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CHAPTER 2
Heating and Cooling of
Electric Machine

Introduction
Different kinds of losses are occurred inside the machine during the process of conversion of
electrical rotating machines and energy transfer in the case of transformers. Thus, there are
mainly I R losses in conductors of windings and iron losses in the core of the machines. In
addition losses occur in tank walls,, end plates and covers Due to leakage flux. These losses are
converted into the heat energy , as a result of which the various parts of the machine are heated
and their temperature rises above the ambient medium which is normally the surrounding air.
Some losses also occur in the machine parts due to mechanical friction. Thus, the heat energy
appears mainly in the active parts of the machine resulting in increase in temperature of core and
windings above the ambient temperature.
The heated parts of the machine dissipate heat into the surroundings by conduction and
convection assisted by radiation from their outer surfaces.

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Conduction
This mode of dissipation of heat is important in the case of solid parts of machine like copper,
iron and insulation.
The equation for the heat flow for conduction between two surfaces separated by a heat
conducting medium can be written as
θ −θ
Q =
R
Where,
Q = Heat dissipated by conduction, W
θ , θ = Temperatures of two bounding surfaces, °C
R = Thermal resistance of the conducting medium, °C/W
The thermal resistance is given by:
ρt
R =
S
3

ρ = thermal resistivity of material, Ω m or °C − m/W

t = length of medium, m
S = area of surface separated by the medium, m
So, we can write

θ −θ S θ −θ
Q = ρt ⇒ Q =
ρt
S
Heat dissipated per unit surface area by conduction is
θ −θ
q =
ρt
The temperature difference across the conducting medium is
ρt
θ=θ −θ =Q
S
Note: The material having a high value of thermal Resistivity will dissipate less amount of heat
or alternatively for the dissipation of same heat the temperature rise will be higher.
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Radiation
The heat dissipated by radiation from a surface depends upon its temperature and its other
characteristics like colour, roughness, etc.
For a very small spherical radiating surface inside a large and or black spherical shell, the heat
radiated per unit surface is given by Stefan Boltzmann law as
q = 5.7 × 10 e T −T W/m
Where,
T , T = absolute temperatures of the emitting surface and the ambient medium respectively, K
θ , θ = temperatures of the emitting surface and the ambient medium respectively, °C
e = coefficient of emissivity
= 1 for perfect black bodies and is always less than unity for others
The total heat dissipated by radiation is
Q =q S =λ θS
Note: In electrical rotating machines and transformers, radiation does not normally occur by
itself and in almost every case it is accompanied by convection. 5

Convection
The heat dissipation by convention is classified into two categories: Natural and Artificial.
1) Natural Convention
Liquid and gas particles near heated body become lighter and rise, giving place to cooler
particles which in turn gets heated and rise. This natural process, due to changes in fluid
density is known as natural convention.
The heat dissipated per unit surface by natural convention is given by
q =K θ −θ W/m
Where,
K = a constant depending on the shape and dimensions of the hot body
θ , θ = temperatures of the emitting surface and the ambient medium respectively, °C
n = a constant depending upon shape and dimensions of hot body whose value lies between 1
and 1.25.

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The total heat dissipated by convention is

Q =q S =λ θS

Convention is a complicated phenomenon and heat convected depends upon many variables
such as
i. Power density
ii. Temperature difference between heated surface and coolant
iii. Height, orientation, configuration and condition of heated surface
iv. Thermal resistivity, density, specific heat, viscosity and coefficient of volumetric expansion
of fluid
v. Gravitational constant

2) Artificial Convention
In modern machines heat is removed by artificial circulation of cooling medium. For
example, a transformer tank may be cooled by blasting air on it or a turbo-generator may be
cooled by circulating hydrogen. This is known as cooling by artificial convection. The usual
method employed for cooling of machines is by blasting air on heating surfaces; these
surfaces may be open or closed. The increase in heat dissipation by air blasts is due to
increase in convection. The problem of calculation of heat dissipation by artificial convection
is very complex as it mainly depend on the constructional features of the machine. These
constructional details are different for every machine and so no exact relationship can be
given for artificial convection. However, one of the most widely used formula for air blasts
on open surfaces is
λ =λ 1+K V W/m

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Where,
λ = specific heat dissipation of a blasted surface
λ = specific heat dissipation by natural convection
V = relative velocity of cooled surface and air blast
K = a constant depending upon whether the blast is uniform or non-uniform
= 1.3 for uniform blasts
K comes down to even 0.5 for non-uniform blasts.

