Non conventional manufacturing

By:- payal Priya

Assistant professor(mechanical department)
p.c.e. purnea
Module 2: mechanical machining process

Ultrasonic machining:-
>Ultrasonic machining is a non-traditional manufacturing process.
>Ultrasonic machining is a machining operation in which a vibrating tool
oscillating at ultrasonic frequencies is used to remove material from the work
piece, aided by abrasive slurry that flows freely between the work piece and the
tool.
>The basic USM process involves a tool (made of a ductile and tough material)
vibrating with a low amplitude and very high frequency and
a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small gap between the tool and the
work piece.
• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
• The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle work
surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the form of small wear
particles.
• The tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a much slower rate.

USM EQUIPMENT:-
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF USM:-
In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultra-
sonic frequency (19 - 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 - 50 _m over
the workpiece. Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force.
Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is ooded with hard
abrasive particles generally in the form of a water based slurry. As the tool
vibrates over the workpiece,these vibrations are transmitted to the abrasive
particles in the slurry via an energy focusing device or horn/tool assembly.
The abrasive particles act as the indenters and indent both the work mate-
rial and the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material,
would remove the same, particularly if the work material is brittle, due to
crack initiation, propagation and brittle fracture of the material. A constant
stream of abrasive slurry passes between the tool and the work to provide
abrasives and carry away fractured particles / chips. Hence, USM is mainly
used for machining brittle materials.

Parameters of Ultrasonic Machining:-

The ultrasonic vibration machining method is an efficient cutting technique for difficult-to-machine
materials. It is found that the USM mechanism is influenced by these important parameters.
➢ Amplitude of tool oscillation(a0)
➢ Frequency of tool oscillation(f)
➢ Tool material
➢ Type of abrasive
➢ Grain size or grit size of the abrasives – d0
➢ Feed force - F
➢ Contact area of the tool – A
➢ Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
➢ Ratio of workpiece hardness to tool hardness; λ=σw/σt

Physical parameters
Abrasive Boron carbide, aluminium oxide and silicon
carbide
Grit size(d0) 100 – 800
Frequency of vibration (f) 19 – 25 kHz
Amplitude of vibration (a) 15 - 50 μm
Tool material Soft steel titanium alloy
Wear ratio Tungsten 1.5:1 and glass 100:1
Gap overcut 0.02-0.1 mm

Material removal rate

USM can be applied to machine nearly all materials; however it is not economical
to use USM for materials of hardness less than 50 HRC. Generally the workpiece
materials are of stainless steel, cobalt-base heat-resistant steels, germanium,
glass, ceramic, carbide, quartz and semiconductors. It is highly useful in the
machining of materials that cannot be machined by any conventional machining
process that are ceramic and glass.
Material removal rate is inversely proportional to the cutting area of the tool.
Tool vibrations also affect the removal rate. The type of abrasive, its size and
concentration also directly affect the MRR Material removal in USM appears to
proceed by a complex mechanism involving both fracture and plastic deformation
to varying degrees, depending on several process variables.
 Effect of machining parameters on MRR

• Applications:-
• UM effectively machines precise features in hard, brittle materials such as
Glass,engineered ceramics,CVD SiC- Chemical Vapor Deposition Silicon
Carbide,quartz,single crystal materials,PCD - Polycrystalline
diamond,ferrite,graphite,glassy carbon,composites,piezoceramics

• A nearly limitless number of feature shapes—including round, square and

odd-shaped thru-holes and cavities of varying depths, as well as OD-ID
features—can be machined with high quality and consistency.
• Aspect ratios as high as 25-to-1 are possible, depending on the material
type and feature size.
• The machining of parts with preexisting machined features or metallization
is possible without affecting the integrity of the preexisting features or
surface finish of the workpiece.
• USM machined surfaces exhibit a good surface integrity and the
compressive stress induced in the top layer enhances the fatigue strength
of the workpiece.
• The quality of an ultrasonic cut provides reduced stress and a lower
likelihood of fractures that might lead to device or application failure over
the life of the product.
• Unlike other non-traditional processes such as laser beam, and electrical
discharge machining, etc., ultrasonic machining does not thermally damage
the workpiece or appear to introduce significant levels of residual stress,
which is important for the survival of brittle materials in service.
 LIMITATIOINS:-

• USM has higher power consumption and lower material removal rates than
traditional fabrication processes.
• Tool wear fast in USM.
• Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.
• Low depth of hole.

