NPTI_WTP

Water
Chemistry for
Thermal
Power Plants
Dr. Parvin Gupta
Ex. G.M. (Chemistry &
Environment)
IPGCL-PPCL, NEW DELHI
03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 1

Know your faculty
• M.Sc. (Chemistry) from IIT Delhi & Ph.D. in Chemistry

• 35+ years experience in Gas as well as Coal based
thermal power plants
• Worked in NTPC for 25 years from 1984 to 2010
• In 2010 joined IPGCL-PPCL, New Delhi &
superannuated in Jan, 2021 as G.M. (Chemistry &
Environment)
• Work experience in the field of DM plant, UF-RO-DM
plant, PT plant, Boiler water Chemistry, cooling water
treatment, pre & post chemical cleaning of boilers &
condensers, power plant related environmental
problems, commissioning of thermal & gas power
Dr. Parvin Gupta plants from chemistry side, erection & commissioning
DM plant, UF-RO-DM plant
Topics for discussion
• Water Treatment Plant

– PT Plant
– Chlorination Plant
– Softening Plant
• DM Plant
• Effluent Treatment Plant

Power plant chemistry
• Power plant chemistry plays a very important role in any power plant. It
can be compared to a pathologist and physician who check the body
parameters & give medicine accordingly.
• It provides a skilled scientific service after analysing different types of
waters, lubricating oils, fuels used in power plant and dose special
Chemicals in order to improve its
– availability,
– efficiency
– economics
of generation by controlling of various chemical regimes of power plant
operation.

In order to produce water of required quality following water

treatment Equipments/plants are operated by Chemistry
department:
• For De-mineralised water
• Operation of Ultra Filtration Plant
• Operation of Reverse Osmosis plant
• Operation of Softening Plant
• Operation of Mixed Bed/Cation, anion & Mixed Bed
• For Clarified Water
• Operation of Pre treatment Plant
• Clarifier
• PLC operated chemical dosing System including chlorination plant
• For Condenser cooling water
• PLC operated chemical dosing System
• Operation of Chlorination Plant
• Operation of Chlorine Di Oxide Plant
In addition to water treatment plants, Chemistry department is

also responsible for Operation of other misc. plants which
consists of following equipments/plants
– For Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)

• Operation of Thickener
• Operation of Centrifuge
• ETP Clarifier
– For Sewage Treatment Plant (STP)
• Oxidation pond
• Chlorination plant
• Drying bed

– For Hydrogen Plant

• Operation of electrolysers
• Periodic testing of electrolyte
• Periodic testing of Hydrogen purity online as well as in lab
– For SWAS lab

• Monitoring and calibration of online instruments
• Periodic checking of online value for any deviation
• Monitoring of all critical parameters
– For Chemical dosing plant

• Chemical solution preparation
• Operation of pumps at required level
– Water lab
• Testing of chemical parameters
• Periodic calibration of lab instruments
• Periodic testing of other misc. parameters
– Fuel lab
• Daily Testing of fuel for its different parameters
• Determination of Gross Calorific Value
• Calibration of lab instruments
– Oil Lab
• Daily Testing of lub oil for its different parameters
• Calibration of lab instruments

 As per Gazette Notification of Ministry of Power regarding Revised Tariff Policy

dated 28th January 2016 Consent to use fresh river water is not granted to
industries including the existing plants located within 50 km radius
 As per this Gazette notification 100% water from Sewage Treatment Plants is
to be used for power plants. This water is highly contaminated with
 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
 Nutrients (Nitrates and Phosphates)
 Ammonical nitrogen
 Due to these impurities it is very difficult to treat STP water for power plant
use

TreaTmenTs of waTer

Water treatment
 Water treatment is the process of making water
suitable or acceptable for an end-use.
 It removes existing water contaminants and so

reduces their concentration that the water
becomes fit for its desired application.
 The amount & type of treatment process

(Treatment Train ) depends upon quality of raw
water and various standards required after
treatment.
funcTions of waTer TreaTmenT uniTs
Unit Treatment Function (Removal)
Aeration, chemical use Colour, Odour, Taste
Screening Floating matter

Chemical methods Iron, manganese
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of
colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved
matter and bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic
matter and reducing substance

