CHM3219 (Industrial Raw Materials & Resource Inventory) Part 1

1. INTRODUCTION
Industry refers to all economic activities that deal with the production of goods and services.
Industry can be categorized into the following sectors: Manufacturing, Agriculture, Energy,
Transport, Communication, Building etc.
Manufacturing industry is concerned with the production of goods from various raw materials
through a system of organized labour. Manufacturing industry can be divided into the following
groups:
i. Food, beverages and tobacco industries
ii. Textiles and leather industries
iii. Paper, printing and publishing industries
iv. Basic chemical, petroleum, rubber and plastic industries
v. Non-metallic mineral industries
vi. Basic metal products, machines and equipment industries

Chemical industry often includes basic chemical, petroleum, rubber and plastic industries. The
global chemical industry is often categorized based on the nature of the products into three
groups:
1. Commodity chemicals are low-valued products produced in large quantities mostly in
continuous processes. Commodity chemicals are of technical or general-purpose grade. For
example, sulphuric acid, nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia, lime, sodium hydroxide, phosphoric acid,
chlorine, ethylene, propylene, etc.
2. Specialty Chemicals are high-value products that are produced in small quantities for specific
end uses. For example, agrochemicals, pigments, dyes, enzymes, fragrances, personal care
products, surfactants, adhesives. Specialty chemicals are mainly used in the form of
formulations. Purity is very important in their formulation.
3. Fine Chemicals are high value-added pure organic chemicals produced in relatively low
volumes and sold on the basis of exact specifications of purity rather than functional
characteristics. For example, some basic research chemicals and pharmaceutical ingredients.

The global market share for each type of chemicals is roughly as follows:
Commodity chemicals 80%, Specialty Chemicals 18% and Fine Chemicals 2%.

Industrial chemical processes are designed to produce a desired product from a variety of raw
materials (also known as feedstock or just feed) using energy through a succession of physical
and/or chemical operations integrated in a rational fashion as illustrated below:

The Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) is an agency of the Federal
Government of Nigeria that is mandated to promote the development and utilization of Nigeria’s
industrial raw materials. It originated from the recommendations of a workshop on Industrial
Matters organized by the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN) and the Nigerian Institute of

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Social and Economic Research (NISER) in July 1983. RMRDC is the Nigeria’s focal point for the
development and utilization of the nation’s vast industrial raw materials. More information about
the various industrial raw materials, their locations and applications can be found on the website of
RMRDC (http://www.rmrdc.gov.ng/).

All products of the chemical industry are primarily derived from naturally occurring raw
materials in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
1) Atmosphere is the source of air from which six industrial gases (N2, O2, Ne, Ar, Kr and
Xe) are derived. The mass of the atmosphere is about 5x10 15 tons. Hence, the supply of
these gases is very much unlimited.
2) Hydrosphere. The approximate amount of ocean water is 1.5x10 25 litres. Ocean water
contains about 3.5% by mass of dissolved materials from which NaCl, Mg, Br, Cl, Na,
NaOH and may other chemicals are produced.
3) Biosphere. Oils, fats, sugars, hides & skin and natural fibers are examples of raw materials
derived from plants and animals.
4) Lithosphere. Majority of elements are obtained from the earth crust in the form of mineral
ores and hydrocarbons.
Eight elements make up about 99% of the earth crust with O and Si as the most abundant
elements. It is therefore not surprising that the most common minerals are oxides and silicates. Of
the silicates, the aluminosilicates (such as feldspars and clay minerals) are the most common.
Other minerals containing minor elements are also found in the earth crust. However, special
geologic conditions are necessary to concentrate the less abundant elements for them to occur in
large enough concentration to form a mineral ore that can be profitable exploited and used for
industrial and commercial purposes. Trace elements or dispersed elements are those elements
that occur in concentrations less than about 0.1%. Trace elements are usually measured in parts
per million (PPM) or parts per billion (PPB).
The average composition of the earth crust is shown in the table below:

Element wt%
O 46.60
Si 27.72
Al 8.13
Fe 5.00
Ca 3.63
Na 2.83
K 2.59
Mg 2.09
Others 1.41
Total 100

1. RAW MATERIALS BASED ON MINERAL ORES

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid material with an ordered atomic structure that is stable at
room temperature and can be represented by a chemical formula. There are over 4,900 known

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minerals. Minerals can be described by various physical properties which depend on their
chemical structure and composition. Some basic properties of minerals are: crystal structure,
hardness, lustre, colour, specific gravity, etc. More specific tests for minerals include reaction to
acid, magnetism, taste or smell, and radioactivity.
A mineral ore is a mineral deposit which can be profitably exploited. Mineral ores are
nonrenewable. A mineral ore may contain three groups of minerals:
I. Valuable minerals (i.e. the desired minerals)
II. Compounds of secondary value that are associated with the desired minerals
III. Gangue minerals of minimum or no value.
Pure minerals (i.e. those with a chemical composition exactly the same as the chemical formula)
are rarely found in nature. All minerals exhibit some variation in terms of their chemical
composition because of geochemical factors. Generally, a mineral has a definite, but not
necessarily fixed chemical composition.