Internal temperature (Hot spot temperature)

Heat transfer is a complex phenomenon that depends on many variables. The larger the machine,
greater is the problem it creates in transferring the heat. In large machine, the cores are massive,
conductors are long with large sections and carrying high current, the insulation could also be
thick. The coolant has to reach inner most part of the cores and windings to extract internal heat,
otherwise the heat must travel long distance to reach to the coolant further heating other parts
resulting in to excessive temperature gradients developing hot spots inside the machine. The
internal flow of heat is important for the determination of hot spot temperature and the
temperature to which the insulating materials are subjected. In order to maintain the good
condition of insulating materials as regards to heat transfer we must determine the temperature of
hottest spot, a place where the local temperature is the highest and this temperature must be
controlled within the limits. Thus, the problem is to determine approximately the temperature
difference between outside surface from which the heat is carried away and the hottest spot inside
the machine in core and windings, from which the heat must travel through the conductors and
insulation before it can be dissipated away.
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Assuming a very large plate of thickness 't', consisting of a homogeneous material. The length
and the width of the plate is assumed to be very large as compared with its thickness, so, the heat
flow is needed to be considered only across its thickness (in the direction as shown in the figure
below). The heat flow is from centre outwards towards the two surfaces which are assumed to
be at the same temperature.

Suppose
l = length of plate, m ;
w = width of plate, m ;
ρ = thermal resistivity of material along the direction
of heat flow, Ω m ;
θ = temperature rise, °C;
q = heat produced per unit volume, W/m

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Consider an elementary strip of thickness dx at a distance x from the centre and let dθ be the
temperature difference across the walls of this strip. The heat to be dissipated across this strip is
given as
Q = heat per unit volume × volume to be travelled by heat from centre to the distance x
= q × (l w x)
Temperature difference between the walls of this strip is
dθ = heat conducted × thermal resistance of the strip
ρdx
= qlwx× = q ρ x dx
lw
Therefore, the difference in temperature between the centre and any point at a distance x from
the centre along the path of heat flow will be

qρx
θ= q ρ x dx = … … … (1)
2
Thus, the temperature difference curve is a parabola as shown in above figure.
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From equation (1), the difference in temperature between the centre of the plate and the outer
surface (i. e. at x = ) is

qρx qρt
θ= =
2 8
Hence, the temperature of the hottest spot (i.e. at the centre of the plate in this case) is
qρt
θ = +θ
8
Where, θ is the temperature of outer surface.

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Temperature Gradients in Iron Cores

Core of an electrical machine is made by laminated steel sheet, insulated each other by varnish.
When the iron core is subjected to alternating magnetization, iron loss will occur due to which
heat is produce in it.

Let the hottest part of the core is at 'O' and the heat produced at the
centre of the core is to be controlled by the surfaces A and B. The
path of the heat flow along X-axis is across the laminations while the
flow of heat along Y-axis is along the laminations. Let us calculate
the heat flow along the direction of OX and OY separately.
a) Consider that all the flow of heat is along the direction of OX
The temperature difference between O and A is

θ =
Where, ρ = thermal resistivity of the core across the laminations
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b) Consider that all the flow of heat is along the direction of OY

The temperature difference between O and B is

θ =

Where, ρ = thermal resistivity of the core along the laminations

The value of ρ is very low as compared with ρ . Therefore, at first sight it would indicate that
all the heat generated inside the machine should be taken along the laminations in order to keep
down the internal temperatures or it indicates that axial ventilation wherein air is blown across
the laminations would be most 1effective. In practice, however, most of all electrical machines
have radial ventilating ducts.

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Temperature gradients in conductors

placed in slots
The conductors are placed in slots of stator (or armature) and rotors in electrical rotating
machine to form the windings. These conductors carry electric current and hence, heat is
produced in them due to losses. We have to consider following two cases so as to assess the
temperature in the centre of the core.
a) Consider the slot insulation to be comparatively very thick as compared with that on the
end connections, the heat produced in the embedded portion of the conductor is conducted
along its length to the end windings.
Let,
I = Current through the conductor, A
L = Length of the embedded conductor, m
a = Area of the conductor, m
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ρ = Electrical resistivity of the conductor, Ω − m

ρ = Thermal resistivity of the conductor, thermal Ω − m
δ = Current density in the conductor, A/m

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We have to find the difference in temperature between its centre 'O' and the overhang. Consider
an elementary strip of width of 'dx' at a distance of 'x' from the centre 'O'.
Heat conducted through the strip,
Q = I R loss between ′O′ and strip, i. e. through the distance ′x′
ρ𝑥
=I
a
On the other hand,

Temperature across the strip dθ

Q = =
Thermal resistance of the strip dR
ρ dx
Thermal resistance of the strip, dR =
a
Now,

ρ𝑥 ρ dx I
Temperature across the strip,dθ = Q dR = I × = ρ ρ xdx
a a a
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Therefore, temperature difference between 'O' and overhang will be

I
θ= ρ ρ xdx
a

I x
=ρ ρ
a 2

I L
=ρ ρ
a 8
I
Taking δ = . Then, we get
a
L
θ = ρ𝛿 ρ
8

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b) Considering that the overhang is considerably hot and therefore the heat produced in the
embedded portion of the conductor is to be conducted through the slot insu1ation to the iron
core. We have now to determine the difference in temperature between conductor and the
surrounding iron, i.e. the temperature gradient across the insulation.

