Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Experimental investigation on sun-dried bricks with addition of lignin

S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha a, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan a, B. Karthikeyan a,⇑, K. Sivakumar b, R. Sasikala c
a
Sri Sairam Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu 600044, India
b
SRM Valliammai Engineering College, Chennai, Tamilnadu 603203, India
c
New Prince Shri Bhavani College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu 603203, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Brick is one of the oldest building material used for masonry works in construction. A major problem that
Available online xxxx exist in construction field is extinction of traditional as well as conventional building materials like brick-
s, cement, etc. And also achieving inadequate strength in building due to reduced usage of natural raw
Keywords: materials. The abundant availability of bio-wastes and their impacts on the environment is the major
Bricks problem faced in recent times. Coconut husk is an agricultural & coir industrial waste present in abun-
Lignin dant quantity, which is being dumped on the roadside and disposed by incineration process. This leads
Clay brick
to environmental pollution due to emission of CO2 during incineration of coconut husk. This project
Durability
Coconut husk
attempts to provide an alternative for the above issues. It carry out an experimental study to extract suit-
able product from organic waste and effective addition of this product to existing building materials. This
will help in improving the strength, durability and quality of the material. And also the experiments are
carried out to study the properties of the material. The expected inference from this project is improve-
ment of compressive strength of the unburnt bricks with the addition of the tissue (lignin) that has been
extracted from the coir pith. The project deals with extraction process of lignin from coconut husk in an
inexpensive way and addition of the lignin to bricks and comparison of properties to that of conventional
bricks and obtained unburnt clay bricks.
Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Materials and Manufacturing for Sustainable Developments – 2022.

1. Introduction
Current scenario in construction field is usage of by-products
from various industries as a substituent for the ingredients of con-
ventional building materials. This has an impact over the proper-
ties of the materials. The building materials which are going to
be used should satisfy the performance and needs of the user as
well as it should contribute to the development of the society
[1]. The building materials should consume less energy and its
emission should not have adverse impact on environment. Thus
minimizing the embodied energy can result considerable energy
saving as well as reduction in CO2. Hence we propose an idea in
the construction field for the manufacturing of brick using avail-
able bio-waste (coir pith) and the tissue extracted from the wastes.
The project deals with one such innovative idea using a tissue as a
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: karthi.nsb@gmail.com (B. Karthikeyan).
part of raw material i.e., manufacturing of sundried fly ash bricks
with addition of Lignin (a tissue extracted from coconut husk)
[2]. In this report we workout on a product which is going to be
more sustainable. More than a conventional brick we avoid burn-
ing process in the manufacturing of fly ash brick due to addition
of tissue (Lignin). Fly ash is the another by product obtained from
industries, which can be replaced instead of cement and it is being
used in manufacturing of brick, so called ‘‘Fly ash Bricks”. Manufac-
turing of Fly ash bricks cost 20 % less than the traditional clay
bricks. Coconut husk is abundant natural biomass that has been
dumped in the roadside [3]. It makes the land unproductive, there-
fore leads to land pollution, air pollution, etc. Coconut husk has
high amount of lignin and cellulose. Lignin is the biopolymer that
has the capacity to improve the strength of the cell wall of plants to
stand upright. Therefore, the lignin will play major role in increas-
ing the strength of the brick by improving the bonding capacity [4].
Thus, in this project we work to develop a sustainable building
material that is energy saving, eco-friendly and cost effective.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.05.581
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Materials and Manufacturing for Sustainable Developments –
2022.

