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MODULE 3:
MATERIALS FOR MEMORY UNITS AND DISPLAY SYSTEMS

MATERIALS FOR DISPLAY SYSTEMS

Liquid crystals- Introduction, classification of liquid crystals- thermotropic and lyotropic
liquid crystals, opto electric effect, liquid crystal display unit-construction and working,
Characteristics, working and applications of light emitting diodes (LED) and organic light
emitting diodes (OLED’s), Quantum dot Light emitting diodes (QDLED’s) (5hrs)

DISPLAY SYSTEMS
Liquid Crystals (LC) have properties both of those of conventional liquids and
those of solids. They find application in the areas of science and engineering, particularly
in display systems of modern electronic gadgets. Devices using liquid crystal displays
have the advantage of low power consumption and hence are widely used in display
devices of mobile communication appliances, aircraft cockpit, laptops and other
electronic equipment.
In a crystalline state, the molecules (or atoms) are having a definite position and
orientation in space in a regular repeated manner in a rigid arrangement and are
immobile. They tend to orient in a preferred direction i.e., the molecules in solids have a
positional and orientational order. In liquid state, the molecules neither occupy specific
positions nor remain oriented in a particular manner. The molecules are somewhat free
to move at random and collide with one another, abruptly change their positions. The
liquids have neither positional order nor orientational order. A liquid crystal (LC) is a
state of matter exists between solids and liquids with both the properties.
Molecular arrangements of solid, liquid and liquid crystals are shown below.

In a liquid crystal, the molecules possess orientational order, i.e., the molecules
tend to remain oriented in a particular direction. The direction of preferred orientation
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in a liquid crystal is called the director (n ) and may be imagined to be directed towards
the top or bottom of the page. Since the molecules are in constant motion, in liquid crystal
phase they spend more time pointing along the director than along any other direction.

The extent of orientational order can be described by taking an average. An

average of 0° indicates perfect orientation and can be expected in solids. An average of
greater than 45° indicates no orientational order and found in liquids. However, in liquid
crystals a smaller average angle with the director is observed which indicates
orientational order.
The quality of any device using LCs depends mainly upon the physical properties
of the LC molecules. To achieve a high performance of the LC device, it is essential to select
the most appropriate LC material according to the specific requirements of the desired
device. In general, the LCs must satisfy the following characteristic properties
• Liquid crystalline nature should be at room temperature and the entire temperature
range of the device operation
• Chemically, electrochemically, photochemically and thermally stable
• Should have high electrical resistance
• Permanent electric dipole, hence either a positive (Δε>0) or negative (Δε<0)
dielectric anisotropy.
• Should possess easily polarizable substituents
• Liquid crystal is birefringent. It possesses two different indices of refraction. One
index of refraction corresponds to light polarized along the director of the liquid
crystal, and the other is for light polarized perpendicular to the director.
Requirements for formation of mesophase ( or liquid crystal)

• it should have elongated structure

• it should have a central rigid core with flexible ends.

• it should be polarized or polarizable.

Eg : para azoxy anisole

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H3CO N=N OCH3

• It has an elongated structure

• It has one rigid core comprising of two benzene nuclei linked through N=N
• It has one methoxy group each at p and p’ positions as flexible ends.
Classification of Liquid Crystals
Based on the response to change in temperature or change in concentration, Liquid
Crystals are broadly classified as
1. Thermotropic LCs
2. Lyotropic LCs
The liquid crystalline substances which undergo transitions by variation in
temperature are called thermotropic LCs. Example: p-azoxy anisole. The liquid
crystalline substances which undergo transitions by the influence of solvents are called
Lyotropic LCs. Eg. Sodium stearate. Both these systems can be characterized by
anisotropic, viscous, electrical, optical and mechanical properties. Organic molecules,
which are able to form thermotropic as well as Lyotropic mesophases, are termed as
Amphotropic LCs.

THERMOTROPIC LIQUID CRYSTALS:

Classification of thermotropic liquid crystals based on shape:
Based on the shape of the constituting molecules, the thermotropic LCs can be classified
as
1. Calamitic LCs
2. Discotic LCs
3. Polycatenar LCs
4. Bent (Banana ) LCs
Calamitic Liquid Crystals: The LC compounds possessing rod-like molecular shape
belong to this category. The general molecular structure of a calamitic LC is as given
below.

