WoodenJackPlane

Ajackplaneisthefirstplaneusedontimberfortrueingit.Itconsistsofablockofwoodorstockintowhichthe
bladeisfixedwithawoodenwedge.Thebottomfaceofthestockcalledsoleismadeperfectlysmoothandle
vel.

Theblademadeofhighcarbonsteelisfixedat45degreestothesoleandisheldinpositionbyataperedwood
enwedge.Anotherbladeisfixedonthecuttingblockbetweenthebladeandthewedge.Thisdoesnotdoany
cuttingbutonlysupportsthecuttingbladeandpreventsshattering.Italsohelpsinbreakingtheshavingsast
heyareproducedbymakingthemcurl.Jackplanesare350to425mmlongwithblades50to75mmwide.
9MetalJackPlane

Metaljackplanesservethesamepurposeaswoodenjackplanesbutfacilitateasmootheroperationandbett
erfinish.Thebodyofametalplaneismadefromagrayironcastingwiththesidesandsolemachinesandgro
undtoabrightfinish.Thethicknessoftheshavingremovedisgovernedbyafinescrewadjustmentandalat
eraladjustmentleverisusedforadjustingthebladeatrightangles.

Otherplanes:

i. Tryingplane:Aheavyplaneusedinsmoothingtheedgesofroughlyplanedwood.
ii. Smoothingplane:Smallinsizeandusedforsmoothingandfinishing.
iii. Rebateplane:Formakingrecessalongtheedgeofthewoodpiece.
iv. Ploughplane:Formakingsmallgrooveswherepanelfittingisrequired.

BORINGTOOLS

Boringtoolsareneededfrequentlyformakingroundholesinwood.Theyareselectedaccordingtothetype
andpurposeofthehole.

10.Springbit:Springbitisusedfordrillingholesnotlargerthan5mmindiameter.Itmaybedriveninbyaha
mmerorwithanoscillatorymotionofthehand.Itischieflyusedformakinglead-
holesforlargenailsorscrews.

11Brace
Usedforholdingandturningbitforboringholes.Itmaybearatchetorwheelbracetype.

12Gimlet

Agimletisasmallerformofaugerandisusedforproducingsmallholes.Itisoperatedinthesamewayasthea
uger.

13AugerBit
Anaugerbitasmentionedearlierisasmallauger.Ithasascrewpointandahelicalortwistedstem.Thisbitpr
oduceslong,cleanandaccurateholesfrom6to35mmdiameteralongoracrossthegrains.Sincethewholeb
odyofthebitisfluted,removalofshavingsiseasierandassuchthisbitisextremelyusefulfordrillingdeeph
oles.

14CountersinkBit

Thisbitisusedformakingconicaldepressionstoreceivescrewsetc.Thisbitisalsoknownasarosebit.

STRIKINGTOOLS

Strikingorimpellingtoolsareusedfordrivingchiselsandnailsintothewoodandforassemblywork.Thet
wotypesofstrikingtoolsusedforwood-workingare(i)malletand(ii)hammer.

15Mallet

Amalletisasmallwoodenhammerofroundorrectangularcrosssection.Itismadeofhardwood.Amalletis
usedtogivelightblowstothecuttingtoolswithwoodenheadssuchaschiselsandgouges.

16Hammers:Twotypesofhammersarenormallyusedinwoodworking:crosspeenhammerandthecla
whammer.Thecrosspeenhammerisusedforlightbenchwork.Ithascaststeelheadwiththefaceandpeenb
eingtempered.Thehandleismadeofeitherwoodorbamboo.Thesehammersarespecifiedbysizenumber
andrangefrom200gm.to550gm.

Theclawhammerinadditiontobeingusedasahammer,canalsobeusedforpullingoutbentnailsandforthi
sreasonitispreferredbythewoodworkers.Thesehammersareavailableinfoursizesweighing375,450,5
50and675gm.

HOLDINGANDSUPPORTINGTOOLS:

Thiscategoryoftoolsisusedforholdingand/
orsupportingthejobduringoperation.Foraccurateworkthejobmustbeproperlyheldandsupportedagai
nsttheforcesbeingappliedtocutorshapeit.Thecommonlyusedtoolsinthiscategoryincludethefollowin
g:

17WorkBench

Theworkbenchisaheavyrigidtablemadeofhardwood.Itisusually3to3.65meterslong.0.7mwideand0.
7mhigh.Twoorfourcarpenter’svisesarefittedonoppositesidesofthebenchtoholdjobs.Racksmaybepr
ovidedinthetableforstoringtools,finishedjobsandotherequipment.
18BenchVice

Thebenchvisemostcommonlyusedforwoodworkinghasonejawfixedtothesideofthetablewhiletheoth
ercanbemovedbymeansofascrew.Thescrewworksinsideafixedhalfnutandisoperatedwithahandle.T
heinsidesurfacesofthejawsarefittedwithwoodenlinerstopreventscratchingoftheworkpiecesurfaces
whentheyareclamped.