2.1 METALS
Most metals are derived from mineral ores. Some ores contain non-metals such as sulfur. The
valuable mineral in an ore may be found in the form of native metal, oxides, oxy-salts, sulphides or
arsenides. During mining, large open pits are excavated by breaking the ore manually or using
explosives. Ores as mined may be in large lumps and therefore, some size reduction is done at
the mine. The ore is shoveled into trucks and transported to the factory. If the mineral ore is found
in waterbeds, mining is carried out by dredging. For example, sand is dredged from river beds.

Ore dressing is the pre-treatment of mineral ores using relatively cheap physical processes. Ore
dressing is performed in order to increase the concentration of the valuable minerals and also to
prepare the mineral ores for subsequent chemical treatments. Ore dressing may include the
following steps:
1. Size reduction which is carried out by crushing and grinding the ores to smaller sizes.
2. Sizing using screens in order to separate particles according to size. Mineral ore particles
are separated into oversize and undersize.
3. Sorting of mineral ore particles using classifiers (equipment that separate particles
according to their different rates of travel under gravity through a fluid medium such as
water. Particles of different densities, sizes and shapes have different falling velocities).
4. Flotation uses difference in surface properties of the individual minerals to separate them.
It is readily applied to very fine concentrates and can distinguish ore mineral from gangue,
and also, one ore mineral from another.
5. Magnetic Separation. Ferromagnetic materials such as iron ores that can be chemically
altered to produce magnetite may be sorted out using a magnetic separator.
6. Electrostatic Separation. Minerals can be distinguished based on the differences in their
electrical conductivity. If several kinds of particles are given an electrostatic charge and are
then brought into contact with an electrical conductor at earth potential, the charge will leak
away from good conductors much more rapidly than from poor conductors. While the
charge remains, the particle will cling to the conductor by electrostatic attraction. The
weakly conducting minerals will therefore remain attached to the conductor longer than the

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good conductors, so affording a means of separating minerals whose conductivities differ

appreciably
7. Dewatering and filtration. Coarse solids can be freed from water by draining. Slurries with
particles which can settle may be separated from the bulk of the liquid by settling and
subsequent decantation. These dewatering methods may reduce moisture content to 50%.
The moisture content may be reduced further by filtration and drying. If the valuable ore is
in the filtrate, it can be recovered by evaporation followed by drying.
8. Agglomeration. When a particle size of an ore or concentrate is too small for use in a later
stage of treatment, it must be converted into lumps of appropriate size and strength. This is
usually done through pelletizing.

After ore dressing, metals can then be extracted from mineral ores and refined using a series of
chemical processes such as calcination, roasting, leaching, etc.

1. Calcination is the thermal treatment of an ore to effect its decomposition and the
elimination of volatile products (usually CO, CO2, H2S, H2O, etc). for example;

2. Roasting involves chemical changes other than decomposition.

3. Smelting. Components of the mineral ore in the molten state are separated into two or
more layers which may be slag (light oxide materials), matte (heavy sulphide materials),
speiss (iron oxide, insoluble in matte, slag or metal) or metal. Smelting of metal involves
reduction, usually by carbon or coal or coke and may be performed in a blast furnace or an
electric furnace.
2.1.1 IRON
Iron is one of the most widely used metals in construction of machines, industrial plants, buildings,
ships, automobiles, railway lines etc. There are several forms of iron-based materials. These
include:
1. White cast iron obtained when molten low silicon, high manganese pig iron is rapidly
cooled.
2. Grey pig iron which contains very small amounts of carbon and other impurities
3. Steel which contains from 0.08 to 0.8% carbon
4. Hard steel which contains 0.8 to 1.5% carbon
5. Alloy or special steels which besides carbon contain other metals such as Ni, Cr, W, V, Mo,
Mn.