Please cite this article as: S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan, B. Karthikeyan et al., Experimental investigation on sun-dried bricks with ad-
dition of lignin, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.05.581
S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan, B. Karthikeyan et al.
2. Literature review
The biological and chemical function of the Lignin present in the
vascular bundle of any woody plant has a wide range of application
[5,6]. The implementation of idea of using the tissue in building
materials like bricks lays down an innovative solution to obtain a
sustainable development in the research field of building material-
s. The extraction of lignin from the vascular bundle of plant is slow
process and there are numerous ways to extract the lignin from
other extractive present in the vascular tissue [7]. It has been ob-
served from the literature that very few investigations have been
carried out in the area of tissue in concrete. The goal of this review
is to provide an in-depth knowledge about the different key factors
and to understand the overall process [8].
Some chemists, botanists, plant pathologists, microbiologists,
and soil scientists have described lignin’s purpose, qualities, real
form, structure, and applications [9]. Other scientists have studied
lignin’s structure and uses. Lignin is a glycopolymer with equal
aliphatic and aromatic components. Lignin has 65 % carbon, 29 %
oxygen, and 6 % hydrogen. Carbon dominates lignin [10]. Woody
plant structures contain most lignin. Plants have two types of lig-
nified tissue: conducting and supporting. Lignin regulates deep
oil well drilling mud viscosity and is used in paper making. Paper-
making uses lignin too. When manufacturing bricks, tiles, gypsum
boards, grinding and polishing (terrazzo flooring), spraying insecti-
cides, dispersing carbon black during rubber master batching, and
dying fabrics [11]. It also manages particle suspension viscosities.
The kiln burns organic lignin. Lignin protects dried, unfired ceram-
ics and porcelain against shattering and chipping. Lignin makes
smooth clay slips for pottery. Those who persevere to solve lignin’s
final secrets will be rewarded with a big challenge and the chance
to improve our environment and utilise our forest resources more
efficiently [12]. Perseverance will yield a major task and an
opportunity.
lignin-based polymer composites (thermoplastic, thermoset,
biopolymer, rubber, nano, and carbon), aerogels, and foaming ma-
terials [13]. They also study the origins, variations, inter-unit link-
ages, model compounds, extraction, characterization,
characteristics, and applications of lignin. Researchers, engineers,
chemists, technicians, and others interested in the development
and potential of lignin and lignin composites would benefit from
this book. Lignin is used to synthesise vanillin, animal feed, colour
dispersants, micronutrients, resins, and cleaning chemicals. Lignin
is only used in low-volume, specialist applications [14]. Due to its
many low-volume, specialised uses, the lignin market is currently
underdeveloped. Manufacturers’ lignin ignorance is also hindering
Fig. 1. Coconut shell & fibre [15].
2
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
this industry’s growth. Poor industry-research institute relations
impede manufacturers from learning about lignin’s many uses.
The identical reinforcing processes of CS and CF should be stud-
ied along with the ideal fibre and shell composition shown in Fig. 1.
Immediately conduct this research [16]. Asphalt pavement re-
search should focus on CS and CF’s many benefits. These include
the number of fibres and shells, their length, size, morphology,
and orientation. For the most accurate results, boundary effects
on test results should be analyzed based on shell and fibre modi-
fied asphalt pavement field performance. Composite science prin-
ciples may open new research avenues. CS and CF modified
asphalt pavement mechanical qualities can be modeled [17].
3. Experimental procedure
3.1. Collection of raw materials
Construction materials are shown here. Cement, fine aggregate,
fly ash, coconut husk, and lignin will be studied. Cement Ordinary
Portland cement is most frequent [18]. Late 19th-century develop-
ment (OPC). Ordinary Portland Cement in 53 grades must comply
with IS: 8112-1989. Cement is tested for specific gravity, consis-
tency, setting time, and fineness modulus. The Physical properties
of M-Sand is listed in Table 1.
3.2. Fine aggregate
River sand makes fine aggregate. Because river sand is scarce,
this building project uses artificial sand instead. M-sand with
4.75-millimeter particles was chosen [19]. The analysis used IS:
383-1970, the Indian Standard. Proceeding requires determining
the target fine aggregate specific gravity. This process uses a py-
rometer, measuring jar, weighing balance, and ten-millimeter
sieve.
3.3. Sieve analysis
Sieve analysis improves coarse and fine aggregate particle size
distribution determination [20]. Sieve analysis determines: Ac-
cording to IS: 2386 (Part I) – 1963, aggregates are sieved. We start
by sending aggregates through IS code-standard sieves. After each
filter has processed the aggregates, we collect the various-sized
particles.
S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan, B. Karthikeyan et al.
Table 1
Physical properties of M-Sand.
Material
Specific gravity
Water absorption
