ES 39

Fluid Mechanics
Indie G. Dapin
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Engineering
Central Mindanao University
 FLUID FLOW
Fluid Classification
Reynolds’ Transport Theorem
Conservation of Mass and Linear Momentum
Conservation of Angular Momentum
Conservation of Energy
Discharge or Flow rate, Q
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑄

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑄

Where:
𝑚3Τ 𝑓𝑡 3ൗ
𝑄 = discharge in 𝑠 or 𝑠
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of flow in 𝑚2 or 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑣 = mean velocity of flow in 𝑚/𝑠 of 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝜌 = density in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 or 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3
𝛾 = specific weight in 𝑁/𝑚3 or 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
Classification of Fluid Flow
Steady flow occurs when the discharge, Q, passing a given cross-
section is constant with time. In this flow the fluid properties
(velocity, pressure, density, etc.) at any point in the flow field do not
change with time. Unsteady flow is the opposite of steady flow.
Classification of Fluid Flow
Uniform flow occurs when the flow velocity at any given time or
cross-section does not change with respect to space (i.e., length of
direction of the flow, or reach of the stream).
Non-uniform flow is the opposite of uniform flow.
Classification of Fluid Flow
Laminar flow (streamline or viscous flow) occurs when the path of
the individual fluid particles does not cross or intersect. This occurs
in smooth pipes with low flow velocity and in liquids with high
viscosity.
Turbulent flow occurs when each fluid particle does not have a
definite path and the paths of individual particles intersect.
is the opposite of uniform flow.

For laminar flow, Reynolds number < 2000

For turbulent flow, Reynolds number > 4000
Classification of Fluid Flow
Classification of Fluid Flow

Reynolds number

correlates with flow characteristics

Classification of Fluid Flow
Compressible flow occurs when the density of fluid changes due to
pressure and temperature variations, from point to point during the
flow.
Incompressible flow occurs when the density of fluid is constant.

Liquids are generally incompressible while gases are incompressible fluids.

Classification of Fluid Flow
Rotational flow and Irrotational flow
Ideal flow and Real flow
Important terms:
1. Streamlines – imaginary curve drawn through a
fluid to indicate the direction of motion in various
sections of the flow in the fluid system.
2. Streamtubes – represent elementary portions of a
flowing fluid bounded by a group of streamlines
that confine the flow.
3. Flow Nets – are drawn to indicate flow patterns in
case of two-dimensional flow, or even 3D flow.
Classification of Fluid Flow
One-dimensional flow
the flow in which parameters (velocity, pressure, density, viscosity
and temperature) vary only in one direction and flow is a function of
only one coordinate axis and time. Occurs in an incompressible fluid
in which the direction of the velocity at all points are identical.
Classification of Fluid Flow
Two-dimensional flow
the flow in which parameters (velocity, pressure, density, viscosity
and temperature) vary along two directions and flow is a function of
two coordinates (x and y-axis) and time. The flow field is represented
by streamlines which are curves.
Classification of Fluid Flow
Three-dimensional flow
the flow in which parameters (velocity, pressure, density, viscosity
and temperature) vary in all three directions and flow is a function of
three mutually perpendicular coordinates (x, y, and z-axis) and time.
The flow field is represented by streamlines which are curves.
Reynolds Transport Theorem
named after the English engineer, Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912),
who did much to advance its application in fluid mechanics.

states that the sum of the rate of change of property per unit time
for a control volume and rate of efflux of the property are equal to
the rate of the change of the extensive property of the system with
respect to time.

Assignment: Make a 1-page (3-4 paragraphs) narrative on how you

understand the Reynolds Transport Theorem. Note that duplicate
assignments (same content) will not be accepted.
Principle of Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a change is
𝑑𝑚
expressed as 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 or 𝑠𝑦𝑠ൗ𝑑𝑡 = 0, which is the statement that the
mass of the system remains constant during a process.
For a control volume (cv), mass balance is expressed in rate form as:

𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣ൗ
𝑚∙ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚∙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡.