The main raw materials for the manufacture of iron and steel are iron ore, coal and limestone
(Ca3CO3). The iron ores include red hematite (Fe2O3), brown hydrated hematite also known as
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limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O), the magnetic magnetite (Fe3O4) which is black in colour and pyrites
(FeS2). Magnetite contains about 72% pure iron metal and it is reduced with some difficulty than
hematite. The presence of impurities in iron ores reduces the iron content of the ore and increases
the production costs. Appropriate ore dressing operations are carried out to remove impurities
from the iron ores.
The main impurities in iron ore are silica and alumina. Silica and alumina react with
limestone at high temperatures of the blast furnace to form a complex of calcium-magnesium
aluminium silicate known as slag. Sulfur and phosphorus are also found in iron ores as impurities
in the form of sulphides (FeS), sulphates (CaSO4) and phosphates (Ca3(PO4)2 or Fe3(PO4)2).
Normally steel should not contain more than 0.05% sulfur and 0.05% phosphorus. Sulfur can be
removed in the blast furnace slag. Iron ores are sometimes classified as acid or basic ores
according to the amount of phosphorus present. Acid ores contain less than 0.05% phosphorus
while basic ores have more than 0.05%.
A small amount of manganese is generally present in iron ores. Manganese is
advantageous for steel production because it reduces the effect of sulfur by forming manganese
sulphide (MnS). Sometimes, if manganese is absent from the ores, it is deliberately added.
Coke is the fuel used to melt the iron ore in a blast furnace and also to reduce the iron ore
to metallic iron. Coke is produced at the bottom of the blast furnace by carbonization of coal i.e.,
burning of coal in the absence of oxygen to remove volatile matter. Good quality coke has about
80% carbon and 20% ash.

Metallic iron is produced by smelting of iron ore

with limestone and coke in a blast furnace.
Oxygen is blown or blasted through nozzles at
the top of the furnace. The molten iron and slag
are collected at the bottom of the furnace while
the gases escape from the top.
The slag layer floats over the heavier iron layer
and is periodically removed as waste material
that can be used for cement manufacture or for
making floor tiles.
The molten metallic iron is collected and is
either used to produce cast iron or steel. To
make cast iron, the molten iron is poured into
moulds of desired size and shape.
The metal gets cooled and solidifies taking the
desired shape.
The schematic diagram of a blast furnace
showing the temperatures at relative heights is
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a blast furnace

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The temperature of the blast furnace increases from top to bottom. The following chemical
reactions take place at different zones:
1. Iron ore reduction:

2. Fuel reactions:

3. Slag formation reactions:

Most of the sulfur passes into the slag as CaS and MnS and only a small portion remains in the
metal as FeS and MnS.

Nigeria has several deposits of iron ore especially in Kogi, Benue, Sokoto, Bauchi, Borno, Plateau
and Enugu States. The estimated reserve of iron ores in Nigeria is 2,500,000,000 tonnes. The
purest deposits are in and around Itakpe in Kogi State. The National Iron Ore Mining Company
was founded in 1979 and given the mission to explore, exploit, process, and supply iron ore
concentrate to the Ajaokuta Steel Company in Ajaokuta and Delta Steel Company (DCL) in Aladja.
The steel and allied companies established by the Nigerian government are:
1. Delta Steel Company (DSC) in Delta State
2. Aluminium Smelter Company of Nigeria (ALSCON) in Akwaibom state
3. Oshogbo Steel Rolling Company in Osun state
4. Jos Steel Rolling Company in Plateau state
5. Katsina Steel Rolling Company in Katsina state
6. Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited in Kogi state
7. National Ore Mining Company Ltd (NIOMCO) in Kogi state.

Most of these companies have been either privatized or they are at various stages of privatization.

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The largest and purest deposits of limestone are found in the Southwest and Middle belt
regions of the country. Limestone in the Southwest region of Nigeria has been estimated at 31
million tonnes. Most limestone mining activities are mainly for cement production.
Coal is mainly made up of 65-95% carbon and also contains hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen
and nitrogen. In Nigeria, coal can be found in the Middle belt and South-eastern regions of the
country (Kogi, Benue, Gombe and Enugu). The most significant use of coal is in electricity
generation, steel production and cement manufacturing.

2.1.2 COPPER
Copper is mostly extracted from ores containing copper sulphides, copper oxides or copper
carbonates. Copper ores are generally poor and contain between 1.5 and 5% copper. Therefore,
commercial extraction of copper involves several steps yielding the shown % copper after each
step:

1. Concentration step is needed in order to separate the copper mineral from the gangue minerals.
The ore is first crushed and finely ground. It is made into slurry with water and then fed into a
flotation cell. The ore particles are lifted up by air bubbles while the impurities remain in the cell.
The froth containing the ore is thickened and filtered.
2. Roasting step is needed in order to remove excess sulfur. If the ore does not contain excess
sulfur, roasting may be omitted and the ore directly smelted. Roasting is carried out in a furnace
(also known as roaster). The dry pulp is fed into the roaster at about 700 0C. The following
reactions take place at the roaster:

The oxides of sulfur, arsenic and antimony are volatile. They are removed at this step.
3. Matte smelting involves smelting the concentrate in a furnace at about 1350 0C to produce a
mixture of copper and iron called matte. The following reactions take place in the furnace:

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Cu2S and part of the FeS form the matte. The silicates and oxides of iron form the slag. Most of
the impurities are absorbed by the slag and removed. Matte is further converted into molten blister
copper containing 96 to 98% copper.