TurbidiTy-solids removed
 Turbidity process results from suspended particles in water.
The particles may range in size from 100,000 millimicrons
in diameter for fine sand to colloidal suspensions with
particle sizes between 1 to 200 millimicrons.
 To produce clear water, removal of particles in colloidal

suspension is usually essential.
 Since colloidal suspensions are relatively stable, a

coagulant is used to cause aggregation of particles of
sufficiently high density to promote settling out for
clarification.
 Some inorganic chemicals are used as coagulants are Ferric

sulfate, Ferrous sulfate, Filter alum, Sodium aluminate.
filTraTion
 Filtering is almost common methods
in a water treatment system.
Water is filtered before softening or
demineralizing process. It depending
upon the system and quality of water
desired, the final step may be
filtration.
Large water treatment plants for
municipalities regularly use by gravity
type filters.
In many plants pressure type filters are
03-Aug-22
in use with more satisfaction.
Dr. Parvin Gupta 14
demineralizing (deionizing) waTer
 The demineralized (deionized) water treatments are

used for Boiler and closed circuit cooling water
system.
 Several variations are found in demineralization
systems depending on the analysis of the untreated
water and the desired purity of the treated water.
 Systems for demineralizing water are basically of
two types- multi-bed and RO mixed-bed.
 RO Mixed-bed units offer the advantage of less
space required, and they will also produce very
high quality water.
 Multi-bed ion ex-changers are sequenced into a
system to produce high quality demineralized
water.
reverse osmosis sysTems
 The reverse osmosis (RO) technology is advancing
rapidly.
 Reverse osmosis separates one component of a solution
from another by placing the solution under pressure
against a semi permeable membrane.
 Normally the pores of the semi permeable membranes
used in RO are 5 to 20 Angstrom units (5 to 20 x 10-8
cm) in diameter.
 A number of membranes have been developed, and
generally cellulose acetate is used.
 Reverse osmosis is a method of purifying water to a
high degree, especially when used in conjunction with a
prefilter and an ion-exchanger.
Advantages-
Chemicals are unnecessary, membrane life is normally 1-3
years, low maintenance requirements, pressure is the only
energy requirement.

Water Flow Diagram
Raw or STP CLARIFLOC CW

Treated Water CULATOR MAKEUP
SOFTENING RO
UF PLANT PLANT
PLANT
DM STORAGE MIXED
TANK BED
COOLING BOILER
WATER MAKEUP

Raw Water
Sources of Raw water
• Lake
• River
• Sea
• Ground water
• Sewage Treated Water
• Polluted River water

Characteristics of Water
Unit Lake River Sea Under Sewage Polluted
ground Treated River Water
Water water
pH 6.7-7.5 6.7-7.5 7.8-8.0 6.7-8.3 6.0-8.5 6.0-8.5
Conductivity µmho 200-500 200-500 40000- 1000- 1000-2200 1000-2200

65000 1500
Turbidity NTU 50-500 50-500 100-700 <10 15-50 50-700
BOD ppm 8-20 5-15 <3 15-25 45-70
COD ppm 25-65 20-60 <20 100-150 150-350
Total Organic Carbon ppm 50-80 90-120
(TOC)
KMnO4 No. ppm 12-16 10-14 30-42 52-67
Chlorine Demand ppm 6-12 5-8 60-110 120-210
Pre-treatment plant - removal of
suspended solids
Clarifier
Gravity sand filter/pressure

sand filter
Twin bed filters (anthracite &

sand)
Cross section of clarifier water flow
DOSING FLASH MIXER

POINT CLARIFIED WATER
BLEED
VALVE
RAW WATER
BLOW DOWN
Dosing at clarifier
CHLORINE
LIQUID
RAW CLARIFIED
WATER WATER

Cross section of gravity filter
CLARIFIED WATER
COURSE SAND
GRAVELS
FILTERED WATER

Gravity filter
CLARIFIED WATER
FILTERED WATER FILTERED WATER

Cross section of gravity filter also
showing air lines
AIR LINE
WATER
COURSE SAND
GRAVELS

Gravity Filter Back Wash
BACK WASH INLET BACK WASH INLET

BACK WASH OUTLET

D.M. Plant

D.M. Plant
Air + CO2
WEAK STRONG
ACF AIR
ACID ACID
CATION CATION DEGASSER
FWP
WEAK STRONG D.M.