Where:
▪ 𝑚∙ 𝑖𝑛 & 𝑚∙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the total mass flow rates into and out of the control volume,
respectively
▪ 𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣ൗ𝑑𝑡. is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries.
Principle of Conservation of Mass
Continuous flow - occurs when at any time the discharge (Q) at
every section of the stream is the same.

The Continuity Equation:

For Incompressible fluid (Liquids):

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For compressible fluids (gases):

𝑄 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝜌3 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Or
𝑄 = 𝛾1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝛾2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝛾3 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy and Head

The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of kinetic and

potential energy.

Potential energy may be subdivided into energy due to position or

elevation above a given datum, and energy due to pressure in the
fluid.

The mount of energy per pound or Newton of fluid is called the

head.
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Kinetic Energy

The ability of the fluid mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.

v = mean velocity of flow

For circular pipe of diameter, D, flowing full

Principle of Conservation of Energy
Elevation Energy (Potential Energy)

The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or

elevation with respect to the datum plane

z = position of the fluid

above (+) or below (-) the
datum plane
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Pressure Energy (Potential Energy)

Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which has a small

opening at the top. Without pressure at the top, the fluid
practically will not flow.

P = fluid pressure
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Total Energy, E
The total energy or head in the fluid flow is the sum of kinetic and potential
energies. It can be summarized as:
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Power and Efficiency
Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid having specific weight and
moving at a rate with total energy (head), the power is given by

Units of power:
3
1 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚 Τ𝑠 𝑁Τ
𝑚3 𝑚 = 𝑁∙ 𝑚Τ
𝑠 = 𝐽Τ𝑠

1 horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts

1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem
Formulated by a Swiss mathematician and physicist, Daniel Bernoulli (1738)

The total energy in a steadily flowing fluid system is constant along the flow
path. Consequently, as a moving fluid's speed increases, the fluid's pressure
decreases or the fluids’ potential energy decreases.
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy Equation with Head Lost
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy Equation without Head Lost
If the fluid experiences no head in moving from section 1 to section 2 then the total energy at
section 1 must6 be equal to the total energy at section 2. Neglecting the head lost in fluid flow,
the values that can be obtained are called the ideal or theoretical values
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy Equation with Pump
Pump is used to increase the head (raise water from a lower to a higher elevation). The input
power is electrical energy while its output power is the flow energy.
Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor
Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn converted into
mechanical energy for turbines.
Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines
Hydraulic Grade Lines (HGL)
Also known as the pressure gradient, HGL, is the graphical representation of the total potential
energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive piezometer tubes,
𝑃
placed at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is + 𝑧.
𝛾

HGL Characteristics

• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to
changes in velocity or pressure
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads
between any two points is equal to the head between these points.
Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines
Energy Grade Lines (EGL)
EGL is the graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of kinetic and potential
𝑣2 𝑃
energies). Its distance from the datum plane is + + 𝑧.
2𝑔 𝛾

EGL Characteristics

• EGL always slopes downward in the direction of flow, and will only rise with
the presence of the pump.
• The drop of the EGL between two points is the head lost between those
points
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL
𝑣2
• EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head,
2𝑔
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal
Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines
Problems
1. If the velocity of flow in a 75-mm diameter fire
hose is 0.5 m/s, what is the velocity in a 25 mm
diameter jet issuing from a nozzle attached at the
end of the pipe? Compute also the power
available in the jet in kW and in horsepower.

2. A pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.877

changes in size from 150 mm at section 1 and 450
mm at section 2. Section 1 is 3.6 m below section
2 and the pressure are 90 kPa and 60 kPa,
respectively. If the discharge is 150 liters/sec,
determine the head lost and the direction of flow
Problems
3. Water flows at the rate of 7.5 m/s through 75-mm diameter
pipe (pipe 1) and leaves through 50-mm diameter and 65-mm
diameter pipes at the rate of 3 m/s and 3.5 m/s, respectively
as shown in the figure. Air at the top of the tank escapes
through a 50-mm diameter vent. Calculate dh/dt and the
velocity of airflow through the vent. Assume the flow to be
incompressible.