WATER JET MACHINING

The machining process in which water jets are used to extract material from the
workpiece is called water jet machining (WJM). In this process, water jets are
used, which acts as a device in the form of a water saw. In this process, the water
is raised very rapidly and further focused on the target workpiece.

At a high velocity and pressure, it is capable of using some abrasive particles

mixed in water jet materials and some metals. In some processes, no abrasive is
used, & these processes are known as pure water jet machining processes.

The water pressure used in this machining process varies from 200 MPa to 400
MPa. The pressure varies according to the workpiece from which the material is
to be removed. This process is similar to the water erosion phenomenon that
exists in nature.

It is mainly used to remove materials from soft and non-metallic workpieces such
as plastics, rubber, glass, etc. A high-velocity water jet is used in this process to
remove materials from the workpiece. The basic principles of this process are that
the kinetic energy of the water jet must be converted into pressure energy so that
it removes the material from the workpiece.

When the jet of water collides with a workpiece with kinetic energy, this kinetic
energy will be converted into pressure energy. This pressurized energy will induce
stress to the workpiece, and due to this, the tension material will start to move
away from the workpiece.
Working Principle of Water Jet Machining:

It is based on the principles of water erosion. When a high-velocity jet of water

hits the surface, the material is expelled. Pure water jets are used to machine soft
materials. But to cut hard materials, some abrasive particles are mixed with water
for machining, and it is called AWJM (Abrasive Water Jet Machining).

The following are the main parts of the Water Jet Machining process:
· Water reservoir

· Hydraulic pump

· Hydraulic intensifier

· Accumulator

· Direction control valve

· Flow control valve

· Mixing chamber

· Nozzle

· Abrasive particle feeder

· Catcher
1. Water reservoir

Water is stored in the reservoir for use as a jet.

2. Pump

The pump will take water from the reservoir and transfer it to the intensifier. The
pump creates pressure in the water from 1500 to 4000 bars. A 50 to 100 HP
electric motor is used.

3. Intensifier

The water jet intensifier creates a high-pressure liquid jet is by increasing water
jet pressure. This intensifier is connected to the accumulator. Water is taken in at
low pressure and expelled at high pressure through an accumulator. The
mechanism works by hydraulic reciprocation.

4. The accumulator

Water is temporarily stored in the accumulator. Several control valves are

connected to the accumulator. By keeping the flow of high-pressure water
continuous, it eliminates pressure fluctuations.

5. The control valve

The control valve controls both the amount and the pressure of water being
passed. It directs the water to the flow regulator. Kinetic energy is then
transferred from pressure energy to the flow regulator.

6. Flow Regulator

A flow regulator regulates the flow of water that reaches the control valve. By
adjusting the flow regulator, water will be sent to the nozzle, where it will be
transformed into high-velocity water.

7. Nozzle

The nozzle produces highly kinetic jets of water from high pressure. Since the
nozzle’s area decreases at its end, this creates more kinetic energy. Finally, the
water jet is directed at the workpiece.

8. The Orifice

A stream of water will flow from this orifice when water is directed by the nozzle.

9. High-pressure tubes

It is necessary to use high pressure tubes to flow water under high pressure.
Tubes typically range in size from 6 mm to 14 mm in diameter. The cutting head
can also be moved with great flexibility.

10. Catcher or drain

Water is collected in the catcher or drain after the workpiece is cut. From here,
the water may proceed for further purification or be recirculate.
Applications of Water Jet machining
Water jet machining can be used for the following purposes:

· Manufacturing aerospace components.

· Engine component manufacturing.

· Machining thick steel sheets, aluminium sheets, etc.

· Drilling and cutting operations.

· Machining materials that are difficult to machine by conventional methods.

Advantages of Water Jet machining

· Water jet machining is capable of achieving high precision.

· Machining does not require coolant.

· It is possible to produce complex shapes and cuts.

· An excellent surface finish can be achieved.

· By washing machine parts with water, they are dust-free.

· No harmful by-products are produced, making it environmentally friendly.

· It is less expensive to operate than other non-traditional processes.

· A negligible amount of heat is generated when water is used to machine the

workpiece.

Disadvantages of Water Jet machining

· Water jet machining cannot be used for very thick materials.

· Initial investment is high.

· When compared to traditional processes, it takes much more time.