Let,
W = Width of slot, m
d = Depth of slot, m
t = Thickness of insulation, m
ρ = Thermal resistivity of insulation, Ω − m

Heat produced in the conductor,

ρL
Q=I
a

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Area to the path of heat flow≈ d L + W L + d L ≈ L 2d + W

Thermal resistance of the insulation,
ρt
R =
L 2d + W
Therefore, temperature gradient across the insulation,
ρL ρt
θ=Q×R =I ×
a L 2d + W
I
Taking δ = ⇒ I = δa
a
Then, we get
ρt
θ=δ a ρ×
2d + W

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Enclosure
 Machines must operate in all kinds of environments. The environment in which the machine
is placed helps to dictate the type of enclosure of the machine.
 The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings).
 An enclosure not only hold its components together, it also protects the internal components
from wetness, corrosion and damaging i.e. it protects the machine from contaminants in the
environment in which it is operating.
 The degree of protection depends on the enclosure type. In addition, the type of enclosure
affects the cooling of machine.

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Types of Enclosure
1) Open type enclosure: In this type of enclosure, the machine is open from both ends. This
allows free ventilation i.e. there is no restriction in ventilation unless the enclosure interferes
with mechanical strength of the machine.
2) Open pedestal: In this type of enclosure, the rotor is affixed upon pedestal bearings mounted
on the bed plate, which is supported independently of the machine frame.
3) Open-ended bracket: In this type of enclosure, the end brackets of the bearings form a vital
part of the machine and the air is in free contact with stator and rotor through these end
shields.
4) Protected type enclosure: In this type of enclosure, the internal rotating and other sensitive
portions are given mechanical protection from accidental or inadvertent contact without
degrading and blocking the ventilation.

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5) Screen Protected Type : In this case, the enclosure has large openings for free ventilation.
However, these openings are fitted with screen covers which safeguard against accidental
contacts and rats entering the machine but afford no protection from dirt, dust and falling
water. Screen protected type motors are installed where dry and neat conditions prevail
without any gases or fumes.
6) Drip Proof Type: This enclosure is used in very damp conditions i.e. for pumping sets.
Since machine openings are protected by over-hanging cowls, vertically falling water and
dust are not able to enter the machine.
7) Splash-proof Type : In such machines, the ventilating openings are so designed that liquid
or dust particles at an angle between vertical and 100° from it cannot enter the machine.
Such type of motors can be safely used in rain.
8) Totally Enclosed (TE) Type : In this case, the machine is completely enclosed and no
openings are left for ventilation. All the heat generated due to losses is dissipated from the
outer surface which is finned to increase the cooling area. Such machines are used for dusty
atmosphere i.e. motors used in sawmills and coal-handling plants.
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9) Totally-enclosed Fan-cooled (TEFC) Type : In this case, a fan is mounted on the shaft
external to the totally enclosed casing and air is blown over the ribbed outer surfaces of the
stator and end shields. Such machines find their applications in flour mills, cement works
and sawmills.
10) Pipe-ventilated Type: Such an enclosure is used for very dusty surroundings. The machine
is totally enclosed but is cooled by neat and clean air brought through a separate pipe from
outside the dust-laden area.
11) Flame-proof (FLP) Type: Such machines are employed in atmospheres which contain
inflammable gases and vapours. They are totally enclosed but their enclosures are so
constructed that any explosion within the machine due to any spark does not ignite the gases
outside.

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Methods of cooling
A cooling is a process by which heat resulting from losses occurring in a machine is given up to
a primary coolant by increasing its temperature. The heated primary coolant may be replaced by
a new coolant at lower temperature or may be cooled by a secondary coolant in some form of
heat exchanger.
Energy transfer and energy conversion in electrical machines produces losses. These losses
appear as heat and increase temperature of the machine beyond its optimum level. This may
deteriorate the insulation and renders the machine useless. Heat is dissipated to surroundings by
conduction and convection assisted by radiation from outer surfaces. The rating of the machine
consequently depends on how fast the heat is transferred from inside of the machine to the
ambient medium. These are the reasons that makes cooling necessary in an electric machine.
In most of the cases the cooling of the machine is performed by means of air stream and this
cooling is called ventilation.
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The types of cooling/ventilation are briefly explained as follows.

