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Computer Networks(CN)
Subject code : CSC501

Module 2 : Physical Layer and Data Link Layer

Subject In-charge
Ms. Gigi Joseph
Assistant Professor(ECS Dept.)
Lab No. 222

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Syllabus
Module
Topic Sub-topics Weightage
no.
• Physical layer: Communication
mechanisms and electromagnetic
spectrum
• Guided transmission Media: Twisted
pair, Coaxial, Fiber optics
Physical
2. and Data ≈ 20 Marks
• Data Link Layer : DLL Design
link Layer
Issues(Services, Framing, Error
Control, Flow Control)
• Error Detection and Correction
(Hamming Code, CRC, Checksum)
Contd…..

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Syllabus
Module
Topic Sub-topics Weightage
no.
• Elementary data link protocols
• Stop and Wait
Physical • Sliding Window(Go Back N, Selective
2. and Data Repeat) ≈ 20 Marks
link Layer • Medium Access Protocol(ALOHA,
Carrier Sense Multiple Access,
CSMA/CD)

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Transmission Media
• Transmission medium can be defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination.

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Types of Transmission Media

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Guided Media
A signal traveling along guided media is directed and contained by the physical
limits of the medium.

Twisted-pair cable
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires in a regular spiral pattern.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used
only as a ground reference.

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Unshielded versus Shielded Twisted-pair cable

Applications
• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
• The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair
cables.
• Local-area networks, such as lOBase-T and lOOBase-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
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Parameters Unshielded Twisted Pair cable(UTP) Shielded twisted pair cable(STP)

Structure Cable with wires that are twisted Twisted pair cable enclosed in foil/shield

Cost Mostly Cheaper than STP Expensive than UTP

weight Lighter Heavier

Installation and
Easy installation and less maintenance Difficult installation and more maintenance
maintenance

Noise and Interference Prone to noise and interference Less prone to noise and interference

Cross talk Generation of crosstalk is high Has very little crosstalk

Data Speed Supports slower speed than on STP Support stable higher speed than UTP
Grounding of cable Not required Required

Target Locations less prone to interference Locations prone to interference like factories and
deployments(Applications) like offices and homes airports

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Coaxial Cable
• has two conductors that are parallel to each other - Copper is utilised as the centre
conductor in this, which can be a solid wire or a normal wire - it is encircled by a PVC
installation, a sheath, and an outside conductor made of metal foil, metal braid, or both.
• outer copper wrapping serves as a noise barrier as well as the second conductor that
completes the circuit- an insulating layer surrounds the outside conductor as well -the
plastic cover on the outside covers the whole cable.

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Coaxial Cable Connectors

• To connect coaxial cable to devices , coaxial connectors are needed such as Bayonet
Neill- Concelman (BNC)

Applications
• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks . Later it was used in digital
telephone networks.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables
• Used in traditional Ethernet LANs .
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Fiber-Optic Cable:
• It is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
• If a ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters another substance , the
ray changes direction

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• Optical fiber use reflection to guide light through a channel .

• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
• The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

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Propagation Modes
• Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating
light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics.

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Fiber Sizes
• Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of
their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.

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Applications
• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is
cost-effective.
• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus
creating a hybrid network.
• Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also
use fiber-optic cable.

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Advantages of Optical Fiber:

• Higher Bandwidth
• Less Signal Attenuation
• Immunity to Electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
• Light weight
• Greater immunity to tapping

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:

• Installation and Maintenance
• Unidirectional light propagation
• Cost

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Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical Fiber Cable

It consists of two insulated copper
wires twisted together in a pair.
Multiple pairs are then combined
to form a cable.
It consists of a central conductor, It consists of thin strands of glass
surrounded by an insulating layer, or plastic called optical fibers,
a metallic shield, and an outer which transmit data using light
insulating layer. signals. The fibers are surrounded
by protective layers.

Signals are transmitted through Transmission of signals takes Signal transmission takes place in
the electrical system through the place in the electrical structure an optical structure over glass
opposing metallic wires. over the inner conductor of the fiber.
cable.
It has a limited transmission It has a longer transmission It has the longest transmission
distance, typically up to a few distance compared to twisted pair distance among the three,
hundred meters. cable, typically up to several spanning several kilometers to
kilometers. tens of kilometers without
requiring signal regeneration.

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Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical Fiber Cable

It offers moderate resistance to Due to the existence of a It is highly immune to EMI since
electromagnetic interference shielding conductor, it has a it transmits data using light
(EMI) due to the twisting of wire higher noise immunity than a signals, which are not affected by
pairs, hence there is increased twisted pair cable. electromagnetic interference.
distortion
It can get affected due to the It is less affected by external It is not affected at all by the
external magnetic field. magnetic field. presence of an external magnetic
field.
A short circuit between the two A short circuit between the two Short circuit is not possible.
conductors is possible. conductors is possible.
It has lower bandwidth and data It offers higher bandwidth and It provides the highest bandwidth
rate compared to coaxial and data rate than twisted pair cable, and data rate among the three,
fiber optic cables. It is suitable making it suitable for higher- making it ideal for high-speed
for lower-speed applications. speed applications. data transmission.

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Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical Fiber Cable

Power loss due to conduction and Power loss due to conduction Power loss due to absorption,
radiation scattering dispersion and
bending.
Node capacity per segment is 2. Node capacity per segment is 30 Node capacity per segment is 2.
to 100.
Attenuation is very high. Attenuation is low. Attenuation is very low.
It is thin, lightweight, and highly It is thicker and less flexible It is thin and flexible, but more
flexible, making it easy to install compared to twisted pair cable. fragile than the other two cable
and maneuver. Installation is relatively easy, but types due to the delicate optical
moderately expensive than fibers. Installation is complicated
twisted pair cables. and quite expensive too.
It is the most cost-effective It is more expensive than twisted It is the most expensive option
option among the three cable pair cable but less expensive than due to the higher cost of
types. fiber optic cable. materials and installation.

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Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical Fiber Cable

Advantages
• Higher Bandwidth
Advantages • Less Signal Attenuation
Advantages
 Cost-effective • Immunity to
 Very durable
 Pliable and easy to install Electromagnetic interference
 Performs best over short
 Performs best over short • Resistance to corrosive
distance
distance materials
• Light weight
• Greater immunity to tapping
Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
 Signal loss over long  Lower durability (must be • Installation and Maintenance
distance routinely maintained) • Unidirectional light
 Speed fluctuations under  Susceptible to EMI propagation
heavy usage  Higher attenuation • Cost
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 The material in this presentation belongs to SIES GST and is solely for educational purposes. Distribution and modifications of the content is prohibited.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can propagate through
space (even in a vacuum).

• The number of oscillations per second of a wave is called its frequency, f, and is
measured in Hz.

• The distance between two consecutive maxima (or minima) is called the wavelength,
which is universally designated by the Greek letter λ (lambda).

• When an antenna of the appropriate size is attached to an electrical circuit, the

electromagnetic waves can be broadcasted efficiently and received by a receiver some
distance away. All wireless communication is based on this principle.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, no matter what their
frequency. This speed, usually called the speed of light, c, is approximately 3 × 108
m/sec.

• The speed of light is the ultimate speed limit. No object or signal can ever move faster
than it.

• The fundamental relation between f, λ, and c (in a vacuum) is

λf = c

• The amount of information that a signal such as an electromagnetic wave can carry
depends on the received power and is proportional to its bandwidth.

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