 MODULE 3- THERMAL AND CHEMICAL MACHINING

PROCESS

ELECTRO-DISCHARGE MACHINING:- Electrical discharge machining,

EDM, is a manufacturing process where material is removed from a workpiece
using a rapid sequence of electrical current discharges between electrodes
submerged in a dielectric liquid. The process is used to manufacture parts that are
impossible to machine. Since EDM does not use mechanical force to remove
material, it is considered to be non-traditional.

EDM is an exceptionally precise process that is ideal for forming complex and
intricate shapes and is capable of shaping hard metals such as titanium. The
materials shaped using EDM must be electrically conductive for the process to be
successful.
The workpiece electrode, anode, of an EDM machine is connected to the positive
terminal of a DC power supply while the tool electrode, cathode, is connected to
the negative terminal. The electrodes are submerged in the dielectric fluid and
separated by the spark gap. Sparking generates extreme electrothermal heat in
the spark gap zone, which melts and vaporizes parts of the workpiece surface, a
process known as spark erosion.

Working Principle of EDM Machining

Although the principles of EDM machining are the same, there are variations in
the process, especially between wired EDM working and sinker EDM working.
Both processes have anodes and cathodes used to shape the workpiece to fit the
parameters of the produced part. How they complete this process using electrical
current is quite different.

With sinker EDM machining, an electrical potential difference is created between

the tool and work material, both of which are electrically conductive and
submerged in a dielectric fluid such as hydrocarbon oil or deionized water. The
spark gap that separates the tool and workpiece is flooded with the dielectric
fluid. The created electric field depends on the electric potential difference and
the spark gap.
The tool takes the negative terminal while the work material takes the positive
terminal of the power generator. Free electrons on the tool are subjected to
electrostatic forces the moment the electric field begins. If there is less work
function or smaller bonding energy of the electrons, the emission of electrons
would be from the tool (assuming that it is connected to the negative terminal).
This type of emission of electrons is called cold emission.

Through the dielectric medium, the cold emitted electrons are accelerated
towards the work material. As they gain velocity and energy and begin moving
towards the work, collisions occur between the electrons and dielectric
molecules. The collisions cause the ionization of the dielectric molecules, which
depends on the work function or ionization energy of the dielectric molecule and
the energy of the electrons. As the electrons accelerate, positive ions and
electrons are generated because of the collisions.

This cyclic process increases the electron and ion concentration in the dielectric
fluid between the tool and the work material at the site of the spark gap. The
concentration becomes so high that the matter in the channel is characterized as
“plasma.” The electric resistance of the plasma channel is very low. The large
number of electrons flux from the tool to the work with ions moving suddenly
from the work to the tool. This motion of electrons is known as an avalanche.

The sudden movement of electrons and ions creates the thermal energy of the
spark with a heat range of 8,000°C up to 12,000°C. The rapid motion of the
electrons hits the work material and the ions on the tool. The impact of the
electrons and ions on the surface of the workpiece is converted into thermal
energy or heat flux.

Components of EDM Machining and Their Functions

DC Power Generator
A DC power generator is the power supply for the EDM machining process. The
negative terminal is connected to the tool while the positive terminal is
connected to the part being machined (i.e. the workpiece). Different types of
power generators are used such as:
 • Resistance-capacitance type (RC type) relaxation generator
• Rotary impulse type generator
• Electronic pulse generator
• Hybrid EDM generator
Workpiece Component
A workpiece is the part to be machined. It’s fixed in the dielectric container using
a fixture and is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply.

Fixture Component
The fixture is used for holding the workpiece properly in the dielectric container.

Dielectric Fluid
Aspects of dielectric fluid are discussed below.

The Dielectric Medium

The dielectric medium plays a key role in the functioning of the EDM Machining
process. Usually, the dielectric fluid is hydrocarbon oil with low viscosity. The
dielectric serves to separate the workpiece and the electrode. During the EDM
machining process, as the spark is produced, a surge of current takes place when
the dielectric is ionized to form a column or path in the tool. After this happens,
the dielectric medium ruptures when the gap between the tool and work gap is
about 0.03 mm at about 7V.

The spark discharge will be at around 10,000°C and thousands of atmospheric

pressure in a micro small area. It takes less than a microsecond for this to take
place for each spark. As the column of ionized dielectric vapor collapses, a small
tiny part of the workpiece vaporizes due to the arc being forced out. The small
tiny metal particles are then cooled down into small spheres and the flux of the
dielectric fluid sweeps the particles from the area.