● Natural cooling: In this type, cooling occurs naturally by air movements in machines due to
its rotating parts or by temperature differences existing in its surrounding.
● Self-cooling: In this type, cooling occurs by fan mounted in the shaft which rotates along
with the machine or integrally built in the part of the machine which drives it.
● Separate cooling: In this type, cooling occurs by fan driven by a separate machine i.e. no
direct mechanical contact between the cooling fan and the machine.

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Terminologies
● Primary Coolant: It is a medium (liquid or gas), which has lower temperature than machine
part and in contact with it, removes heat from that part. For example, Water.
● Secondary Coolant: It is a medium (liquid or gas), which has lower temperature than
primary coolant, removes the heat from the primary coolant in a heat exchanger. For
example, Ethylene Glycol, Propylene Glycol, Calcium Chloride, Sodium Chloride. etc.
● Heat Exchanger: It is a component that keeps two coolants separate but allows transfer of
heat energy between them such as air cooled heat exchanger, water cooled heat exchanger,
double wall, ribbed tubes, etc. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air
conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants.
● Inner cooled (Direct cooling) winding: A winding which has either hollow conductors or
tubes, which form an integral part of the winding, through which the coolant flows.

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● Open circuit cooling: A method of cooling in which the coolant is drawn from the medium
surrounding the machine, passes through the machine and then returns to the surrounding
medium.
● Closed circuit cooling: A method of cooling in which the primary coolant is circulated in a
closed circuit through the machine and if necessary, through the heat exchanger. The heat is
transferred from the primary coolant to the secondary coolant either through the structural
parts or in the heat exchanger.

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Schemes of ventilation
The ventilation of machine both for self ventilation and separate ventilation can be divided into
two groups according to the scheme of ventilation incorporated in the machine.
1) Induced ventilation
● In this scheme, a fan reduces pressure inside the machine leading the air to be sucked into
the machine under the external atmospheric pressure.
● The air is circulated through the machine and then exhausted out by the fan into the
atmosphere.
● Induced ventilation can be implemented using both internal fan and external fan which is
shown in figure below.
● Self-induced ventilation is generally used in small and medium power machines.

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2) Forced ventilation
● In this scheme, a fan sucks the air from the atmosphere and forces it into the machine, from
where it is then pushed out to the atmosphere using either an external or internal fan.
● Forced ventilation can be implemented using internal fan and external fan which is shown in
the figure below.
● In forced ventilation, the following factors influence heat dissipation rate.
⁕ Machine surface to be cooled
⁕ The volume of the coolant used
⁕ The temperature difference between the coolant and the surface

In induced ventilation, cold air enters the machine whereas with forced ventilation the
temperature of the cooling air rises on account of losses of the fan. Thus, the amount of air
required to cool the machine is higher with forced ventilation.

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33

The another special case of ventilation, termed as forced self-ventilation has led to the operation
of electrical machines with less noise due to the following reasons:
● The fan is one of the major sources of noise, predominantly more when the end shield’s inner
diameter is marginally equal to the fan’s outside diameter, due to space constraints.
● On account of the fact that forced self-ventilation is far more efficient than the natural cooling
process, the accelerated heat removal results in low specific loadings and consequently low
losses per unit dissipating surface of the machine.
● This in turn permits the use of fans with smaller diameters, thereby reducing the noise levels
considerably.
● Also, in induction motors having radial ducts in the stator and rotor, forced self ventilation is
adopted as a rule.

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Types of ventilating system

The ventilating systems based on provision of cooling ducts and air passage over the heated
machine parts are classified as follows.
1) Radial ventilating system
● In this system, cooling air enters the duct through the stator by air gap and passes radially
to the back of stator when it is removed. As the movement of rotor induces a natural
centrifugal movement of air which may be augmented by provisions of fans if needed, so it
is commonly used in motors.
● Figure 1 below shows the radial ventilating system for machines with small core lengths.
The end shields are so arranged and shaped to guide air over the overhang and the back of
the core.
● Figure 2 below shows the radial ventilating system for machines with large core lengths
where the core is subdivided into stacks of 40–80 mm thickness, with radial ventilating
ducts of width 10 mm in between them.
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● The air in this case passes radially through these ducts and parallel to the overhang.
Introducing these radial ducts can increase the rate of heat dissipation and hence cooling is
improved.

The advantages of the radial ventilating system are as follows:

● Energy losses for ventilation is considerably low.
● Temperature rise of the machine in the axial direction is sufficiently uniform.