4. The pump shown draws water from reservoir A at elevation 10

m and lifts it to reservoir B at elevation 60 m. The loss of head
from A to 1 is two times the velocity head in the 200 mm
diameter pipes and the loss of head from 2 and B is ten times
the velocity head in the 150 mm diameter pipe. Determine
the rated horsepower of the pump and the pressure heads at
3
1 and 2 in meters when the discharge is 0.03 𝑚 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Problems
5. Neglecting the head loss, determine the
manometer reading in the system shown
when the velocity of water flowing in the
75-mm diameter pipe is 0.6 m/s.
Principle of Conservation of Angular
Momentum
Assignment: Make a 1-page (3-4 paragraphs) narrative on how you
understand the Conservation of Angular Momentum. Note that
duplicate assignments (same content) will not be accepted.
END
 FLUID FLOW
Pipe Flow Equations and Friction Losses
Simple Pipe Problems and Minor Losses
Multiple Pipe Systems
Multiple Reservoir Problems
Open-Channel Elements of an Open Channel
Geometric Elements of an Open Channel
Fluid flow in Pipes
Pipes are closed conduits through which fluids or gases flow. Conduits may
flow fully or partially. Pipes are referred to as conduits (usually circular) which
flow full. Conduits flowing full are called open channels.

Fluid flow in pipes may be steady or unsteady. In steady flow, two types of flow
exist; they are called laminar flow (Re<2000) and turbulent flow (Re>4000).

Critical Velocity
The critical velocity in pipes is the velocity below which all turbulence are
damped out by the viscosity of the fluid. This is represented by a Reynolds
number of 2000
Fluid flow in Pipes
Reynolds Number, Re
Is the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force. It’s dimensionless.

For pipes flowing full:

where:
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣 𝐷𝜌 𝑣 = mean velocity
𝜇 𝐷 = pipe diameter
𝜇 = absolute or dynamic viscosity
For non-circular, use D = 4R.
𝜌 = density
𝑣 4𝑅𝜌 4𝑅𝑣𝜌
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜇
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑅 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 =
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Velocity distribution in Pipes
Laminar Flow
At a cross-section, the velocity distribution for laminar flow follows a parabolic law of variation
with zero velocity at the walls. In circular pipes, the velocity varies as the ordinates of a
paraboloid of revolution with its average velocity equal to one-half of its maximum velocity.

The equation for the velocity profile for laminar flow is given by
𝛾 ℎ𝐿
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑟
4𝜇𝐿
1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑣
2 𝑐

The velocity at any distance r from the center of the pipe

can be computed
where:
𝑥 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 2 ℎ𝐿 = head lost in the pipe
= ; 𝑥= 𝑟 𝐿 = pipe length
𝑟2 𝑟𝑜 2 𝑟𝑜 2
𝑟𝑜 = pipe radius
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑥 𝑣𝑐 = centerline or maximum velocity
𝑟2 𝑣 = mean velocity
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑐 1− 2 𝐷 = pipe diameter
𝑟𝑜
𝜇 = absolute or dynamic viscosity
𝑢 = velocity at distance r from pipe center
𝛾 = specific weight
Velocity distribution in Pipes
Turbulent Flow
The velocity distribution for turbulent flow varies with Reynolds number, with zero velocity at
the wall and increases more rapidly for a short distance from the walls as compared to laminar
flow

The velocity, 𝑢, at any point 𝑟 in a pipe of radius 𝑟𝑜 and center velocity

𝑣𝑐 is:

where:
The centerline or maximum velocity is given by: 𝜏𝑜 = maximum shearing stress in the pipe
𝑓 = friction factor
𝑣 = mean velocity
𝜌 = density
Then,
Shearing stress in pipes
Consider a mass of fluid of length 𝐿 and radius 𝑟 to move
to the right as shown in the figure. Due to head lost ℎ𝐿
and pressure 𝑃2 becomes less than pressure 𝑃1 .

The shearing stress, 𝜏𝑠 , at the surface of the fluid is:

(To derive, calculate the summation of forces along the

horizontal.)