19BenchStop

Thebenchstopissimplyablockofwoodprojectingabovethetopsurfaceofthebench.Thisisusedtopreve
ntthewoodfromslidingforwardduringplanning.

20BarCramp
ThebarorsashcrampismadeupofasteelbarofrectangularorT-
sectionwhichcarriesascrewinside.Thebarcrampisusedforholdingwideworkpiecessuchasdoorframe
s.

21CrampsandScrews

Crampsandscrewsofvarioustypesandsizesarecommonlyusedbywoodworkersforholdingoddshape
workpieces.TwoofthemostcommononesaretheC-Clampandhandscrew.

MISCELLANEOUSTOOLS:

Raspsandfiles

Theyareusedforcleaningcurvedsurfaces.

Pincer
Itismakingusedforpullingoutnails,tacksetc.

Screwdrivers

Theyareusedforscrewingorunscrewingscrewusedinwood.Screwdriversusedforcarpentryworkarea
vailablewithlonghandlesandstrongnose

OPERATIONSOFBASICWOODWORKINGMACHINES
Althoughtherearemanytypesofhandtoolsthatweusewhilewoodworking,mostjobswouldbedifficultt
ocompletewithoutusingatleastonewoodworkingmachine. Therearevarioustypesofwoodworkingm
achinesavailable. Thesewoodworkingmachinesfallundertwobasiccategories,handheldpowertools,
andstationarymachines.

Woodworkingmachinesaresomeofthemostimportanttoolsforworkingwoodworkers.Althoughwood
workingtraditionallywasdoneallbyhandandsomepeoplestilldo,woodworkingmachinesareacriticalp
artofthetrade.Inthislistwe’llcoverthedifferenttypesofwoodworkingmachinesthatareavailable,atleas
tthemostcommonmachines.

DifferentTypesofWoodworkingMachines
A.HANDHELDPOWERTOOLS

1.ElectricDrill
Theelectricdrillconsistsofamotorenclosedinabodythatalsoformsthehandle.Achuckontheendofthefr
ameholdsdifferentdrillsandbitstodrillholesanddrivescrews.

Agooddrillmachinewillhavetheoptionofvaryingitsspeed.Electricdrillscomewithapowercordorthey
maybecordless.

2.JigSaw

Jigsawisusedtocutirregularcurves.Itconsistsofanelectricmotorthatdrivesareciprocatingblade,which
meansthattheblademovesinaforward-
backwarddirection.Theunithasahandleandflatguidewhichslidesoverthesurfaceofthewood,enabling
youtomovethebladeinvaryingdirectionstocutvariousshapes.

3HandheldElectricPlane
Thishandheldpowertooldoesthejobofsmoothingthesurfaceofwoodjustasahandplanedoes.Italsohasa
shoeorsoleplateoverwhichitrides.Thedifferenceisthatanelectricmotorpowersthehandheldelectricpl
ane.Youcanadjustthedepthofthecut.

4NailGun

Anailgun,alsocalledanailer,enablesustodrivenailsintowoodandothermaterials.Itdoestheworkofaha
mmer,butinafractionofthetimeandwithmuchlesseffort.Thenailgunmaybespring-
loaded,oritcouldbepoweredbycompressedair,gas-
poweredbypropaneorbutane,ormagnetism.Somenailgunsusetheforcecreatedbydetonatingasmallex
plosivecharge.

5HandheldSanders

Thevariationsinhandheldsandersincludeorbitalsander,beltsander,andrandomorbitsanderfixedmach
ines.Asanderenablesustofinishsurfaceswithsandpaper,muchfasterthandoingitbyhand.Itconsistsofa
discdrivenbyanelectricmotorthatrotatesathighspeed.Withtheprovisionofattachingadiscofsandpape
r,wecanfixdiscsofsandpaperofdifferentroughness,toimpartasmoothfinishtoawoodensurface.

Manyelectricdrillshaveasanderattachment,enablingyourelectricdrilltodoubleupasasander.

6Router
Thishandheldpowertoolenablesustohollowoutsectionsinwoodandothermaterials.Therouterlooksso
mewhatlikeahandheldsander,havingacircularbladelikeasander.Woodworkersconsidertherouterone
ofthemostversatiletoolsinthefieldofwoodworking.

B.STATIONARYMACHINES

7TableSaw

Theothernamesofatablesawaresawbenchandbenchsaw.Anelectricmotordrivesacircularsaw.Aporti
onofthecircularbladeprojectsthroughthesurfaceofatabletop.Theworkpieceslidesalongaguideonthet
abletopoverthesawtogetshaped.Wecanadjusttheheightofthecircularbade.Thismachineishandyforro
ughsizingofwoodenplanksandbeams.