Bulk density
Table 2
Physical properties of lignin.
Material
Bulk density (g/cc)
Solubility in water
pH
3.4. Lignin from coir pith
Coconut trash produces lignin [21]. After making coir, these
waste products are collected and processed. These wastes provide
ligin. Each tube containing 20 ml of Coir pith Black Liquor (CBL)
was tested for pH after adding 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 ml of H2SO4.
The mixture pH changed by 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4. Centrifuging
the solution for 15 min at 4000 RPM may yield the solution. The
residue’s lignin was retained for investigation after drying at
60 °C. The supernatant was centrifuged again at four thousand rev-
olutions per minute for fifteen minutes. The supernatant was cen-
trifuged again after 24 h at 4 °C. After supernatant extraction, the
liquid was examined using spectroscopy at 400–800 nm [22]. The
supernatant pH was also measured for future reference. After then,
the lignin can be examined to determine its many properties. The
Physical properties of lignin is listed in Table 2.
3.5. Water
Most drinking water is acceptable for concrete manufacturing
[23]. Water is essential to concrete’s chemical process. Water
quantity and quality must be researched because it helps form
the cement gel that gives strength.
3.6. Fly ash
Fly ash is made from coal-fired boiler particulates and flue gas-
es. Coal combustion produces fly ash. Coal combustion produces fly
ash. Bottom ash is boiler ash that falls to the bottom. Today’s coal-
fired power stations use electrostatic precipitators and other parti-
cle filtration technology to catch fly ash [24]. Before flue gases en-
ter chimneys. Fly ash is used to make construction bricks, which
can be used to make many different products. Fly ash and clay
are mixed in equal proportions and heated in a kiln to roughly
1,000 °C to make one form of brick. This method reduces clay
usage, the main benefit. Before hardening, mix fly ash, soil, plaster
of Paris, and water in a container to make another fly ash brick
[25]. This method reduces pollution by not using heat. Current
manufacturing procedures use more fly ash and high pressure to
make strong, environmentally friendly bricks. Fly ash has been
used in UK concrete block manufacture for almost 50 years. India
builds with fly ash bricks. Leading companies compress ‘‘Pulver-
ized fuel ash for lime–Pozzolana combination” as well [26]. This
standard requires recycling over 75 % post-industrial trash. The
product’s high insulation makes it durable and eco-friendly.
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
4. Preparation of tissue
M-Sand Various methods for analysis & extraction of lignin;
2.71
1.21 %  Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
1661 kg/mm3  Thermogravimetric analysis.
 Organosolv treatment.
 Kraft process.
 The apparatus used for delignification from cellulose and hemi-
cellulose is Soxhlet Apparatus.
 Extraction of lignin using non polar solvents.
Lignin  Extraction of lignin using different solvent systems.
0.35
Nil 4.1. Isolation of lignin – Delignification
<0.4
150 ml of acetone mixed with Soxhlet extract in 0.5 g to 1.5 g
particle sizes extracts lignin from coir dust. Repeat until enough
lignin is produced [27]. This is done three times. The extraction
of lignin from 1 g of coir dust with a particle size of 150 lm utiliz-
ing water-based solvent mixtures yielded a higher yield than pre-
vious methods. The optimal acetone-to-water ratio was needed to
extract 20 % from 1 g of coir dust [28].
Acetone and water extracted 4.2 % less. Due to their interaction-
s, water and acetone can remove lignin from coir dust. Water and
acetone are polar solvents, which explains this. The pH of 20 ml
tubes of Coir pith Black Liquor (CBL) was tested after adding 0.1,
0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 ml of H2SO4. The solution was obtained after
15 min of 4000 RPM centrifugation. After drying at 60 °C, the left-
over lignin was preserved for further study [29].
4.2. Preparation of bricks
4.2.1. Mixing and moulding
Mud is mixed with required amount of water and it is done
through hand moulding process. Three types of brick were pre-
pared as follows:
 Flyash brick with 3 % of lignin
 Flyash brick with 5 % of lignin
 Flyash brick with 7 % of lignin
4.2.2. Curing of brick
Polyethylene glycol, a self-curing component, helps the curing
process in this case. After properly combining the two materials,
1 % polyethylene glycol is diluted into water. After stirring, the so-
lution is added to the clay while stirring. The bricks are dried by
sun exposure for up to 28 days. Curing process is shown in Fig. 2.
5. Laboratory tests
A series of laboratory experiments are conducted for varieties of
samples. These experiments are to measure the engineering prop-
erties of the soil as follow:
a. Preliminary Tests
 Specific Gravities – IS 2720-1980 (pt 3)
 Consistency Limits – IS 2720-1985 (pt 5 & 6)
 Free Swell Index – IS 2720 – 1977 (pt 40)
 Grain Size Distribution- IS2720-1985 (pt 4)
 Compaction test - IS 2720-1980 (pt 7) and IS 4332 – 1967(pt 3)
b. Secondary Tests.
 Compression Test - IS 3495 (Part 2): 1992
 Water absorption - IS 3495 (Part 2): 1992
 Efflorescence - IS 3495 (Part 2): 1992
3
S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan, B. Karthikeyan et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. Curing and drying of bricks.