4. Fire Refining. The blister copper is fed into a furnace where some of the Cu is oxidized into
Cu2O which dissolves in the molten copper. The oxide rapidly oxidizes most of the remaining
impurities present. The so-called tough pitch copper is obtained at this step.
5. Electrolytic conversion. Tough pitch copper anodes which are immersed in a solution of copper
sulphate (electrolyte). Pure copper foil serves as the cathode where copper deposits. Cathodes
produced as a result of the electrolytic refining process contain 99.9% of copper which is used for
manufacturing copper and copper alloys.

3 RAW MATERIALS BASED ON PLANT AND ANIMALS

The most important raw materials of chemical industry that are derived from plants and animals
are: oils, fats, sugars, starch, grasses, trees, natural fibers, hides & skin, sewage sludge, waste
food etc. Many important products such as fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, leather, alcohols, organic
acids, biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel, soaps, etc, are produced from the plant and animal based raw
materials.

3.1 FERMENTATION
Fermentation is a reaction in which a raw material (also called substrate) is converted into a
product by the action of microorganisms or by means of enzymes. There are two types of
fermentations:
1. Microbial fermentations that are promoted by microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and
protozoa). Microorganisms can promote various reactions under the same conditions.
Therefore, the selectivity of microbial fermentations is low.
2. Enzymatic fermentations catalyzed by enzymes. Enzymes are proteins which occur in nature
in microorganisms, animal organs and vegetable extracts. They are biocatalysts that catalyze
specific biochemical reactions without change in their structure or quantity. Their activity
depends on temperature, pH, and storage conditions. Because of their high selectivity, only
one product is produced from a selected enzyme and therefore, purification is less expensive
than for microbial fermentation.
Enzymes are more expensive than micro-organisms.
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The following factors affect product yield during fermentation:

1. Inoculum amount, i.e., the amount of microorganisms fed into the fermenter (a reactor for
fermentation reaction).
2. Level of contamination by some undesired microorganisms that will feed on the raw
materials and produce other products. The undesired microorganisms may be contained in
the raw materials or inside the equipment for fermentation. Hence, equipment and raw
materials should therefore be sterilized in order to kill undesired microorganisms before
fermentation. Sterile conditions shall be maintained throughout the fermentation process,
because contamination by foreign microorganisms will ruin the fermentation process.

It is important to maintain sterile conditions during fermentation in order to avoid low yield of
products. The following methods are used for sterilization.
a. Purging steam into the fermentation medium until the desired sterilization temperature is
reached.
b. Using an electric element to heat the medium.
c. Using a jacketed vessel. Steam can be passed through the jacket to raise the temperature
during sterilization. Cooling water through the jacket brings down the temperature to that
optimum for fermentation.
3. The pH level will determine whether undesired microorganisms will multiply or will be
repressed. The pH must be kept close to the optimum for the desired microorganism. For
most microorganisms, optimal pH is 7. Some microorganisms like yeast grow best at pH of
4 to 5. Products of microbial metabolism often cause significant changes in pH. Acidic
products may be neutralized by adding ammonia, calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide.
4. Temperature. Micro-organisms naturally occurring in soil, air or water usually grow best at
25 to 300C while those isolated from animals grow best at 370C. Microorganisms whose
growth is favoured by low temperatures are referred to as mesophilic. Those that grow
better at higher temperatures are thermophilic. Since heat is produced during fermentation,
temperature control is necessary to maintain optimum activity of microorganisms.
5. The initial concentration of the raw material (substrate), for example sugar may be too high
and therefore adversely affect the micro-organisms.
6. The concentration of product may increase during fermentation to a level that inhibits the
activity of microorganisms.
7. Oxygen demand. Fungi, algae and some bacteria are aerobic while some bacteria are
anaerobic. For aerobic microorganisms, a too low oxygen level leads to “poisoning” of
fermentation while too high oxygen content causes excessive growth of micro-organisms at
the expense of the product.
8. The level of nutrients. Nutrients include energy sources such as starch or sugar. Microbial
cell mass is about 50% carbon, therefore, carbon sources such as starch, sugar and carbon
dioxide are required. The cell mass also contains about 10% nitrogen. Nitrogen sources
include ammonia, ammonium salts such as diammonium phosphate (DAP), amino acids
and vitamins. Minerals including phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, magnesium, traces of iron,
copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc and molybdenum are added as water-soluble salts.