8WoodLathe

Wecalltheprocessofworkingonawoodlathe“woodturning.”Thewoodlathe,muchliketheregularlathe
forturningmetal,enablesustoshapewood.Thelathehasachuckthatrotatesonabelt-
drivencentralaxis.Theendthatholdstheworkpieceisthe“headstock.”Anelectricmotordrivesthisaxis.
A“center”holdstheworkpieceattheoppositesideofthechuck,commonlyknownasthe“tailstock.”

Astheworkpiecespins,wecanshapeitbyholdingachiselagainstitsspinningsurface.Oncetheworkpiece
getsthedesiredshape,weusuallyrunapieceofsandpaperoverthestill-
rotatingworkpiecetogiveitasmoothfinish.

9Jointer

Weuseajointertocreateaflatsurfaceacrossthelengthofaboard.Theothernamesforthejointerare“plane
r,”“surfaceplaner,”“buzzer,”or“flattop.”

Ajointerpreparestheedgesofboardsforthemtobejoinedtoeachotherasinbuttjointsoriftheyaretobeinte
gratedintopanels.

10Bandsaw

Thiswoodworkingmachinetracesitshistorybacktotheearlynineteenthcentury.Abandsaw,asthename
suggests,isaflexiblesaw-
toothedbladethatcomesintheformofaband.Thisbandfitsovertwoormorewheels,drivenbyelectricmot
ors.Thebladepassesverticallythroughaslotintheworkbenchsurface.Theworkpieceslidesagainstthem
ovingbladetogetcut.

Bandsawsareanintegralpartofanytimbermill.Ithasmanyvariations,andyoucanevenfindautomatedba
ndsaws,wherethefeedisautomaticratherthanmanual.Itenablesasingleoperatortooperateseveralband
sawssimultaneously.

Safetyprecautionstofollowwhenusingwoodworkingtoolsandm
achines
I. Alwayswearsafetyglassesorgoggles,orafaceshield,weardustmaskswhenrequired,wearheari
ngprotectionthatissuitableforthelevelandfrequencyofthenoiseyouareexposedtointhewoodw
orkingarea.Ifyouhavetroublehearingsomeonespeakfromthreefeetaway,thenoiselevelfromt
hemachineistoohigh.Damagetohearingmayoccur.
II. Useglovestoprotecthandsfromsplinterswhenhandlingwoodbutdonotwearthemnearrotating
bladesandothermachinerypartswheretheglovescancatch,wearprotectivefootwearwhenrequi
red.
III. Makesuretheguardisinposition,isingoodworkingcondition,andguardsthemachineadequatel
ybeforeoperatinganyequipmentormachine.Checkandadjustallothersafetydevices.
IV. Makesuretheequipmentisproperlygroundedbeforeuse.Alsocheckthatkeysandadjustingwre
nchesareremovedfromthemachinebeforeturningonthepower.
V. Inspectstockfornails,staples,looseknotsorotherdefectsbeforecutting,planing,routingorcarry
ingoutsimilaractivities.
VI. Makesurethatallmachineshavestartandstopbuttonswithineasyandconvenientreachofanoper
ator.Startbuttonsshouldbeprotectedsothataccidentalcontactwillnotstartthemachine.Acollar
aroundthebutton3to6mm(1/8to1/4inch)abovethebuttonisrecommended.
VII. Ensurethatallcuttingtoolsandbladesareclean,sharp,andingoodworkingordersothattheywillc
utfreely,notforced.
VIII. Turnthepoweroffandunplugthepowercordbeforeinspecting,changing,cleaning,adjustingorr
epairingabladeoramachine.Alsoturnthepoweroffwhendiscussingthework.
IX. Usea"pushstick"topushmaterialintothecuttingarea.Jigsarealsousefulinkeepinghandssafedu
ringcuttingprocedures.Keephandsoutofthelineofthecuttingblade.
X. Clampdownandsecureallworkpieceswhendrilling,sanding,cuttingormilling.
XI. Usegoodlightingsothattheworkpiece,cuttingblades,andmachinecontrolscanbeseenclearly.P
ositionorshadelightingsourcessotheydonotshineintheoperator'seyesorcauseanyglareandrefl
ections.
 XII. Ensurethatthefloorspacearoundtheequipmentissufficienttoenableyoutomachinethesizeofw
orkpiecebeingprocessedsafelywithoutbumpingintootherworkersorequipment.
XIII. Woodworkingmachinesshouldbefittedwithefficientandwell-
maintainedlocalexhaustventilationsystemstoremovesawdustorchipsthatareproduced.
XIV. Electricpowercordsshouldbeaboveheadlevelorinthefloorinsuchawaythattheyarenottripping
hazards.
XV. Keepworkareafreeofclutter,clean,wellswept,andwelllit.Spillsshouldbecleanedupimmediat
ely.Floorareasshouldbelevelandnon-
slip.Goodhousekeepingpracticesandworkplacedesignwillreducethenumberofinjuriesandac
cidentsfromslips,trips,andfalls.
XVI. Keeptheareafreefromwaterandmoisture.Donotuseelectricalequipmentoutdoorsintherain.
XVII. Alwayskeepyourattentiononthework.Forexample,ifyoumusttalktoanotherperson,turnoffth
eequipmentfirst.