The disadvantages of the radial ventilating system are as follows:

● It increases the machine lengths, as space for ventilating ducts has to be provided along the
core length.
● Such ventilating systems may become unstable with respect to the quantity of flow of cooling
air.
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2) Axial ventilating system

In this ventilating system, air is forced in an axial direction through the passages formed by the holes in
stator and rotor. If the axial ducts are arranged on the rotor, it is known as simple axial system while if the
axial ducts are provided on both stator and rotor, it is known as double axial system.
Axial ventilation is usually preferred in induction machines due to the following reasons:
● Axial ventilation is suitable for induction machines with medium output and high speed characteristics
as in such machines, a solid rotor construction is used in order to avoid centrifugal stresses, making
radial ventilating ducts unsuitable and hence axial ventilation is employed.
● In order to increase the cooling surface, holes may be punched in the core plates where considerable
heat dissipation occurs.
● This system improves cooling, but requires a large core diameter for the increased core depth.

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The disadvantages of the axial ventilating system are as

follows:
● Increased iron loss: The provision of axial
ventilating ducts behind the slots of the stator
reduces the amount of iron in turn increases the flux
density in the stator core thereby increasing the iron
losses.
● Non-uniform heat transfer: The temperature of the
end from which the air leaves is higher than that of
the end where the air enters the stator on account of
the fact that air extracts heat (gets hot) in the passage
from the entering end to the leaving end, resulting in
non-uniform heat transfer.

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3) Combined axial and radial ventilating system

● This method is usually employed for large motors
and small turbo alternators, as the area of axial
ducts needed to carry sufficient quantity of cooling
air becomes excessive giving rise to a large iron
loss and therefore a combined axial and radial
system must be employed.
● In this system, the air is drawn into the machine
from one end and is passed through the ducts by
the fan at the other end of the rotor spider. This fan
mounted on the rotor shaft then forces out the
heated air and the arrangement for such system is
shown in the figure below.

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4) Multiple inlet ventilation system

● High power turbo machines (with rating >50 KW) of long core lengths cannot use axial or
radial ventilation techniques owing to the fact that the coolant turns hot before reaching the
machine’s central region from the end-rings due to the heat collected on the long pathway.
● This leads to poor heat absorption in the central region and consequently a non-uniform heat
distribution in the machine.
● Hence, multiple-inlet ventilation technique where the stator frame and core are subdivided
into multiple compartments (inlet and outlet chambers) is adapted in turbo-generators.
● Compressed air at high pressure is forced radially inward to the stator casing through the inlet
chambers. A part of this air passes through the axial ducts, the remainder flowing through the
air gap. Finally the hot air is then extracted radially outwards from the outlet chambers for
cooling and recirculation as shown in figure below.
● This method can be used for machines of rating up to 60 MW.

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Cooling of Totally enclosed machines

● Totally enclosed machines are employed where the use of open and protected machine is
restricted i.e. in cases where the air contains objectionable impurities like acid flumes and
explosive gases that may destroy the insulation.
● In this type of machine, the inside air has no connection with the outside and all the heat
generated inside the machine should be dissipated into the surroundings from the external
surface of the frame. The heated outer surface is cooled by forced air by a shaft-mounted fan.
● Two types of fan cooling are used for totally enclosed machines.
a) Shaft mounted fan external to the working parts of the machine blows air over the carcass
through a space between the main housing and a thin cover plate. An internal fan provides
interna1 air circulation, this avoids the temperature gradient across the air gap.
b) An internal fan circulates the heated air to the carcass. Air is also blown over the outside of
the carcass to improve the heat dissipation. Another cover encloses the outer fan in order to
secure required direction of flow of air.
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● Totally enclosed large induction machines are cooled providing radiators (heat exchanger) on
the frame of the machine. At higher ratings the outside air may be cooled by means of water
if there is a convenient source of water.

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Cooling Circuits
Cooling circuits for both self and independent ventilation may be of two types which are
explained below:
1) Open circuit ventilation
● In this ventilation, the coolant (cold fresh air) continuously enters the machine from one end
flowing through the ventilating ducts, above the over-hang of the winding in the machine.
● The temperature of the coolant rises as it extracts the heat from the machine.
● The coolant is then released to the atmosphere through another end of the machine.
● Filters are required to clean the air in the large machines which requires large volume of air in
order to prevent clogging of cooling ducts.
● It is also necessary to dry the air to remove the moisture.
● It is not a suitable method for large machines because it requires large tons of cooling air per
hour and hence operating costs will increase. Thus, it is predominantly used for small and
medium size air cooled machines. 45

2) Closed circuit ventilation

● This type of ventilation is a complete means of clean air cooling system where the same
volume of air passes through a closed circuit.
● In this mechanism, the system utilizes primary and secondary coolant.
● The primary coolant is made to flow over the core and the winding which may also flow
through the ducts in the slots and conductors.
● In the above process, the coolant extracts the heat thereby increasing the temperature of the
primary coolant.
● The hot primary coolant is passed through the heat exchanger, where it is cooled by a
secondary coolant.
● Cold air from the heat exchanger is then returned to the machine by using a centrifugal pump
for re-extraction of heat, thus providing closed circuit ventilation.