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3.1.1 ETHANOL
Production of ethanol by fermentation for beverage purposes has been carried out from time
immemorial. During the early 1970’s, only less than 10% of ethanol was being produced by
fermentation, the rest being produced by hydrolysis of esters and the direct hydration of ethylene.
Ethanol derived through fermentation (also known as bioethanol) is a renewable alternative and
additive to petrol used in cars, motorcycles, electricity generators etc.
Ethanol is produced from biomass raw materials containing sugar, starch and cellulose. The
sugar-containing raw materials include sugar cane, sweet sorghum, sweet potatoes, sugar beet
and molasses. These materials contain disaccharides which are easily hydrolysed by water to
form glucose and fructose:

Starch-containing materials include cassava, maize and potatoes. Before fermentation, the starch
is hydrolysed to polysaccharides and then converted to glucose. Cellulose contains complex
carbohydrates that require heat and enzymatic treatment to extract fermentable polysaccharides.
Cellulosic raw materials include straw and bagasse.
The micro-organisms mostly employed in alcoholic fermentation are yeasts. Glucose is fermented
into alcohol according to the following equation:

There are over 1500 different varieties of yeast, but the most commonly used strain is
saccharomyces cerevisiae. These yeasts produce enzymes that catalyze fermentation reaction.

Production of ethanol using starch raw materials is done in several steps:

1. Enzymatic hydrolysis of carbohydrates. The raw material is heated in the presence of starch
liquefying enzymes (usually α-amylase) to liquefy the starchy raw material. The liquefied starch
raw material is then diluted with water and cooled to 55 oC. A second enzyme, glucoamylase is
added to hydrolyze the dextrins into glucose.
2. Fermentation. 10-20% solution yeast is prepared using sterilized water. The yeast solution is
then added to the mixture of the substrate (glucose) and nutrients in the fermentation reactor
(fermenter). Small amounts of nutrient sources such as ammonium phosphate, ammonium
sulphate or urea are added such that nitrogen content is about 0.6g/L of the fermentation mixture.
The yeast cells constitute about 2 to 4% by weight in the fermentation mixture. The concentration
of yeast affects fermentation time. With 1% yeast, fermentation may take as long as 70 hours,
while fermentation can be completed within 10 hours using 4% yeast. Yeast activity is inhibited by
a concentration of glucose higher than 20%. Typical concentration of glucose is in the range of 10-
14% w/v. The activity of most yeasts is highest at 29-32oC. Heat is released during fermentation
and cooling coils and jackets are installed in the most conventional fermentation reactors
(fermenter) as shown in Figure 1.
The pH is normally maintained at 4.8 to 5 by adding sulfuric acid. Lack of enough oxygen reduces
the activity of the yeast. Too low oxygen causes the production of an enzyme known as diastase
which has adverse effects on fermentation. The rate of fermentation decreases with increased

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alcohol concentration. Therefore, it is necessary to dilute some raw materials (cane juice, sugar,
molasses) to a concentration that will give an optimum concentration of ethanol.
At the end of fermentation, the yeast is separated by centrifugation or settling for use in the next
fermentation batch.
3. Ethanol is purified from the liquid products through distillation with at least two distillation
columns. In the first column, ethanol with a boiling point of 78 oC and other volatile products are
separated from the less volatile liquid products and concentrated to about 50 to 60 %v/v. In the
second column, the alcohol is concentrated to about 95 to 96,5 % v/v.

Figure 1. Jacketed fermenter

3.2 PHARMACEUTICALS
Drug is a substance which is used in the diagnosis, cure, treatment or prevention of diseases in
humans and animals. In the ancient times, most drugs were natural products mostly derived from
plants.
Fermentation has long been used to manufacture antibiotics, vitamins and hormones. Micro-
organisms growing under controlled fermentation conditions perform complex chemical
transformations to produce products more economically than by purely chemical conversions.
Modern research in pharmaceutical chemistry has resulted in pure synthetic drugs. Both
biochemical and purely chemical synthesis are used in the production of some drugs such as
riboflavin and chlorophenicol. However, certain drugs such as morphine and codeine are still
extracted from plants since no synthetic substitutes have been fully accepted. Extensive research
and clinical tests on safety and efficacy are followed before drugs are let into the market.
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3.2.1 ANTIBIOTICS
Antibiotics are chemical substances that can inhibit the growth, and/or destroy harmful
microorganisms. They are derived from special microorganisms or other living systems and are
produced on an industrial scale using the fermentation process. The purified forms of antibiotics
are more or less harmless to most humans because they act on some aspect of the growth of
microorganisms which differs from ordinary mammalian cells. Antibiotics are either bactericidal
(capable of killing bacteria) or bacteriostatic (capable of inhibiting bacterial growth).
The commercial development of antibiotics begins with basic laboratory research designed to
identify microorganisms, which produce antibiotic compounds. Thousands of microorganisms are
screened for any sign of antibacterial activity. When one is found, the species is tested against a
variety of known bacterial diseases. If the results are promising, the organism is grown on a large
scale so the compound responsible for the antibiotic effect can be isolated. The antibiotic must
them be approved as a new drug. This whole process can take many years. Antibiotics can be
sold in form of solutions, capsule, or as powders which are incorporated into ointments.