Functions of the Dielectric Fluid

The following are essential functions of a dielectric fluid used in the EDM
machining process:
 • The dielectric fluid must remain electrically non-conductive to the time
when the breakdown voltage is reached (i.e. its dielectric strength must be
high)
• Once the breakdown voltage is attained, instantly, it should breakdown
electrically.
• The dielectric fluid must deionize the spark gap (i.e. after the discharge has
occurred, it must quench the spark rapidly)
• It carries away the metal particles that have been removed from the arc
gap.
• The dielectric fluid acts as a good cooling medium.
Desirable Properties of Dielectric Fluid
The dielectric fluid must possess the following properties to act as a good
dielectric medium and meet various functional requirements:

•High level of electrical strength for proper insulation

• High fire and flashpoints in order to prevent fire hazards
• Good wetting properties and low viscosity
• Chemically neutral in order to prevent corrosion
• Non-toxic in nature
• Low decomposition rate for a high life expectancy
• Low cost
• Good quenching properties
Common Dielectric Fluids
The most commonly used dielectrics are hydrocarbon and mineral oil, which have
low viscosity. The different types of dielectric fluids are paraffin oil, lubricating oil,
transformer oil, and deionized water. Distilled water is used when higher rates of
material removal are required.

Pump Component
A pump is used as a passage for the dielectric fluid to flow from the base of the
container to the tool and the part to be machined such that more MRR takes
place.
Filter in a Machine
A filter removes any irregularities or dust particles that may be present in the
dielectric medium. The filter is situated just above the pump.

Tool Holder
The tool holder serves to hold the tool properly.

Spark Generation
Between the tool and the part to be machined, a spark is generated, in the
presence of a dielectric medium. Therefore, the removal of material occurs from
the surface of the workpiece.

Electrode Tool
Any electrical conducting material can work as an electrode tool in EDM
machining. The shape of the tool is transferred in the cavity cut during machining
in EDM machining processes. Thus the shape and accuracy of the machined
surface are fully dependent on the electrode’s shape and accuracy. Erosion takes
place on both the tool and the workpiece during cutting. The wear ratio range is
usually between 5: 1 and 100: 1.

EDM Tool Material

EDM tools must exhibit high melting and vaporization temperature or high
thermal conductivity like graphite or copper respectively. The tool materials must
also exhibit other properties like the ease of fabrication or shaping and wear
resistance. Cost is another consideration when choosing a material to be used as
a tool material in EDM machining.

The following are important factors that determine the suitability of a material for
application as an electrode tool in EDM machining:

• Higher metal removal rate

• Lower tool wear
• High degree of electrical efficiency

• Although any electrically good conductive material can serve as an

electrode material, considering the essential factors and properties for
better application in EDM, graphite has been the most used as a tool
material. Graphite exhibits a low wear rate with a higher degree of
electrical efficiency and it is relatively cheap and easy to fabricate.

Applications of EDM Machining

• It is used to make holes with sizes that are less than 0.1 mm.
• It is utilized in die sinking or die manufacturing, fixtures, and gauging.
• It is used to make holes in air brakes or pneumatic brakes.
• It is used in press tools and extrusion dies.
• It is utilized in die molds for plastics.
• It is applied in die-casting dies and mold inserts.
• EDM machining is utilized in the repair of worn dies for hot and cold forging
and re-machining.
• It is used to make forging dies like connecting rod forging dies etc.
• EDM machining is used in Sintering dies.
• It is used in calibrating tools.
 • It is utilized in the shaping of carbide tools and templates.
• It is used in the following applications: Aerospace; Medical; Electronics;
Semiconductor.
• It is used in the manufacture of hard Electrodes.
• It is used in the manufacture of micro-tooling for Micro-EDM, Micro-USM
and such other applications for micromachining.
Advantages of EDM Machining
• It can be used even in the heat-treated condition, and for any hard
material.
• Complicated shapes made on the tool are able to be reproduced.
• A high accuracy can be achieved; about 0.005 mm.
• Economically, a good surface finish can be achieved; up to 0.2 microns.
• Machining time is not more than the conventional machining process.
• Mechanical stresses are not developed in this process (the tool and work
do not have contact).
• The tool life is longer due to proper lubrication and cooling.
• Hard surfaces that are also resistant to erosion can be developed easily on
the dies.
• It can be applied to any material that is electrically conductive.
Disadvantages of EDM Machining
• Excessive wear of the tool
• Reproduction of the sharp corner is not possible
• Change in metallurgical properties of materials due to the development of
high heat.
• The material to be machined must be an electrical conductor
• Requirement for redressing of a tool for deep holes
• Over-cut is formed
• Expert machinists are hard to find
However, it must be noted that the disadvantages of EDM machining are far
outweighed by the advantages.
 ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