MODULE8:REAMINGOPERATIONS
Drilling,boringandreamingandthreecommonprocessesperformedbymanufacturingcompanies.Allt
hreeprocessesinvolve,tosomedegree,creatinganewholeormodifyinganexistingholeinaworkpiece.
Mostpeoplearefamiliarwithdrilling,although,manyareunfamiliarwithboringandreaming.Thismodu
lewillbreakdownthedifferencesbetweenthesethreeprocesses.

Drilling
Drillingisacuttingprocessthatinvolvestheuseofadrillbittocutacircular-
shapeholeinaworkpiece.Thedrillbitusedindrillingisatypeofrotarycuttingtoolthat,likeotherrotarycut
tingtools,rotateswhilesubsequentlyscrapingmaterialoutoftheworkpiece.Todrillaworkpiece,amanuf
acturingcompanymustpressthedrillbitagainsttheworkpiece.Whenthedrillisactivated,thedrillbitwill
digitswayintotheworkpiecewhilecreatingacircular-shapedholeintheprocess.

It’sacommonassumptionthatdrillingcanonlybeperformedonsoftmaterialslikewood.Manydrillingpr
ocessesdo,infact,involvewoodenworkpieces,butothersinvolveworkpiecesmadeofhardermaterials,i
ncludingmetal.Aslongasthedrillbitisharderthantheworkpiece,itwillscrapeoutmaterialtocreateacirc
ular-shapedhole.

Boring
Boringisacuttingprocessthatinvolvestheuseofasingle-
pointcuttingtoolorboringheadtoenlargeanexistingholeinaworkpiece.Thisisinstarkcontrasttodrilling
,whichisperformedtocreateaninitialholeinaworkpiece.
Boringprocessesaretypicallyperformedusingalathe,millingmachineorahorizontalboringmill.Each
machineusesadifferentmechanism,buttheyarealldesignedtoenlargeanexistingholeinaworkpiece—
andthat’sthedefiningcharacteristicofboring.Whiledrillingisperformedtocreateaninitialholeinawork
piece,boringisperformedtoenlargeanexistingholeinaworkpiece.

Reaming
Reamingisdefinedasamachiningprocessthatusesamulti-
edgedflutedcuttingtooltosmooth,enlargeoraccuratelysizeanexistinghole.Reamingisperformedusin
gthesametypesofmachinesasdrilling.Therotarycuttingtoolusedinreamingisknownasareamer.Liked
rillbits,reamersalsoremovematerialfromtheworkpieceonwhichtheyareused.However,reamersremo
vesignificantlylessmaterialthandrillbits.Theprimarypurposeofreamingissimplytocreatesmoothwal
lsinanexistinghole.Manufacturingcompaniesperformreamingusingamillingmachineordrillpress.

DifferencesbetweenDrilling,BoringandReaming
Drilling
Drillingisperformedtooriginate
aholeonasolidsurface.
Cuttingtoolusedindrillingopera
tioniscalledDrill.
Metalcuttingdrillusuallyconsis
tsoftwocuttingedges.Sodrillisc
onsideredasadoublepointcuttin
gtool.
Drillingisthefirststepofholema
king.Afterdrillingeitherboring
orreamingcanbecarriedoutdepe
ndingontherequirement.
Thelengthofaholecanbeeasilyi
ncreasedbydrillingoperation.
Surfaceofadrilledholeisnothigh
lyfinished(i.e.highsurfaceroug
hness).
MaterialRemovalRate(MRR)i
ndrillingissignificantlyhigher.
Boring
Boringisperformedtoenlargeth
ediameterofanexistinghole.
Cuttingtoolusedforboringiskno
wnasboringbar.
Boringbarisconsideredasasingl
epointcuttingtool.
Apre-
drilledholeorahollowportionis
mandatoryforperformingborin
g.
Boringcanincreasethediameter
ofanexistingholebutnotlength
Here,surfacequalityisbettertha
ndrilling.
MaterialRemovalRate(MRR)i
nlowerthandrillingbuthigherth
anreaming.
Reaming
Reamingisperformedtofinishin
ternalsurfaceofanexistinghole.
Cuttingtoolusedinreamingoper
ationiscalledReamer.
Reamercontainslargenumberof
cuttingedges(minimum4).Sore
amerisamulti-pointcuttingtool.
Neitherdiameternorlengthcanb
eincreasedsubstantiallybyream
ing.
Axiallengthoftheholecannotbe
alteredbyreaming.Onlydiamet
eroftheholecanbeincreasedslig
htly.
Reamingproduceshighlyfinish
edsurface.
MRRispoor;infact,MRRisnota
nissueinreaming.
TheReamingProcess
Reamingisafrequentunitprocessinmanufacturingasamassreductionstep,usedforenlargingandaccura
telysizedexistingholebymeansofmultiflutedcuttingtool.Reamingremovesaminimalamountofmater
ialandisoftenperformedafterdrillingtoobtainbothamoreaccuratediameterandasmootherinternalfinis
h.