Rʹ A L B L C L D Rʺ
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Where A, B, C and D are called the rigid cores (containing a phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl,
cyclohexyl or five/six membered heterocycles) of the molecule. In a Liquid crystal, there
should be at least one rigid core. L is the linking group (an imine, azo, azoxy, ester,
thioester, C=C and C≡C) and Rʹ or Rʺ is the end group/chain (a halo group, cyano, nitro,
alkyl or alkoxy groups) Eg:

C1 0 F 2 1

(perfluorodecyl)-decane
Discotic Liquid Crystals: Discotic compounds consist of flat and disc-like rigid cores
which are surrounded by flexible chains such as alkyl, alkyloxy or alkanoyloxy. These
discotic molecules can be stacked one over another in many ways so as to obtained
different columnar structures like hexagonal, rectangular or oblique symmetry. Within
the columns, the molecules can have certain order or disorder. The general structure of
discotic LCs can be represented with the following cartoon picture. In discotic liquid
crystals, the molecular diameter (d) is much greater than the disc thickness (t) to form
anisotropy. A typical molecular structure of a discotic molecule is shown below.
R R

R R

R R

where R = al ky l chai n

Polycatenar Liquid crystals: Poly-catenar liquid crystals are considered as a hybrid

class of thermotropic liquid crystals. Its molecular features lie intermediate between
classical rod-like and disc-like mesogens. Schematically the central core of poly-catenar
LCs comprises a calamitic region, with half-discs on the extremities. This hybrid
molecular structure allows them to exhibit both calamitic (nematics/smectic) and
discotic (columnar) phases, depending on the specific molecular structure of the
components. E.g., the tetracatenar mesogens (shown below), at shorter chain lengths
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exhibit nematic and/or smectic-C phases, while at longer chain lengths exhibit columnar
phases. The numbers of the flexible end chains of the core can be indicated by using the
term, m,n–polycatenary mesogen. The different polycatenar LCs can be represented with
the following schematic diagrams.

2,2-polycatenary mesogen 3,1-polycatenary mesogen

Bent (Banana) Liquid Crystals: Bent shaped liquid crystals are constituted of two
mesogenic groups linked through a rigid core in such a way that the molecule is not a
linear (as shown in the following figure). The central rigid core (Z) may be a phenyl or
biphenyl or naphthyl group. The mesogenic groups attached to the central core are
mostly the calamitic molecules consisting of two (or more) aromatic rings with different
linking groups (A, B, X, Aʹ, Bʹ, Xʹ) and a terminal chain/a substituent in para position to the
linking group of the aromatic rings. The angle between the two calamitic wings (bending
angle) is around 120°. In case of a benzene central core, the mesogens are connected in
1 and 3 positions (i.e., meta position to each other). If the central core is a naphthyl, the
two calamitic wings are connected in 2 and 7 positions.

Z
X
X'

A
A'

B
H 3C B'
n
C H3
m

Classification of thermotropic liquid crystals based on phase:

Based on the phase of existence, thermotropic liquid crystals are further classified as
a) Nematic,
b) smectic,
c) columnar,
d)Twisted Nematic ( Chl
Nematic: The properties of this phase are very close to liquid or they possess most liquid
like structure. The molecular axes are oriented parallel to one another, resulting in long
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range of an orientational order. They do not possess positional order. They have thread
like structure, less viscous and more fluid in nature. Eg : p-azoxy anisole.

Smectic: The properties of this phase are very close to solid. They possess layered
structures with many possibilities of the state of order inside the layers. They show long
range orientational as well as partial positional order. . Higly viscous and less fluidic in
nature

Columnar: Structures with columns consisting of parallel arranged disc-like molecules.

These may be columnar or discotic. Here molecules are stacked one above the other
forming column. They do not have positional order but have orientational order. These
columns form definite shape such as hexagon. They are highly viscous and less fluidic in
nature
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Twisted Nematic liquid crystals:

These are also known as cholesteric liquid crystals or chiral nematic liquid
crystals. They are formed by optically active compounds with chiral centres. They are
elongated nematic molecules which are optically anisotropic and is characterized by a
uniaxial optical index. Due to the presence of chiral centre, they have helical structure.