The equation above can be written as

Shear velocity or Friction Velocity, 𝒗𝒔
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝜏𝑠 = 0. The maximum 𝜏𝑜 is at the pipe wall (at 𝑥 = 𝑟)

𝜏𝑜 = maximum shearing stress in the pipe

𝑓 = friction factor
𝑣 = mean velocity
𝜌 = density
Head Losses in Pipe Flow
Major head loss – caused by friction along straight sections of pipe of uniform diameter and
uniform roughness
Minor head loss – caused by changes in velocity or directions of flow, and is commonly
expressed in terms of kinetic energy

MAJOR HEAD LOSS

A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (pipe-friction equation) where:

𝑓 = friction factor
𝐿 = pipe length
𝐷 = pipe diameter
𝑣 = mean velocity
𝑄 = discharge
For non-circular pipe, use 𝐷 = 4𝑅, R=Hydraulic radius
For circular pipe, the headloss may be expressed as
Major Head Loss
A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (continued)
Value of f
For Laminar Flow: where:
𝑓 = friction factor
𝐿 = pipe length
𝐷 = pipe diameter
𝑣 = mean velocity
𝑄 = discharge
𝜇 = absolute or dynamic viscosity
𝜌 = density
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds number
For non-circular pipe, use 𝐷 = 4𝑅, R=Hydraulic radius
Major Head Loss
A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (continued)
Value of f
For Turbulent Flow:
1. For turbulent flow in smooth and rough pipes
where 𝑣𝑠 is the shear velocity or friction velocity

2. For smooth pipes, 3,000 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 100,000: (Blasius)

3. For smooth pipes, 100,000 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 3,000,000:

4. For rough pipes, where 𝛿𝑙 < 0.3𝜀: (Karman)

Major Head Loss
A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (continued)
Value of f
For Turbulent Flow:
5. For smooth and rough pipes: (Colebrook equation)
or use the Moody Chart for pipe friction

Haaland Formula (varies by 2% from the formula above)

Major Head Loss
B. Manning Formula

Haaland Formula (varies by 2% from the formula above)

C. Hazen Williams Formula

Minor Head Loss
-are caused by the changes in direction or velocity flow.
These changes may be due to sudden contraction,
sudden enlargement, gradual enlargement, valves,
bends, and other pipe fittings. These losses are usually
neglected if the length of the pipeline is greater than 1500
times the pipes’ diameter. However, minor losses must
be considered in short pipelines because these losses
may exceed the friction losses.
PIPE DISCHARGING FROM A RESERVOIR
The figure shown below shows the conditions of flow in a pipe of uniform
diameter discharging from a reservoir into open air. The velocity head and the
pressure head in the liquid surface of the reservoir are zero. If there will be no head
lost, the velocity head could have been equal to H, which is the distance between
the water surface in the tank and the exit end of the pipe and the velocity of flow
could have been 𝑣 = 2𝑔𝐻, but such is not the case due losses.

If the pipe is horizontal and with uniform

size, the difference in pressure head
measures the head lost between the two
points.

If the pipe is very large such that the

velocity head is very small, the total head
lost HL can be taken as equal to H.
PIPE CONNECTING TWO RESERVOIRS
When one or more pipes connect two reservoirs as in the figure shown, the total
head lost in all the pipes is equal to the difference in elevation of the liquid surfaces
of the reservoir.
PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES
For pipes of different diameters connected in series as shown in the figure below,
the discharge in all pipes are all equal and the total head lost is equal the sum of the
individual head losses.

If the length of the pipe in any

given problem is around 500
times the diameter, then the
error from disregarding minor
losses will usually be no more
than 5%. If the length is 1000
times the diameter or more,
then the impact of minor losses
can generally be considered
insignificant.
PIPES CONNECTED PARALLEL
For pipes of different diameters connected in parallel as shown in the figure below,
the discharge in all pipes is the sum of the individual pipe discharge but the head
lost is equal in all the individual pipes.
PIPES CONNECTED PARALLEL
Consider the following figure

The necessary equations are?