Itisamachiningprocessinwhichalightcuttoimprovetheaccuracyofaroundholeandenlargesanexisting
holetothediameterofthetoolbymeansofarotarymultiflutedcuttingtooltypicallyaidedbycuttingfluids.
Asthereamerisrotatedandadvancedaxiallyintotheworkpiece,materialisremovedintheformofchips.C
hipsareproducedwithintheworkpieceandmoveindirectionoppositetoaxialmovementofthereamer.F
orsoftmetals,areamertypicallyremovesaminimumof0.2mm(0.008in.)onthediameterofadrilledhole;
forhardermetals,about0.13mm(0.005in.)isremoved.Consequently,chipdisposalinreamingandtheef
fectivenessofcuttingfluidsareimportant.Generally,reamingisdoneusingadrillpress.However,lathes,
machiningcentersandsimilarmachinescanbeusedaswell.Theworkpieceisfirmlyheldinplacebyeither
avice,chuckorfixturewhilethereameradvances.

Therearetwomaintypesofreamers:handreamersandmachinereamers.Handreamershaveawrenchtoa
pplytherequiredpressure.Handreamershaveparallelflutes.Reamersusedonmachinessuchasalathe,ha
veflutesthathavealeft-
handspiral.Aninterestingfactabouttheflutesisthattheyarespacedirregularly,asthisreducesthetendenc
yofthereamerto‘chatter’,duringuse.

Wheninuse,the‘bevellead’(seediagram),entersthedrilledholeandpressureisslowlyincreased,whilstt
urningthereamerinaclockwisedirection.Thiswillinitiatecutting.Thefirstfewturnsarethemostdifficul
t,butoncestarted,furthercuttingshouldbeeasy.Thesereamerscanbeusedinblindholes.

Thereisanothercommontypeofreamer,knownasa‘taperedreamer’.Thishasataperformostofitscutting
length,makingitmucheasiertostartcutting.Whenusingthistypeofreamer,itmustberememberedthatth
eparallelpartofthereamerextendsonlyashortdistance(seediagrambelow)andconsequently,thereame
rmustbeuseduntiltheparallelpartofthecuttergoesthroughthehole,beingcuttosize.Taperedreamersare
normallyusedtoproduce‘tapered’holes.Pleasenote:sometaperedreamers,donothaveasectionwhichis
parallel.
Thesquareshankofahandreamer,fitsintoawrench.Inthisexample,ataperedreamerisbeingused.Theta
perentersthedrilledholeandthereamerisrotatedinaclockwisedirection.Thespiralfluteshelptofeedther
eamerintothehole.

Itisimportanttokeepthereamerperfectlystraight,atthesametimeasrotatingit,duringthecuttingprocess
.Ifthereamerisnotheldstraight,thentheholewillnotbestraightwhenfinished.Toensurethereamerishel
dstraight,placeitintheholeandturnitslightlywiththewrenchandthenstop.Standbackfromtheworkand
viewthereamerandwrenchinrelationtothework.Itshouldbestraightintheholeandsquarewiththework.

Whenallcheckshavebeencarriedout,thereamerisrotatedinaclockwisedirection,inasmoothmovemen
t,withasmallamountofpressuredownwards.Donotreversethecut,ashappenswhentappingahole.Oilsh
ouldbeaddedtoeasethecutting.Whencuttingisfinished,continuetorotatethereamerinaclockwisedirec
tionandatthesametime,withdrawitfromthework.

OtherTypesofReamers
1. Chuckingreamerwithparallelortapershank
1. Flutedreamer
2. Rosereamer
2. Machinebridgereamer
3. Machinejigreamer
 4. Parallelhandreamerwithaparallelshank
5. Parallelortapershanksocketheadreamer
6. Shellreamer
7. Taperpinhandormachinereamer
8. Expansionreamer

ApplicationofReamers
Thefollowingaretheapplicationsofreamers:

1. Areamerisatypeofrotarycuttingtoolmostlyusedinmetalworking.
2. Areamerisatoolusedforexpandingorfinishingpre-
drilledholes,bored,orcoredtogiveagoodfinishandanexactdimension.
3. Thereamerisintendedtobeusedinadrillpress,turretlathe.
4. Reamerisalsousedinthescrew-cuttingmachine.