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Thermal state in electrical machines

When an electrical machine is switched on and put on a steady load condition starting from cold
condition, the temperature of the machine rises at a rate determined by losses. With the rise in
temperature the active parts of the machine and various surfaces starts transferring and
dissipating the heat partly by conduction, partly by radiation and most cases, by means of air
cooling. The higher the rise in temperature, the greater would be the effect of these methods of
air-cooling. The temperature of any part of the machine depends not only on the heat produced in
it but also on the heat generated in other parts of the machine.
Electrical machines are not homogeneous bodies. Their parts are made up of different materials
like iron, copper and different insulation. Different materials have different thermal resistivity
and due to this reason it is difficult to calculate temperature of a part of the machine. However,
this can be shown analytically by making following assumptions:
a) The machine can be considered as a homogeneous body developing heat internally at
uniform rate.
b) The rate of heat transfer and dissipation is proportional to the temperature difference.
47

Let,
Q = Power loss or heat developed, J/sec or W
G = Weight of active parts of machine, kg
S = Area of cooling surface, m
𝜆 = Specific heat dissipation, W/m − °C
C = Specific heat, J/kg − °C

c = = cooling co-efficient, °C − m /W
θ = Temperature rise at any time t, °C
θ = Final steady temperature rise under heating condition, °C
θ = Final steady temperature rise under cooling condition, °C
θ = Initial Temperature rise over ambient medium, °C
T = Heating time constant, sec
T = Cooling time constant, sec
t = time, sec 48

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1. Machine under heating

Considering the machine condition at any time t from start. During a specific short time dt the
temperature of the surface rises by dθ.
The heat energy developed in the body of the machine during this small interval of time dt,
= Heat energy developed per second × dt = Q dt
If during this period dt the temperature of body rises by dθ, the heat energy stored in the body,
= Weight of the body × specific heat × difference in temperature
= G C dθ
If during this interval the temperature of the body rises by over the ambient medium, the heat
energy dissipated by the body,
= Specific heat dissipation × Area of the surface × temperature rise
× time duration
= λ S θ dt 49

According to the heat balance relationship,

Heat produced = Heat Stored + Heat dissipation
Q dt = G C dθ + λ S θ dt … … … (1)

dθ
or, dt =
Q Sλ
− θ
GC GC
By integrating, we get

GC Q Sλ
t=− ln − θ +K … … … (2)
Sλ GC GC
Where, K is a constant of integration and can be found by using initial condition i.e.
At t = 0 and θ = θ

GC Q Sλ
0=− ln − θ +K
Sλ GC GC
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GC Q Sλ
K= ln − θ
Sλ GC GC
Substituting the value of K in equation (2), we get

GC Q Sλ GC Q Sλ
t=− ln − θ + ln − θ
Sλ GC GC Sλ GC GC

Q Sλ
− θ
GC GC GC
=− ln
Sλ Q Sλ
− θ
GC GC

Q
GC −θ
Sλ
or, t=− ln … … … (3)
Sλ Q
−θ
Sλ

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The machine reaches a final steady temperature rise θ when t =∞. There is no further increase
in temperature and the rate of heat production and dissipation are equal.
This means θ = θ ; dθ = 0 and heat stored, G C dθ = 0
Then, Q dt = λ S θ dt
Q
∴θ = … … … (4)
Sλ
Now, equation (3) becomes

GC θ −θ
t=− ln … … … (5)
Sλ θ −θ

The term has the dimension of time and is called as "Heating time constant" of the machine.

GC
Heating time constant, T = … … … (6)
Sλ
Substituting the value of T in equation (5), we have
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θ −θ
t = −T ln
θ −θ

θ −θ
or, =e
θ −θ

or, θ −θ=θ e −θe

∴θ=θ 1−e +θe ……… 7

If the machine starts from cold condition i.e. there is no temperature rise over the ambient
medium and hence θ = 0, then equation (7) becomes

θ=θ 1−e ……… 8

From, equation (8), it is clear that the temperature rise-time curve is exponential in nature.

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Heating time constant

Putting t = T in the equation (8), we have,
θ=θ 1−e = 0.632θ
Thus, heating time constant can be defined
as the time taken by the machine to attain
63.2% of its final steady temperature rise.
The heating time constant of a machine is
the index of time taken by the machine to
attain its final steady temperature rise.

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From the equation (6) it is clear that the heating time constant is inversely proportional to
specific heat dissipation (λ) and has large value for well ventilated machine and small value for
poorly ventilated machine. Thus, T has small value for well ventilated machine while it has
large value for poorly ventilated machine.
On the other hand, large size machines have large heating time constant as the size of the
machine increases, the volume and hence, weight increases in proportion to third power of linear
dimensions and surface area in proportion to second power.