3.2.1.1 PENICILLIN
Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He observed that a plate culture of
Staphylococcus had been contaminated by a blue-green microorganism known as Penicillium
chrysogenum and that colonies of bacteria adjacent to the microorganism were being dissolved.
He grew the microorganism in a pure culture and found that it produced a substance which He
named penicillin that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin has a bactericidal
rather than a bacteriostatic action. Penicillin has become the most outstanding drug ever
discovered for the treatment of infections such as throat infections, pneumonia, spinal meningitis,
gas gangrene, diphtheria, syphilis, gonorrhea, etc. Penicillin is relatively nontoxic. Penicillin is a
generic name referring to a class of compounds with the formula shown below.

Synthesis of penicillin using purely chemical methods is not economical. Penicillin is

produced using fungal fermentation.
There are two classes of penicillin.
1. Biosynthetic or natural penicillin which is harvested from the microorganism (Penicillium
chrysogenum) itself through fermentation. Several penicillins which differ only in the formula of the
R group have been isolated from natural products. Depending on the formula of R, the penicillins
are classified as F, G, K, or X. The R group can be altered by introducing an appropriate precursor
in the fermentation process. For example, to produce benzyl penicillin, the precursor phenyacetic
acid is used. The microorganism selectively inserts the precursor into its position to produce the
desired penicillin. Benzyl penicillin (also known as penicillin G) is the most widely used type of
penicillin. The potassium salt of benzyl penicillin is the most commercially available form of
penicillin G.
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2. Semisynthetic penicillin. Most fungi that produce penicillin can easily incorporate a variety of
compounds into the acyl portion (R-CO-) of the penicillin molecule. The synthesized penicillin has
additional advantages over natural penicillin. The advantages include: higher such as acid
stability, lowered allergenicity and greater resistance to penicillinase.

Fermentation of glucose in the presence of microorganisms (Penicillium chrysogenum) is

performed at a pH of 6.5 and 23-28oC in 5-6 days. Only about 10% of the carbon in the glucose is
converted into penicillin G whose final concentration may reach almost 30g/L of the fermentation
mixture. At the end of the fermentation, the penicillin-rich liquid is separated using filtration
process. The obtained penicillin rich filtrate is purified using multiple extractions with different
solvents. Penicillin is first extracted with amyl acetate or butyl acetate at a pH of 2.5-3.0
maintained by addition of phosphoric acid. Penicillin is then extracted into water by the addition of
alkali (potassium or sodium hydroxide) or buffer at a pH of 5.0-7.5. The aqueous phase containing
penicillin is then acidified and extracted with an organic solvent such as anhydrous l-propanol, n-
butanol or other volatile solvents. Penicillin is once again extracted with water at a pH of 6.5 –7.2.
An alkaline solution is the added to precipitate a salt of penicillin of the selected base (Na, or K),
and the crystals of penicillin are filtered out and dried.

3.3 SOAP
The basic raw materials for soap production are animal fats and plant oils. The main constituents
of animal fats and plant oils are the triglycerides. In the presence of a strong alkalis such as
sodium hydroxide, the triglycerides breakdown to form the metal salts of the fatty acid and
glycerol. This reaction is called saponification (making of soap).

The metal salt of the fatty acid is the active ingredient of various soaps.
Soaps are anionic surfactants because their active portion (RCOO -1) is negatively charged.
Sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water, while calcium and magnesium soaps are
insoluble in water. When calcium and/or magnesium ions are present in water, they displace
sodium and/or potassium ions from the soap and form their own salts which are insoluble in water.
Soap forms an insoluble precipitate when hard water is used because hard water contains
dissolved calcium and magnesium ions which react with soap to form insoluble calcium and
magnesium soaps. This results in soap wastage as well as the soiling of laundry by the sticky
precipitate of Ca or Mg soap.
Soap is 100% biodegradable.

Soap is produced in several steps:

1.Oil preparation. The oil is dried in a vacuum chamber to remove water and other volatile
impurities that may be present in it. Bleaching earth is then added to remove any coloured
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impurities from the dried oil. After removing the bleaching earth by filtration, the oil is ready for
saponification.
2.Saponification. The bleached oil is reacted with caustic soda (NaOH) solution for several hours.
Thereafter, the reaction mixture is allowed to separate into two layers, with the soap layer at the
top and the glycerine layer at the bottom. The crude soap is washed with fresh caustic solution.
The crude soap is then dried to obtain the so called base soap that can be converted into a variety
of different soaps in the finishing stages.
To make laundry soap, the base soap is mixed with colour and preservatives. Perfume is
then added, and the mixture is extruded into a continuous bar. The bar is cut into tablets for
packaging.
Toilet soap requires less water and more fatty material than laundry soap. Hence, the base
soap for toilet soap production usually has extra fatty acids added with the preservatives before it
is dried in order ensure that there is no unreacted NaOH in the soap by the time it reaches the
consumer, and also to make the soap softer. Various additives (such as glycerine, perfume, dye
etc) are added to improve the quality of toilet soap. For example, adding glycerine makes toilet
soap smoother and softer than the base soap.