MODULE9:TAPPINGOPERATIONS

TheTappingProcess
Tappinginmanufacturingistheprocessofcuttingathreadinsideahole,whichneedstobedrilledwithtapd
rillandchamferedattheend,usedforscrewsorboltsbeingthreadedintothehole.Tappingprocessisahighl
yefficient,productive,economicalandeasythreadingmethod,especiallyforsmallthreads,itcanalsopro
ducethreadsonnuts.

Tapisthecuttingtoolfortapping,wounddownintoahole,andcutsathreadasitgoes.Therearemanytypeso
ftappingtool,choosetherighttapbasedonwhattypeofholeyouwanttothread.Thetapscanbedividedinto
handtapsandpowertaps.Handtapsarethemostcommontaptypes,includingtapertap,bottomingtapand
plugtap.PowertapsarethetypesthatshouldchooseforCNCapplicationsormanualmachiningwork,incl
udingspiralpointtap(gunnoseorbullnosetap),spiralflutetap(guntap),formorrolltap,andmore.

Whenthetapisscrewedintoahole,itremovesmetalandcutsinternalthreads.Inadditiontocreatingthread
sinnewholes,thisprocesscanalsobeusedtocreatethreadsontheinnersurfaceofnuts.

Watchthevideohere:
https://youtu.be/r0GTLgTPga0

HowtoTaponaLatheMachine

Tappingcanbedoneonthelathemachinebyhandorpowerfeed.Usealowspindlespeedandcuttingfluidis
beneficialfortheprocess.Theprocedureoftappingoperationonthelatheisasfollows:

a. Mountthematerialblankinthechuckandfixit
b. Selectapropertapdrill,faceandcenterthedrill
c. Setthelathetotheproperspeed,drillwiththetaptorequireddepth
d. Chamfertheedgeofthehole

DifferencesBetweenTappingandThreading

1. Tapsanddiesbothcanbeusedasthecuttingtoolstocreatescrewthreads.Theprocessofcuttingthr
eadsusingatapistapping,whiletheprocessusingadieisthreading.
 2. Tappingistheprocessofmainlyproducinginternalthreads,likethethreadsinsideanut,whilethre
adingisaprocessofusuallymakingexternalthreads,suchasthreadsontheoutsideofbolts.
3. Intapping,eachsizeholetobethreadedrequiresdifferentsizetap,butinthreading,asingletoolcan
beusedinthreadmillingtomakeavarietyofholesizes.
4. Tappingdoesnotallowforadjustingthethreadfit,whilethreadinghastheabilitytocontrolthefit
5. Tappingprovidesthespeedadvantages,especiallythehigh-
speedtappingcenterssetupwitharigidtap,whilethreadingcomesinmoreflexibilityandabilityto
adjustthethreadfits.

MODULE10:BASICOPERATIONSON
PLASTICS
Plasticscanbedividedintotwomajorcategories:ThermoplasticandThermosettingPlastics.

THERMOPLASTICS

Thermoplasticsarethelinearpolymers,whichbecomesoftonheatingandbecomehardoncooling.The
moleculesofthesepolymersaresynthesizedintheshapeoflongthreadsandundergonochemicalchange
inthemoldingoperation.Thermoplasticsarelessrigidthanthermosets;thermoplasticscansoftenupo
nheatingandreturntotheiroriginalform.They areeasilymoldedandextrudedintofilms,fibersandpacka
ging.

THERMOSETTINGPLASTICS

ThermosettingPlasticsarecross-
linkedpolymers,whichbecomesoftonlyonfirstheatingwithpressureandgethardpermanentlyoncooli
ngduetochemicalchangesbycondensationandpolymerization,andbecomesunaffectedbytheheatorso
lvents.Oncecooledandhardened,theseplasticsretaintheirshapesandcannotreturntotheiroriginalform
.Theyarehardanddurable.Thermosetscanbeusedforautoparts,aircraftpartsandtyres.

DifferencesBetweenThermoplasticandThermosettingPlastics
S/NO THERMOPLASTICPLASTIC
1. Thermoplasticcanbesynthesizedbytheproc
esscalledadditionpolymerization.
2. Thermoplasticisprocessedbyinjectionmoul
ding,extrusionprocess,blowmoulding,ther
moformingprocess,androtationalmoulding
.
3. Thermoplasticshavesecondarybondsbetwe
enmolecularchains.
THERMOSETTINGPLASTIC
Thermosettingplasticsaresynthesizedbycond
ensationpolymerization.
ThermosettingPlasticisprocessedbycompres
sionmoulding,reactioninjectionmoulding.
Thermosettingplasticshaveprimarybondsbet
weenmolecularchainsandheldtogetherbystro
ngcross-links.