Final steady temperature rise

From the equation (4) it is clear that the final steady temperature rise is directly proportional to
the losses Q and inversely proportional to surface area S and specific heat dissipation . Thus, for
the same loss, the machine would attain a higher temperature rise if its dissipating surface is
small or if its ventilation is poor.

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2. Machine under cooling

When load on the machine is decreased thereby reducing the losses or the machine is completely
shut down, leading to stoppage of heat generation, the temperature of the machine will fall.
The equation for cooling can be derived by considering the following equation:
Q dt = G C dθ + λ S θ dt … … … (I)
The solution of above equation is given by

GC Q Sλ
t=− ln − θ +K … … … (II)
Sλ GC GC
The value of K is obtained by putting boundary conditions i.e. at t = 0 (start of cooling) and θ =
θ (temperature of the surface is θ over the ambient temperature). From this, we have

GC Q Sλ
K= ln − θ … … … (III)
Sλ GC GC

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Substituting the value of K and proceeding in the same way as in the case of heating, we get

θ=θ 1−e +θe … … … (IV)

Where,
Q
θ = … … … (V)
Sλ
GC
T = … … … (VI)
Sλ
If the machine is shut down, no heat is produced in the machine and so its final steady
temperature rises when cooling is zero i.e. θ = 0 and under this condition, the equation (IV)
reduces to

θ=θe … … … (V)
From, equation (V), it is clear that the cooling curve is exponential in nature.

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Cooling time constant

It is given by
GC
T =
Sλ
Putting t = T in the equation (V), we have,
θ=θe = 0.368θ
Thus, cooling time constant can be defined
as the time taken by the machine to fall to
36.8% of its initial value. The cooling time
constant of a machine is the index of time
taken by the machine to reduce its rise in
temperature to zero.

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The value of λ under cooling conditions is usually different from that under heating conditions as
the ventilation condition in both cases may not be same. So the heating and cooling time
constants of a machine may have different values.
Cooling time constant is usually larger owing to poorer ventilation conditions when the machine
cools. In self-cooled motors, T is about 2-3 times greater than T because cooling conditions are
poor at standstill.

Final steady temperature rise

When the machine is cooling, the final steady temperature rise θ = is directly proportional
to the losses Q. When the machine is shut down, Q is zero and thus final steady temperature rise
is zero, i.e. the machine finally comes to ambient temperature condition.

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Rating of electric machines based on

temperature rise
In most of the situations, motors are selected on the basis of their heating since temperature rise
of the motor is the prime factor in determining its life. Then the motor is checked for overload
capacity. Motor power capacity is selected in accordance with the work the motor is desired to
perform simultaneously ensuring that the motor will operate with permissible limits of
mechanical loading.
The rating of an electrical machine is the power output or the designated operating power limit
based upon certain definite conditions assigned to it by the manufacturer. An electrical machine
is normally rated upon thermal basis of temperature rise, i.e. maximum possible temperature at
which the insulating material may be worked without deterioration. The types of ratings and
duties of electric machines are defined depending upon the load and its duration.

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In majority of industrial and other applications, machines carry constant load continuously.
However, in many cases the working of the machine is stopped before the machine attains its
final steady temperature rise. In the other cases the machine is operated for intermediate periodic
duty.
The followings are the types of duty according to the IS 4722-1968:
a) Continuous duty (S )
b) Short time duty (S )
c) Intermittent periodic duty (S )
d) Intermittent periodic duty with starting (S )
e) Intermittent periodic duty with starting and electric braking (S )
f) Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading (S )
g) Continuous duty with starring and electric braking (S )
h) Continuous duty with periodic speed change (S )

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From the point of view of temperature rise, the above eight duty types can be put into two
groups: continuous duty and non-continuous duty which are explained as below.
1) Continuous duty
Only duty S comes under this group. In this type, the duration of load is for a very long time
such that all parts of the machine attain thermal equilibrium i.e. the machine attain its
maximum final steady temperature rise. Continuously running fans, pumps and other
equipment, which operate for several hours are the example of continuous duty machines.
The continuous rating of a machine is defined as the load that may be carried by the machine
for an indefinite time without the temperature rise of any part of the machine exceeding the
maximum permissible limit.
2) Non-continuous duty
All the other types except come under this group. In this type, the duty cycle is shorter than
the continuous duty, such that the machine never reaches its thermal equilibrium during the
duty cycle. The short time rating of a machine may be defined as its output at which it may
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be operated a certain specified time without exceeding the maximum permissible limit of
temperature rise. The duration of operation is so short that the temperature rise of the machine
does not reach its steady value followed by a period of rest so long that the machine returns to
cold condition. Standard short time ratings are 10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes.
The intermittent rating of a machine applies to a working condition during which the short time
load periods alternate with periods of rest i.e. no load without the machine reaching the thermal
equilibrium and the temperature rise remaining below the maximum permissible limit. In this
duty the current does not significantly affect the temperature rise.