Note that the number of

equations needed to solve the
problem must be equal to the
number of pipes
Problems
1. Water flows from a tank through 160 𝑓𝑡
of 4 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 diameter pipes and then
discharges into air as shown. The flow
of water in the pipe is 12 𝑐𝑓𝑠. Assume
𝑛 = 0.013 and neglect minor head
losses. Determine the following
a. The velocity of flow in the pipe in fps.
b. The total head lost in the pipe in feet.
c. The pressure at the top of the tank in psi
Problems
2. A pump draws 20 lit/sec of water from reservoir A to reservoir B
as shown. Assuming 𝑓 = 0.02 for all pipes compute the
horsepower delivered by the pump and the pressures at points 1
and 2.
Problems
3. Water is flowing at the rate of 300 lit/sec from A to E as shown in
the figure. Compute the flow in each pipe in lit/sec and the total
head loss. Assume f=0.025 for all pipes.
RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
In the figure shown below, the three pipes 1, 2, and 3 connect the three reservoirs A,
B, and C respectively and with all pipes meeting at a common junction D.
Types of Reservoir Problems
Type 1: Given the discharge in one of the pipes, or given the pressure
at the junction P, and the required is elevation of one of the reservoirs
or the diameter or length of one of the pipes, and

Type 2: Given all the pipe properties and elevation of all reservoirs,
find the flow in each pipe, which can be solved by trial and error.

In any of these types, the main objective is to locate the position (elevation) of
the energy at the junction P. This position represents the water surface of an
imaginary reservoir at P. The difference in elevation between this surface and the
surface of another reservoir is the head lost in the pipe leading to that reservoir
Procedure in Solving Reservoir Problems:
Type 1
1. With known flow in one pipe leading to or flowing out from a reservoir of
known elevation, solve for its head lost (ℎ𝑓 ).
2. Determine the elevation of the energy grade line at the junction of the pipes (P)
by adding or subtracting (depending on the direction of flow) the head lost in
the pipe from the elevation of the water surface in the reservoir.
3. If the known value is the pressure at P, the elevation of P’ is elevation of 𝑃 +
𝑃𝑝 /𝑦.
4. Draw a line from P’ to the surface of the other reservoir. These lines represent
the EGL’s of each pipe. The difference in elevation between P’ and the surface of
the reservoir is the head lost in the pipe.
5. Solve for the discharge.
Procedure in Solving Reservoir Problems:
Type 2

1. Given all elevation and pipe properties, determine

the direction of flow in each pipe. Of course, the
highest reservoir always has an outflow and the
lowest always has an inflow, but the middle
reservoir (B) might have an inflow or outflow.

2. To find out the direction of flow in pipe 2, assume

that 𝑄2 = 0 such that 𝑃’ is at elevation B, then the
values of ℎ𝑓1 and ℎ𝑓3 can be solved. (In the figure
shown, ℎ𝑓1 = 20 𝑚, and ℎ𝑓3 = 30 𝑚). With ℎ𝑓1 and
ℎ𝑓3 known, solve for 𝑄1 and 𝑄3 . If 𝑄1 > 𝑄3 , then 𝑄2
is towards B and P’ is above reservoir B. If 𝑄1 < 𝑄3 ,
then 𝑄2 is away from B and P is below reservoir B.
Procedure in Solving Reservoir Problems:
Type 2

3. After determining the direction of 𝑄2 (say towards

reservoir B), express all the head lost in terms the
other, say in terms of ℎ𝑓1 . Let ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑥

With all head lost ℎ𝑓 expressed in terms of x, all flow Q

can also be expressed in terms of x (usually in the form
𝑎 𝑥+𝑏

Example, if Darcy-Weisbach or Manning formula is

used, ℎ𝑓 varies with 𝑄2
Simplify the equation and dolve for x (by trial-and-
error)

4. Once x is determined, substitute it with Equations

1,2, and 3, to solve for the discharge Q1, Q2, and Q3.
Problems
1. The turbine shown is
located in the 350 mm
diameter line. If the
turbine efficiency is 90%,
determine its output
power in kilowatts.
Problems
2. Determine the flow in
each pipe in the figure
shown and the elevation
of reservoir C if the inflow
to reservoir A is 515 𝑙𝑝𝑠.
Problems
3. Determine the flow in each
pipe in the figure shown.
Assume 𝑓 = 0.02 for all
pipes.
END