4. Thermoplasticshavelowmeltingpointsandl Thermosettingplasticshavehighmeltingpoint
owtensilestrength. sandtensilestrength.
5. Thermoplasticislowerinmolecularweight,c ThermosettingPlasticishighinmolecularweig
omparedtothermosettingplastic. ht.
6. Theyundergonochemicalchangeinthemold Theyundergochemicalchangeinthemoldingo
ingoperation. peration.
7. Theycanbesoftenedagainandagain. Theycannotbere-softenedoncetheyhard.
8. Theseplasticscanbereused. Theseplasticscannotbereused.
9. Thesearesoftandflexible. Thesearehardandbrittle.
10. Thermoplasticsarenotfireproof. ThermosettingPlasticsarefireproof.

Someexamplesofthermoplasticsarelistedbelow.

 Polystyrene
 Teflon
 Acrylic
 Nylon
 polyethylene(PE),
 polypropylene(PP)
 Polyvinylchloride(PVC).
 Acetate.

Examplesofthermosettingpolymersinclude:

 Vulcanizedrubber
 Bakelite
 Polyurethane
 Epoxyresin
  Vinylesterresin
 polyesters,
 Phenolicresins.

Advantagesofthermoplasticsinclude:

 Adhereswelltometal
 Allowsforqualityaestheticfinishes
 Capableofreshapingaftercuringwithoutmucheffecttomaterialproperties(recyclable)
 Chemicalanddetergentresistant
 Goodelectricalinsulationproperties
 Enhancedanti-slipproperties
 Resistanttoimpact
 Offersoptionsforbothhardenedcrystallineandrubberysurfaces
 Resistanttochipping
 Resistscorrosionwell

Disadvantagesofthermoplasticsinclude:

 Abilitytosoftenwhenheatedmakesitlesssuitableforsomeapplications
 Oftenmoreexpensiveoptionthanthermosettingpolymers
 Commonlyusedthermoplasticpolymersincludepolyvinylchloride(vinylorPVC),polypropyl
ene(PP),polystyrene(PS),polyethylene(PE),polycarbonate(PC)andpolyethylenetheraphtha
late(PET).

Advantagesofthermosettingpolymersinclude:

 Allowsforflexibleproductdesign
 Canbemoldedwithdifferenttolerances
 Capableofvaryingwallthicknesstoimprovestructuralintegrity
 Componentsusuallycostlessthanthosefabricatedfrommetals–
especiallyforlargeequipmentbodypanels
 Excellentelectricalinsulationproperties
 Greaterresistancetohightemperatures
 Highdimensionalstability
 Highlyresistanttocorrosion
 Lowthermalconductivity
 Lowercostsforsetupandtoolingcomparedtothermoplastics
 Offershighstrength-to-weightratiotoimproveproductperformance
  Water-resistant
 Widechoiceforcoloringandsurfacefinishes

Disadvantagesofthermosettingpolymersinclude:

 Canneitherbereshapednorremolded
 Notrecyclable

ApplicationsofThermoplasticPolymers
Thermoplasticscanbefoundinvirtuallyanyindustrywithproductsrangingfrommilkjugstopipingsyste
ms.Asthermoplasticsarecapableofwithstandingcorrosiveconditions,theyworkwellasasubstitutefor
metals,butcannotwithstandhightemperaturesaswellasthermosets.

Applicationsinclude:

 Fabricatingropesorbelts
 Insulatingelectricalcabling
 Liquidstoragetanks
 Protectivecoversforrigidequipment
 Otherindustriesutilizingthermoplasticsincludeconstruction,electronics,medicalandbiomedi
cal,foodandbeverage,chemical,automotive,plumbing,andmanymore.

ApplicationsofThermosettingPolymers
Offeringanexcellentcombinationofchemicalresistance,structuralrobustnessandthermalstability,the
rmosettingpolymersarewidelyusedthroughoutarangeofindustries,astheyofferaneconomicalmeanst
omeetmanyproductionspecifications.Theyareeasilyformedintocomplexgeometricshapesthatfabric
ationofmetalcomponentscannoteasilyachieve,andcomponentsmadeviaRIMandRTMtechniquesall
owforconsiderableconsistencyinthefabricationprocess.

Applicationsinclude:

 Chlorineandotherchemicalgenerationpiping,fittings,orcellcovers
 Electricalormedicalequipmenthousingsandcomponents
 Heavyconstructionortransportationequipmentlikedoors,panels,orhousings
 Livestockfeedingtroughsandotheragriculturalproducts
  Motorvehicleandtractorparts
 Militaryvehiclecomponents

SomeCommonPlastics

Nylon Verystrong,nyloncanbemachinedandwilltakeafinethread.Itisals
oslipperyandcanbeusedtomakewashers,spacersandbushes.

Nylonwasoriginallydevelopedasatextilebutisavailableinmanyfo
rmswithvastlydifferentproperties.Engineeringnylongradesareea
sytomachinewithgoodresistancetobiologicalattack.Unfortunate
lynylonscanabsorbmoisturefromtheatmosphereandcandegradei
nstrongsunlight(theyareunstableinultravioletlight)unlessastabili
zingchemicalisaddedattheinitialmanufactureoftheplastic.Nylon
sareeasytomould.Nylonsalsohaveanatural'oily'surfacethatcanac
tasanaturallubricant.Nylonsareusedforeverythingfromclothesth
roughtogearsandbearings.