BASE BASE MIXED WATER
ANION ANION BED STORAGE
TANK

Ion
Exchange
Resin

Ion Exchange Resin
• Ion exchange resins are polymers onto which

functional groups are attached.
• About 90 % of all ion exchange resins are
based on a polystyrene matrix. The "building
block" used to make this plastic skeleton is
styrene monomer, an aromatic compound also
called vinylbenzene.

General Comparison Of
Different Resins
Description STRONG BASE WEAK BASE ANION STRONG ACID WEAK ACID CATION
ANION CATION
MATRIX TYPE CROSS LINKED STYRENE DVB STRYENE DVB CROLSSLINKED

POLYMER POLYACRYLIC
FUNCTIONAL -N+R3 -NR2 -SO3- -COO-

GROUP -N+R3
TOTAL EXCHANGE 1.0-1.5 1.1-1.7 1.7-2.2 3.7-4.5

CAPACITY meq/ml
What they do In hydroxyl form, After cation exchange, In hydrogen form, In hydrogen form,
they remove all they remove chloride, they remove all they remove
anions sulphate, nitrate, and cations preferentially divalent
other anions of strong ions (e.g. calcium and
acids, but they do not magnesium) from
remove weak acids solutions containing
(SiO2 and CO2) alkalinity

Activated Carbon Filter
• To remove excess residual chlorine

• To remove organic contaminants from water.
• To remove any suspended solids/ Turbidity as
it acts like a normal filter

Cation Exchanger
Cation exchange reaction:

R-H + Ca or Mg or Na Salts R- Ca, R-Mg, R-Na + H+
(RESPECTIVE ACIDS)
Note: Normally salts are of SO4, HCO3, CO3, Cl, NO3, etc

Degasser
• H2CO3 H2O + CO2

• This water is carbon di oxide free water.
• Normal acceptable limit of co2 after degasser is 5
ppm.
• It decreases anion load due to carbonates &
bicarbonates.

Anion Exchanger
Anion exchange reaction:

R-OH + H2SO4, H2CO3,HCl, HNO3, Silicates
R-SO4, R-CO3, R-Cl, R-NO3 + HOH

Water Quality after SBA
• pH - 8.0 ± 0.5
• CONDUCTIVITY < 10.0 m mho
• TDS < 10.0
• SiO2 < 100 ppb

Mixed Bed Exchanger
• R-OH + Cl- R-Cl + OH-

• R-H + Na+ R-Na + H+
• OH- + H+ HOH

D.M. Water Quality after MB
• pH - 7.0 ± 0.2
• CONDUCTIVITY < 0.2 m mho
• TDS - NIL
• SiO2 < 20 ppb

Regeneration Of Cation Exchanger
R- Ca, R-Mg, R-Na + HCl

R-H +CaCl2 or MgCl2 or NaCl

Regeneration Of SAC & WAC
WATER IN
STRONG WEAK
ACID ACID
CATION CATION
HCl IN DRAIN OUT

Regeneration Of Anion Exchanger
R-SO4, R-CO3, R-Cl, R-NO3 + NaOH

R-OH + Na2SO4, Na2CO3, NaNO3, NaCl

Regeneration Of SBA & WBA
WATER IN
WEAK
STRONG
BASE
BASE
ANION
ANION
NaOH IN DRAIN OUT

Regeneration Of MB
NaOH IN
ANION RESIN MIXED

CATION RESIN BED
HCl IN DRAIN OUT

R.O.D.M. Plant
Air + CO2
ULTRA SOFTENING RO
AIR
FILTERATION PLANT PLANT
PLANT STAGE I DEGASSER
PUMP
RO RO D.M.
PLANT PLANT MIXED WATER
STAGE II STAGE III BED STORAGE
TANK

Need of UF-RO plant for improvement
of water chemistry for highly
contaminated water/sewage water

Need Of UF-RO
• Sewage Treated water contains a lot of TOC as

it carries the domestic waste, industrial waste
and Municipal untreated sewage on its
journey
• High pressure boiler requires high purity feed
water to limit the effect of Corrosion and
deposits that damage steam circuits. EPRI has
also laid a limit of 100 ppb Total Organic
Carbon (TOC) in boiler feed water.