5.1. Laboratory test procedures

5.1.1. Compressive strength test on brick

Grinding the bed faces will smooth and parallel them. Grinding
bed faces makes the surface more consistent. You should spend
most of the next day submerged in room-temperature water. After
the sample cools, drain any excess moisture. Cement mortar
should be used to fill the frog and bed faces (1 cement, 1 clean
coarse sand of grade 3 mm and down). After 24 h under damp jute
bags, submerge it in clean water for three days. This follows bury-
ing it. After that, you can move it from the damp jute bags. Remove
and ensure all wetness has dried. Place the specimen between the
testing machine plates after making sure the mortar side is facing
up and the flat surface side is facing horizontally. Apply axial force
Fig. 4. Test for efflorescence of brick.
at 14 N per minute until failure, noting the highest load before it
occurred. The specimen fails at the maximum load at which the
indicator reading on the testing equipment does not increase.
5.1.2. Water absorption of brick (Is: 3495-Part 2-1992)
The specimen fails here. Performance-wise, the specimen is unac-
The specimen is next dried in an oven at 105–1150 °C until it
ceptable at this point. At this step, the specimen is assessed and
has a uniform bulk. After the specimen cools, its weight is recorded
judged poor due to its performance. Test for compression of brick
(M1) After air drying, the specimen is submerged in sterile water
is illustrated in Fig. 3.
for 24 h at 27.2 °C. After the specimen is recovered, it is cleaned us-
ing a cloth dipped in water and weighed. After M2, the specimen is
weighed. After 24 h in cold water, compute the amount of water
that can be absorbed as a percentage of the total mass.

5.1.3. Efflorescence test on brick

A decent dish will hold distilled water. Use glass, porcelain, or
glazed stoneware to make the dish. When the bricks are placed
in the dish, the water level should rise to 25 mm on each brick.
After putting everything together, put it in a place with good ven-
tilation and a warm temperature (20–30 °C) until the specimen has
absorbed all the water in the dish and the water on the surface has
evaporated. Cover the dish and put it somewhere quiet to prevent
too much liquid from evaporating. After the bricks appear dry, put
a similar amount of water in the dish and let it evaporate under the
same conditions. Test for efflorescence of brick is explained in
Fig. 4.

6. Results and discussion

Through the years, many different ways have been found to im-
Fig. 3. Test for compression of brick. prove the physical properties of soil bricks by adding a wide range

4
S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan, B. Karthikeyan et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3
Compressive strength of sample at 7th day.