Glycerine (a byproduct of saponification) is much more valuable than the soap itself. Refined
glycerine is an important industrial raw material used in foods, cosmetics, drugs and many other
products. Glycerine recovery after saponification is done in the following steps:
1. Dissolved NaOH in the glycerine layer is removed using hydrochloric acid

2. Ferrous chloride is then added to remove the dissolved soap in the glycerine layer. This reacts
with the soap to form an insoluble ferrous soap:

This precipitate is filtered out.

3. A small amount of caustic soda is added to the crude glycerine and the solution then distilled
under vacuum. Two fractions are taken off: - one of pure glycerine and one of glycerine and water.
The glycerine thus extracted is bleached with carbon black. The bleached glycerine is ready for
sale.

3.5 LEATHER
Leather is an animal skin that has been processed in the TANNERY such that the natural
properties (flexibility, toughness, and waterproof nature) of the living skin are retained. Tanning is
a multi-step process of treating skins to produce leather. The basic component of the skin is a
fibrous protein called collagen. Skin is made up of protein fibers which are able to move relative to
one another when the skin is alive. The skin of living animal is soft, flexible and very tough; it has
the ability to allow water vapour to pass out, but it will not allow water in. When the skin dies it
loses these characteristics: if it is kept wet it rots, and if it is dried it becomes hard. The purpose of
tanning is to fix the protein fibers apart by chemical treatment, and to lubricate them so that they
can move in relative to one another. Hence, leather retains the properties of flexibility and
toughness. Tanning also imparts colour, texture, heat resistance and finish to the leather.
Animal skins are converted to leather in the following steps:
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1. Unhairing. The animal skins are placed in an alkali solution (sodium or calcium hydroxide and
sodium sulphide) that breaks down the structure of the hair at its weakest point (the root) thereby
removing the hair.
2. Liming. The hairless skin is immersed in a solution of alkali and sulphide to complete the
removal of the hair, and to alter the properties of the skin protein (collagen). The collagen
becomes chemically modified and swells, leaving a more open structure.
3. Deliming and Bateing. The skin structure is then opened further by treatment with enzymes to
remove more impurities.
4. Pickling. The skin is agitated in a solution of a salt and sulphuric acid until they are at a pH
value of 3.0 - 3.5. After pickling, the skins can be preserved for up to two years.
5. Tanning. During tanning, the skin structure is stabilized by replacing some of the collagen
proteins with complex ions of chromium by treating the skin with chromium sulphate. The colour
and texture of the leather changes. Tanned leather can withstand boiling water, and is much more
flexible than an untreated dead skin.
Extracts from the bark and wood of some trees can also be used instead of the chromium
salt. However, chrome tanning is the most widely used process especially in large tanneries.
6. Neutralization, Dyeing and Fat Liquoring. The tanned leather is treated with alkali to
neutralise it and to prevent deterioration, and then dyed. It is further treated with oils that attach
themselves to the fibrous structure, improving suppleness and flexibility of the leather.
7. Drying. Water is removed from the leather, and its chemical properties are stabilised.
8. Finishing. A surface coating is applied to ensure an even colour and texture of the leather.

Nigeria’s leather sector is the second highest foreign exchange earner after the oil and gas
industry. Nigeria earned about $680 million from selling tanned skin. The global market for leather
is about $72 billion. In the 1980s there were over 40 fully operational tanneries in Nigeria.
However, by the 1990s due to several constraints this figure fell to only 4 functional tanneries.
Some of the problems facing Nigeria’s leather industry are: inadequate infrastructure such as
power, water and roads; inconsistent economic policies of governments; unrestricted importation
of leather goods; poor rearing of livestock; consumption of skin (Ganda) by many people in
Nigeria, etc.

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CHEMICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Chemical distribution system is the system for chemical distribution to the end user.
The three main parts of chemical distribution system are:
1. Chemical manufactures
2. Downstream users (chemical distributors company/industry customers)
3. End users
Each part can be simple or complex process (can have multiple steps in the supply chain)
Chemical distributors are a key link in the chemic supply chain. The responsibilities of chemical
distributors are:
1. Reselling chemicals safely and securely on behalf of the manufactures while ensuring
Health, safety, environmental, and security information.
2. Local bulk storage of chemicals.
3. Repackaging of chemicals.
4. Continuous shipments/deliveries.
5. Specialty blending/mixtures to meet customer needs.

CHEMCATS is an online database containing information about commercially available chemicals

and their worldwide suppliers. There are More than 68 million commercially-available products;
More than 885 suppliers. It has Links with SciFinder for Pricing and Availability. Only stock
chemical available for general sale is acceptable for listing. There is No on-demand synthesis or
non-chemical items (supplies, kits, animal tissue).