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Calculation of temperature rise of

armature
The temperature rise of armatures can be determined by following equation:

θ=θ 1−e +θe

To apply this, we must know about the total heat lost, cooling surface and cooling coefficient. It
is assumed that the current density in the conductors has been so chosen that the end connections
arc not appreciably hotter than the armature as a whole. Under these conditions, the heat to be
dissipated by cooling surfaces of the armature core would consist of (i) hysteresis and eddy
current losses in armature core and teeth (ii) I R losses in the active portion of the armature
winding i.e. in the part of the winding embedded in the slots.
The total armature cooling surface may be composed of the following :
a) the outside cylindrical surfaces of armature
b) the inside cylindrical surfaces of armature
c) the two end surfaces of armature 65

Let
c = cooling co-efficient for outside cylindrical surface of armature
c = cooling co-efficient for inside cylindrical surface of armature
c =cooling co-efficient for ducts
We know, the steady temperature rise of surface is given by:
Qc
θ =
S
Outside cylindrical surface of armature, S = πD L

Loss dissipted/°C rise of temperature from outside cylindrical surface of armature = watt

Inside cylindrical surface of armature, S = πD L

Loss dissipted/°C rise of temperature from inside cylindrical surface of armature = watt

Where, D , D are outside diameter and inside diameter of the armature respectively.
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The cooling surface of two ends of armature core and radial ventilating ducts (considering one
surface of each radial duct), S = × (D − D )(2 + n )
Where, n = number of ventilating ducts

Loss dissipted/°C rise of temperature from end surfaces and radial ventilating ducts =

The total loss dissipated/°C rise of temperature = + +

total loss to be dissipated

Hence, temperature rise of armature, θ =
loss dissipated/° rise of temperature

Q
∴θ=
S S S
+ +
c c c

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Calculation of temperature rise of field

coil
The problem of calculation of temperature rise of field coils is complicated by the fact that the
fanning action of rotor has an important effect on the capability of machine to dissipate heat.
Moreover, the spacing between the poles and the presence of interpoles affects the cooling
conditions of main poles . It is, therefore, clear that the heat dissipated from surfaces of field
coils will depend upon the type of construction of machine, nature and area of surface, or
whether stationary as in dc machines or revolving as in synchronous machines and the heat
absorbing properties of surrounding medium. Therefore, the pre-determination of temperature
rise of field coils is based upon empirical co-efficient derived from experience and experimental
investigations.
The losses to be dissipated from surfaces of field coils are the copper losses in the windings.
There are no iron losses in the cores of field coils of dc and synchronous machines as they are
subjected to non-varying magnetizations.

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The calculation of temperature rise may be base upon total coil surface. The total exposed coil
surface can be calculated as
S = 2L d + 2L h = 2L (d + h )
Where, L = length of mean turn of field coil
= 2(b + L ) + 4d
Where,
d = radial depth of field coil
h = axial height of field coil
L = length of pole core
b = width of pole core

total loss to be dissipated

Hence, temperature rise of armature, θ =
loss dissipated/° rise of temperature

∴θ=
/

Where, c is the average cooling coefficient of the field coil 69

The cooling co-efficient for field coils are given by

0.14 to 0.16
c = (For stationary field coils based on total coil surface)
1 + 0.1V
0.01 to 0.08
c = (For stationary field coils based on exposed coil surface)
1 + 0.1V
0.08 to 0.12
c = (For rotating field coils based on total coil surface)
1 + 0.1V
0.06 to 0.08
c = (For rotating field coils based on exposed coil surface)
1 + 0.1V

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Calculation of temperature rise of

commutator
The temperature rise of a commutator depends upon many factors which cannot be incorporated
in a formula. The peripheral speed of the surface will definitely have effect on the value of
cooling co-efficient but the influence of high speeds on rotating cylindrical surfaces is not so
great as may be expected. The fanning action of risers connecting the bars to the armature coils
largely influences the temperature rise in the case of small commutators but this factor is of less
importance where the axial length of commutators is large.
The probable cooling co-efficient of a commutator in which no special cooling devices are used
but for which risers have a good fanning action, can be taken by following relation:
0.012
c =
1 + 0.1V
Where, V = peripheral speed of commutator, m/s
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This value of cooling co-efficient takes into consideration only the cylindrical surface of the
commutators.
The cooling co-efficient based upon some portion of riser surface in addition to commutator
surface can be taken as

0.015 to 0.025
c =
1 + 0.1V

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