% of lignin in sample Length(mm) Breadth(mm) Depth(mm) Area (mm2) Load(kN) Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
3% 200 100 100 20,000 165 8.25
200 100 100 20,000 140 7.0
5% 200 100 100 20,000 190 9.50
200 100 100 20,000 200 10.0
7% 200 100 100 20,000 170 8.50
200 100 100 20,000 175 8.75

Table 4
Compressive Strength of Sample at 14th Day.

% of lignin in sample Length(mm) Breadth(mm) Depth (mm) Area (mm2) Load(kN) Compressivestrength (N/mm2)
3% 200 100 100 20,000 192 9.90
200 100 100 20,000 189 9.30
5% 200 100 100 20,000 240 11.8
200 100 100 20,000 235 12.2
7% 200 100 100 20,000 225 10.95
200 100 100 20,000 230 11.67

Fig. 5. Comparison of average compressive strength of brick.

of additives and conditioners to the making process. Many differ- 6.1. Compressive strength
ent ways have been found to use these methods. The use of artifi-
cial cementing agents as part of the building process is one of the The compressive strength of the taken samples with 7th day
methods that has been used the most. For the agents in question to and 28th day of bricks were undergone for compressive strength
work, it is important that cementing ties form between the differ- testing. These test results were listed in Table 3 and Table 4 with
ent pieces that make up the brick. Brick is a highly suggested ma- various % of lignin added. Fig. 5 shows the Comparison of Average
terial for building many parts of pavements in developing Compressive Strength of Brick.
countries. This is mostly because it makes the pavements stronger. The brick sample shows nil observation of white patch over its
This is because brick can be used for many different things. Bricks surface and hence there is no perceptible deposit of efflorescence.
are often made with materials that are easy to find in the area. This
helps keep production costs low and keeps prices low for cus-
tomers. The surroundings can change how bricks work and how
Table 5
they are built. When bacteria are added to brick, they can improve Water absorption capacity of sample.
many of the brick’s technical qualities. These changes could make
% of lignin Original weight of Weight after absorption Water
the brick stronger or make it better for the earth. When making
the sample (kg) of water (kg) Absorption in %
bricks, leftovers like fly ash, slag from blast furnaces, quarry dust,
and other similar materials can be used to make them better. This 3% 3.562 3.788 5.95
5% 3.582 3.803 5.82
can help the company make more money. On the other hand, using 7% 3.546 3.869 8.34
bacterial bricks hasn’t been as successful as using other methods.
5
S. Daisylin Anbu Sujitha, J. Jeswin Arputhabalan, B. Karthikeyan et al.
Fig. 6. In varying % of lignin with water absorption capacity of brick.
6.2. Water absorption
All the samples were immersed for water absorption capacity
test with the given procedure. This experimental procedure data
is available in Table 5. and Fig. 6 shows varying % of lignin with
Water Absorption Capacity of Brick.
7. Conclusion
If more building materials were produced for different con-
struction elements, alternative and inventive solutions would be-
come more important. Because construction requires additional
building materials. Traditional and conventional materials have a
limited supply, rising prices, and energy and environmental con-
cerns. The need to use cutting-edge building materials and tech-
nologies, especially those that hide waste like ash, has prompted
research. This was considered a need. Bricks made using ‘‘lignin,”
tissue removed from the coir pith, were effective and improved.
‘‘Lignin” bricks produced these results. Sun-dried lignin bricks have
compressive strengths comparable to burned bricks.
 According to the findings that were stated before, more research
needs to be done on the wood additives in order to improve
their stability when exposed to water. This is important in order
to make the most of the binding qualities that lignin exhibits in
bricks; otherwise, we won’t get the full benefit of those
properties.
 This is absolutely necessary in order to increase the product’s
longevity and sustainability over the course of its lifetime.
 It is being proposed to look into ways to improve the interaction
between lignin and soil particles by performing greater research
on, and making use of, the chemical process that takes place
when these two substances react with one another. This would
involve making use of the chemical reaction that takes place
when these two substances interact with one another.
Thus, lignin may be used to make new construction materials
with more research and testing.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
6
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
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