(ECM) is a machining process in which electrochemical process is used to remove

materials from the workpiece. In the process, workpiece is taken as anode and
tool is taken as cathode. The two electrodes workpiece and tool is immersed in an
electrolyte (such as NaCl). When the voltage is applied across the two electrodes,
the material removal from the workpiece starts. The workpiece and tool is placed
very close to each other without touching. In ECM the material removal takes
place at atomic level so it produces a mirror finish surface.

This process is used to machine only conductive materials.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:-
ECM working is opposite to the electrochemical or galvanic coating or deposition
process.

The electrolyte is supplied to the system of anode and cathode i.e workpiece and
tool using the pump. In between the pump and the system a filter is placed which
is used to filter the electrolyte before reaching the system.
After passing through the filter and flow regulator, the electrolyte reaches the
space between the workpiece and the tool.
As the electrolyte reaches the gap between anode and cathode, electrical contact
is established between the anode and the cathode. After the electrical contact is
established, the positive ions start flowing from the workpiece towards the tool
and negative ions start flowing from the tool towards the workpiece.
When the positive ions flow from the workpiece towards the tool, the electrolyte
carries away the positive ions with it and stops it from reaching the tool.
So the materials start removing from the workpiece as positive ions from the
workpiece are dissolve and carried away by electrolyte and materials are also
removed due to the striking power of the negative ions coming from the tool.
This material removal process from the workpiece is continued until a cavity is
created in the workpiece which is a replica of the tool used in this process.
So, in this way material is removed in the electrochemical machining process.

Let us try to understand with the help of an example:

Let us take an example of the machining of low carbon steel. For the machining of
any ferrous alloy generally, the electrolyte taken is the neutral salt solution of
sodium chloride.
When the potential is applied the neutral salt (NaCl) and water (H2O) undergoes
ionic dissociation as shown below:

NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl–

H2O ↔ H+ + (OH)–

After the potential difference is applied, the positive ions move towards the tool
(cathode) and negative ions move towards the workpiece (anode).

The hydrogen ions will combine with electrons coming from the cathode (tool)
and form hydrogen gas as:
2 H+ + 2 e– = H2 ↑
Also, iron atoms will come out of anode in form positive ions as:
Fe = Fe++ + 2e–

When the iron ions mix with electrolyte, it will combine with chloride ions to form
iron chloride, and also sodium ions will combine with hydroxyl ions to form
sodium hydroxide.

Some iron ions combine with hydroxyl ions to form iron hydroxide.

So the iron ions coming from the workpiece ( anode ) will combine with chloride
ions and hydroxyl ions to form FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 respectively. The FeCl2 and
Fe(OH)2 will get precipitated in the form of sludge and this sludge will be carried
away with the electrolyte.
Also, there is no coating formed on the tool, only hydrogen gas evolves at the
tool.
Advantages:
1) It can cut any materials irrespective of their hardness, strength or toughness.
2) Complex cavities can be produced using the ECM process.
3) Tool wear is zero as there is no direct contact between the tool and the
workpiece.
4) A very good surface finish is produced in this process as the material removal
takes place due to atomic level dissociation
5) Very less heat is generated during this process.
6) No residual stresses as there is no direct contact between the tool and the
workpiece.
7) There is no thermal damage to the workpiece.
Disadvantages:
1) Due to the use of saline or acidic electrolyte, there is a chance of corrosion of
the tool or the workpiece or any other equipment.
2) It cannot be used for machining of soft materials and non-metals.
3) Using this process, only those materials can be machined which are conductors
of electricity.
Applications:
1) It is used in Die Sinking Operations.
2) It is also used in drilling.
3) Used for trepanning.
4) Profile and contouring.
5) Micro Machining.
6) Multiple hole drilling.

Electrochemistry of ECM process

The electrolysis process is governed by the following two laws proposed by
Faraday.
(1)The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current, that is,
the amount of any material dissolved or deposited, is proportional to the
quantity of electricity passed.
(2)The amounts of different substances dissolved or deposited by the same
quantity of electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent
weights.

Material Removal in ECM Process