Chemical Inventory Management Systems (CIMS)

Inventory is a database that tabulates the chemicals in a given place (lab, industry, etc). It can
include materials, synthesized products and samples.

Inventory (and tracking) system are the procedures and tools to update information and storage
locations.

Inventory management is the entire process involved in tracking inventory items throughout the
life cycle (procurement through disposal).

The key principle of chemical inventory management systems ensures implementation of the set
policies, procedures, and tools for chemical management “living” database of chemical inventory.
Chemical inventory management systems must be updated with procurement, transport, use, and
disposal. The process requires training, maintenance, and inspection. There must be control
access to database in order to ensure control and accountability. There must be designated
chemical owners (no orphan chemicals). Orphan chemicals are useful chemicals that are
unwanted or unneeded by those who maintain them.

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Types of Inventory Management systems

1. Simple log book or paper system is often used for small laboratory or department with few
chemicals (<100 items), low turnover, and few or no regulatory/reporting requirements. The
advantages are: very low initial cost, no technical support needed. The disadvantages are:
it is very difficult to maintain, easily bypassed, it can only track a limited amount of
information, it is difficult to control access to information, and it has limited productivity and
efficiency benefits, and cost.
2. Spreadsheet or simple computer system is often used for medium size laboratory or
department with moderate number of chemicals, moderate turnover and some
regulatory/reporting requirements. The advantages are: low initial cost, it can track more
information, it has some productivity and efficiency benefits, and cost savings. The
disadvantages are: it is difficult to maintain, it may be bypassed and it may be difficult to
control access to information.
3. Advanced computer or web-based system with barcodes is often used for large
laboratory or department with many chemicals, high turnover and many regulatory/reporting
requirements. The advantages are: excellent productivity and efficiency benefits, and cost
savings, it can track a lot of information and has excellent information access control. The
disadvantages are: high initial cost, and recurring costs in some cases, it also requires a
commitment to maintain accuracy.
4. Web-based, networked system are on a central server. Hence, users access the system
through the internet or internal network. The system can accommodate many users
simultaneously. It protects information. The system is an extensive database with system-
generated alerts and automated features (alerts on expiration, hazardous or reportable
materials, storage compatibility, surplus sharing program). The system can be integrated
with procurement, training, and waste tracking.

CHEMICAL SAFETY AND CHEMICAL SECURITY

Chemical safety means preventing and protecting against chemical laboratory accidents.
Chemical security means preventing and protecting against the intentional misuse of chemicals,
people, or equipment for non-peaceful purposes.
Both chemical safety and chemical security ensure protection of workers, plant facilities, plant
processes, community, environment and economy. Many practices are the same for chemical
safety and security, but there are a few areas of conflict. Thus, locking exit doors is secure, but not
safe. For safety, people need to be able to leave the facility quickly and by many routes. For
security, you want to control exits as well as entrances so chemicals (or equipment) are not taken.
The components of chemical security are:
i. Physical security of site
ii. Personnel management
iii. Information security
iv. Management of chemical security activities
v. Allocation of chemical security responsibilities
vi. Development of emergency plans
vii. Chemical security training
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Hazard is anything that has the potential to do harm.

Risk is a function of probability that an incident will occur (likelihood) and severity if the event
occurs (consequence)
Risk = f (likelihood, consequence)

Risk concept is applicable to both chemical safety and chemical security. Examples of safety
incident are: spill, accidental exposure, uncontrolled reaction etc. Examples of security incident
are: theft or diversion of dual-use chemicals, sabotage etc.
Characterizing chemical safety and security risks is a necessary step toward responsible and
effective allocation of finite resources to reduce risk to acceptable levels. Risk reduction measures
should always be applied in a graded manner. Large effort made to reduce high risks smaller effort
made to reduce low risks.

Chemical security risk is characterized as either low, moderate or high.

i. Low risk. Assets are possible targets for theft or diversion and the consequences of
loss or release are minimal.
ii. Moderate. Assets are attractive for theft or diversion due to monetary value or dual-
use and the consequences could threaten the public; misuse could be harmful or even
lethal to a small number of people, and would certainly damage the institution, its
programs, and reputation.
iii. High. Assets are very valuable or hard to acquire dual- use materials and the
consequences of misuse could result in harm or death to many people.

CHEMTRECT is a communications center that provides immediate access to thousands of

chemical product specialists and hazardous materials experts. It is a telecommunications system
for virtual emergency response team, links on-scene responders with chemical experts,
transportation companies, and medical experts. It has an electronic library of over 5 million Safety
Data Sheets (SDS); there is access to advice from medical experts and toxicologists for
emergency medical treatment assistance. Interpretation for more than 180 languages
http://www.chemtrec.com

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