The distance through which a director travels as it completes one full rotation is known
as pitch of the liquid crystal. This unique property of twisted nematic liquid crystal is used
in the construction of liquid crystal display unit. These type of liquid crystal are less
viscous with more fluidity. Eg : Cholesteryl benzoate

Lyotropic Liquid Crystals:

Lyotropic liquid crystals form anisotropic aggregates when combined with a
solvent, like water. Few compounds transform to a liquid crystal phase when mixed with
solvents. They are obtained by mixing the compound in a solvent and increasing the
concentration of compound till liquid crystal is obtained. The phase transition behaviour
is dependent on the concentration, polarity of solvent and also on the temperature.
Molecules which form Lyotropic phases are usually amphiphilic, having non-polar,
hydrophobic "tails" at one end with a polar, hydrophilic "head" at the other end. They can
form micelles. Some examples are sodium sterate (soap) and phospholipids in water.
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Sodium Sterate Phospholipid

Lyotropic liquid crystals can form micelles. In a polar solvent like water, micelles
are formed in which the hydrophobic tails assemble together and the hydrophilic heads
groups are presented to water

When combined with a non-polar solvent such as hexane, an inverse micelle is

formed where the hydrophobic tails phase towards the non-polar solvent and the
hydrophilic head groups away from the non-polar environment.

Under certain conditions, these micelles further aggregate to form more

complicated assemblies, such as lamellar and hexagonal phases, which generate lyotropic
liquid crystal phases. Lamellar phases are particularly significant as they form the
structural basis for biological membrane

Differences between thermotropic and lyotropic liquid crystals

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Thermotropic liquid crystals Lyotropic liquid crystals

Compounds exhibit liquid crystalline Compounds exhibit liquid crystalline

behaviour on variation of temperature behaviour on variation of solvent
Characterised by definite shape and texture Do not possess definite shape and texture

They must possess at least one benzene ring They may or may not have any benzene ring

Consists only organic moiety They are amphiphilic. They are composed of
both lyophilic and lyophobic parts
They are optically active Optically inactive

Applications of liquid crystals:

Liquid crystal displays operate at low voltages (a few volts) and consume less
power as compared to other displays and hence are used in:
1. Liquid crystal displays: Used in display devices such as watches, calculators, mobile
telephones, laptop computers and clocks.
2. Liquid crystal thermometers: Chiral nematic LCs reflect light and the color which
is reflected is temperature dependent.
LIQUID CRYSTALS IN DISPLAY SYSTEMS
Electro optic effect:
Electric effect:
• When a film of liquid crystal is placed between two glass plates, the molecules are
oriented in a direction parallel to the surface of the glass.
• If an electric field is applied perpendicular to the plate, the molecules of the liquid
crystal try to align themselves parallel to the applied field

(a) Absence of electric field (b) Presence of electric field

Optical effect:
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BRIGHT DARK

4-6 m 3v

Liquid
Crystals

Light Light
crystal

When light passes through two crossed polarizers, light coming out of one
polarizer is absorbed by the other and hence darkness is observed. However, when a film
of liquid crystals placed between specially treated glass plates is placed in between the
crossed polarizers the director acts as a wave guide, and light emerges in the orthogonal
direction and brightness is observed.
This electro optic effect is used in the working of liquid crystal display unit.
In 7 segment twisted nematic display unit (TND), the nematic LC is sandwiched
between two Indium Titanium Oxide (ITO) coated glass plates with parallel
(homogeneous) alignment of its molecular director with the glass walls. However, the
two glass plates are twisted by 90° relative to each other (as shown in the following
figures).
In the absence of an external electric field, when linearly polarized light enters the
device, the LC film acts as an optical wave guide rotating the polarization of the light by
90o. Thus, the light reaches the second polarizer (analyzer/reflector) with its polarization
plane parallel to the polarizer axis and is transmitted. Consequently screen appears
bright.
In this configuration the display appears bright (off-state).
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Figure A : Off state

When an electric field is applied (on-state), the LC molecules reorient in order to
align the molecular director with the external electric field, causing the helical
arrangement to be unwound. As a consequence, The light passing through the LC film,
is not guided through 90°, and is not able to pass through the second polarizer. The display
looks dark and the observer can see the black character on a sliver gray background.

LCD system with “ON” state

Note: Alternate equivalent diagram can also be given and discussed

Advantageous of Liquid Crystal Display Units

1. LCD are very thin, light weight and usually flat panel displays
2. They consume relatively low power and hence ideal for battery-operated devices
3. LCD can produce sharp quality, high resolution images and hence can be used for
graphics in computeres
4. They are available in wide range of colours and wide range of screen sizes.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES [ LED]

Solid state device consisting of two electrodes, capable of emitting light (photon)
upon the application of appropriate voltage is known as light emitting diodes (LED)

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED.