Acrylic Comesinarangeofthicknesses,coloursandcanbeopaqueortranspa
rent.Therearetwotypeofacrylicextrudedwhichischeaperandvery
"plastic"andcastwhichmachinesbetterbutisharderandlessflexibl
e.

Acrylicsareavailableinarangeofcoloursandcanbeopaque,translu
centortransparent.Theyareavailableinsheet,rod,andtubeforusein
injectionmoulding,extrusionandvacuumforming.Acrylicswithst
andweatherandarestableinsunlight.Almostanycolourcanbeprod
uced.Transparentacryliccanbeasclearasthefinestopticalglass,thi
sledthemtobeusedinopticalequipmentsuchascameras.Itispossibl
etosignificantlystrengthentheacrylicwhenitisbeingmade,thesehi
ghgradeacrylicsareuseduseforaircraftwindows.

PVCanduPVC
Stiff,hard,toughlightweightplastic.uPVCisstabilisedforoutsideu
seandisusedforplasticwindowsandplasticpipes.PlasticisedPVCi
susedforflexibleapplicationssuchasinsulating-cables.
Polythene Thisplastichasarangeofusesfromfoodpackagingtogaspipes.The
plasticscanbeinjectionmouldedorextrudedandisavailableintwof
orms.High-
densitypolyethylene(HDPE)isahardrigidplastic.Alow-
densitygrade(LDPE)istoughandflexible.

Polypropylene Polypropyleneisatough,cheapplastic;ithasaslightlywaxyfeel.Itc
anbebentrepeatedlywithoutbreaking.UsedforMedicalequipmen
tsuchassyringes,stackingchairs,suitcaseswithintegralhinges,

Polycarbonate Usedformakingeyeprotection,machineguardsandriotshields.Itis
notashardasacrylicandcanbecuteasilybutitwillabsorbimpacts.

Bakelite Athermosettingplastic.Darkbrown.Usedasacompositereinforce
dwithpaperorcloth.Usedtomakecircuitboardsandheatproofinsul
atedpartsintheelectronicsindustry.

Epoxyresin Atwopartmixwhichcanbeusedasaglue(ARALDITE)orbereinfor
cedwithcarbonfibretoproduceaverystrongandlightcompositema
terialswhichisusedinaerospaceandFormula1

Melamine Athermosetverytoughandheatresistant.Whitebutcanbeproduced
inafullrangeofcolours.

PlasticJoiningTechniques
Therearefouressentialtechniques/methodsforjoiningplasticcomponents.Theyare:

1)MechanicalFastening

Mechanicalfastenerssuchasrivets,screws,nutsorpinsrepresentthemostcommonjoiningelements.Th
esefastenersmaybemoldedintoplace,glued,forcedorexpandedintoholes.Inaddition,theymaybeinsert
edwithheatedprobesorwithultrasound.Whenusingmechanicalfasteners,ensurethatboththeplasticco
mponentsandfastenersarestrongenoughtosurvivethepressureappliedduringinstallation.

2)SolventBonding
Insolventbonding,theplasticissoftenedfirstwithacoatingofsolvent.Thetwoplasticscomponentsareth
enclampedtogether.Themoleculesmixtogetherandthecomponentsbondasthesolventdriesandevapor
ates.Thisprocessworkssolelywiththermoplastics.

Thelevelofpressureappliediscritical,astoomuchmaycausethecomponentstodistort.Inaddition,24to4
8hoursatroomtemperatureorseveralhoursatahighertemperaturemaybenecessarytofacilitatethebond
ing.

3)UltravioletBonding

Ultravioletbondingutilizesacuringprocesswithhigh-
intensityultravioletlightingthatinstantlydriesorcuresinks,adhesivesorcoatings.Moreover,UVbondi
ngworksinsecondstobondplasticcomponentsevenwhentheplasticmaterialblocksUVlight.Inadditio
n,plasticadhesivesbondtogetherawidearrayofsubstratesmakingthismethodanefficientwaytobondpl
asticpiecestoothermaterials,suchasceramic,glass,andmetal.Thisprocessprovidesmanyadvantagess
uchasreducedrejectionrates,increasedproductionspeed,improvedsolventandscratchresistance,aswe
llassuperiorbonding.

4)UltrasonicWelding

Thisprocessutilizessonicpulsesthataretransmittedtotheappropriateareawitharesonantvibratingdevi
cecalledahorn.Thehorncausesthetwoplasticcomponentstovibrateagainstoneanother,andthevibratio
nresultsinheatthatfusestheelementstogether.Thus,nosolventsorgluearerequired.Asthehornvibrates,
itstretchesandthenshrinksinlengthbytinyamounts,andthismotioniscalledtheamplitudeofthedevice.