Electroluminescence is the basis of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Here p-n
junction diode can emit light when an appropriate voltage is applied. This is due to
combination of electrons and holes. During combination of electrons and holes materials
used in the device gets excited. The region where combination of holes and electrons take
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place is known as depletion zone. When they come back to ground state, excess energy is
emitted in the form of light (photon). The materials used in LEDs are usually gallium
arsenide (GAs), gallium phosphide (GAP), or gallium arsenide phosphide (GASP). LEDs is
basically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs) The colour of the illuminated light
changes with the change of material.
.
ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES [ OLED]
OLEDs are organic electroluminescent LEDs. Here organic compounds play a vital
role in the generation of light (photons). OLED devices consists of two electrodes, an
anode and a cathode. Organic layers are placed between two electrodes. Multiple organic
layers are used, in which each layer plays an intrinsic role.
When voltage is applied to an OLED device through anode and cathode, charge
carriers are injected from the electrodes to the organic layers. Anode injects holes
(positive charges) and cathode injects electrons (negative charges) to the system. The
holes and electrons are transported to an emission site and recombined.
Organic materials in the emission site are excited by recombination of holes and
electrons. When the excited organic material returns to its ground state, then emission
occurs. The emission frequency in an OLED depends upon the energy gap between the
excited and ground states. Emission colours can be controlled by the energy gap between
the excited and ground states.
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A simple OLED is made up of six different layers. On the top and bottom, there are
layers of protective glass or plastic. The top layer is called the seal and the bottom layer
the substrate.
In between those layers, there is a negative terminal or cathode and a positive
terminal or anode. In between the anode and cathode are two layers made from organic
molecules called the emissive layer and the conductive layer. Emissive layer transports
electrons and conductive layer transports holes. Positive holes are more mobile than
electrons. They easily jump and meet electrons in the emissive layer. Due to the
combination of holes and electrons there will be release of energy in the form of light /
photons.

Applications of OLED
(a) In Display applications:
 OLED devices have solid and planar structure. Therefore, OLED display panels are
very thin, flat and lightweight.
 The response time of OLED are micro. or nano seconds’ order. Therefore, OLED
display can produce sharp moving images.
 In OLEDS, the emission is from organic materials. Using variety of different organic
compounds various colors can be generated. Therefore, full-color images can be
created.
 The driving voltage of OLED devices is low, just a few volts. Hence, the power
consumption of OLED displays is very low.

Lighting Applications
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 The planar shape avoids heat concentration, Hence, temperature elevation in

OLEDs is very low
 OLED are self-emission devices, emission of light from OLED lightings is
nondirectional.

QUANTUM DOT LIGHT EMITTING DIODES [QDLED]

The structure of QD-LED is similar to the fundamental design of OLED. The difference is that
the light emitting is from the quantum dots, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanocrystals.
Quantum dots are the particles of the dimension which is much lesser than that of nanoparticles.
It consists of the following parts:
1. Metal cathode
2. Glass surface coated with Itrium titanium oxide (ITO) as anode
3. ETL: Electron transport layer
4. HTL: Hole transport layer
5. QD – EML layer: Emissive multilayer of quantum dots sand witched between ETL
and HTL
When an external potential is applied, electrons and holes are transported from ETL and HTL
towards QD-EML layer. QD material in the emission site is excited by recombination of holes and
electrons. When the exited QD returns to its ground state, emitting photons. . In QD- LED, for
better recombination efficiency, a single layer of QDs in colloidal form as an emissive layer.

Advantageous:

1. Unique property of QDLED is mainly due to the nano size of crystals. QDs are
fluorophore (fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light
excitation) nanocrystals whose excitation and emission is basically different from
the classical organic fluorophores used in OLEDs. Due to nano size, QDs obey the
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quantum mechanical principles and there is three dimensional confinement for

the charge carriers (electrons, holes).
2. Intrinsic energy band gap of QD depends on its size. It increases with the decrease
in the dimension of the QD. The colour of the light emitted by QD is directly
connected to its size. The bigger QDs cause longer wavelengths (lower
frequencies, and towards red light0. while the smallest QDs produce shorter
wavelengths, (higher frequencies, towards bluer light) . Therefore, band gap of
QDs can be modulated by varying the size of the QD. The optical properties of QDs
are tuneable just by changing nano crystal size.
3. QD-LEDs displays will be large flexible and would not deteriorate as easily as
OLEDs.
Applications
QD-LEDs are the more reliable solutions for flat-panel TV screens, digital cameras
mobile phones, and personal gaming equipment’s.