Typical Microbiological Analysis of Sewage
Treated Water
• Total Bacteriological Count - 5.0 X 106 counts/ml

• Total Fungal Count -10 counts/ml
• Acid Producing Bacteria > 1600/100ml
• Nitrifying Bacteria - 20/100 ml
• De Nitrifying Bacteria - 5/100 ml
• Sulphate Reducing Bacteria - > 1600/100ml

Normal System Of Treatment
Clarifier
(Chlorination,
Gravity Filter Under Ground Tank
PAC/Alum, Lime, Poly
Electrolyte addition)
DM Plant (ACF +
WAC-SAC + Boiler as make up
DM storage Tank
Degasser+ WBA-SBA+ water
Mix bed)

Problems
• Water doesn’t clarify upto acceptable level even

after enhanced dose rate of Chlorine, PAC/Alum
& Polyelectrolyte.
• DM water produced with normal pre-treatment
• has high total organic Carbon (TOC) 2.2-3.1 ppm
(against the desired limit of 100ppb as per EPRI
guidelines)
• High online conductivity: 0.4-0.5 µmho (against
desired limit of <0.2 µmho)

Secondary problems related to High TOC in
DM make up water
• Rise in DM water conductivity upon storage

in DM storage tank (1.5-4.0 µmho upon
storage for a weeks time, more prevalent
during February to June months of the year)
• Lowering of boiler water pH to 8.5 (Requires
dosing of caustic soda along with TSP)
• Increased ACC (After Cation Conductivity) of
Condensate & Steam samples

TOC in water at Different Stages
• Raw water - 63.4 ppm,

• Pre-treatment clarifier - 51.6 ppm,
• ACF outlet - 41.0 ppm,
• DM plant output - 3.1 ppm

Effect of TOC
• TOC, the most common forms of organics are

characterized in the form of complex acid
• It breaks down at high temperature and pressure
condition
• After breaking down it release a mixture of
– carbon dioxide
– chlorides
– sulphates
– organic acids
into the feed and boiler water.
Effect of TOC
• The decomposition of TOC into organic acids

and CO2 consequently increase After Cation
Conductivity (ACC) of the steam.
• The low pH condition can cause
– pitting
– corrosion fatigue
– stress corrosion cracking
problems in the water steam cycle.
Effect of TOC
• Thermal decomposition of natural or synthetic

substances entering the feed water circuits with
make up water, results in
– acid formation
– decrease the pH
– foaming of water
– boiler damage
as it reaches superheater.

Treatment with UF-RO-MB
Highly
contaminated Clarifier or lime
Sand filter or TBGF
water/ STP treated softening clarifier
water
ACF UF RO
Boiler as make up
Mix Bed DM Tank
water

TOC measurement at different stages
• STP treated water - 19.88 ppm

• Clarified water - 16.25 ppm
• ACF outlet - 11.45 ppm
• RO permeate - 112 ppb
• Mix bed output - 105 ppb

Solution for sewage treated water
• UF along with RO process - UF process results in

permeate with SDI-15 Index ≤ 2 used as pre-
treatment stage for RO process.
• The permeate produced by integrated UF-RO
membrane system has conductivity in the range of
12-20 µmho with substantial reduction of TOC.
• Thus membrane technology can deliver the desired
results.

Softening Plant

HARD WATER & SOFT
WATER

Types of waTer
 Normally water is classified into two

groups-
 Hard water and
 Soft water.
 Water hardness is due to the presence of
di- cations including Ca2+ and Mg2+.
 Water hardness is further classified into
two types:
 Temporary hardness
 Permanent hardness.
Temporary and Permanent hardness.
• Temporary hardness
 Temporary hardness is mainly caused by the carbonates
and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
 It can be easily removed by boiling of water.
• Permanent hardness
 Permanent hardness is due to presence of sulfates and
chlorides of calcium and magnesium in water.
 Permanent hardness is not removed by simple boiling
of water but it requires some complex operations.

 The combined effect of temporary and permanent

hardness is called as total hardness of the water.
 Temporary hardness is also known as carbonate

hardness and permanent hardness is also known
as non- carbonate hardness. Conventionally
hardness of water is expressed in terms of ppm of
calcium carbonate.
 In Thermal power plants, the major problem caused by hard water is
the deposition of scales in and on the pipes which can clog plumbing
and interfere with heat exchangers.
•
 These scale problem, are caused mainly of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], and calcium sulfate
(CaSO4).
 Calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to precipitate out as hard

deposits to the surfaces of pipes and heat exchanger surfaces.
 In boilers, the deposits act as an insulation that damages the flow of

heat into water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the
metal boiler components to overheat.

 The following equilibrium reaction refer to the
formation of calcium carbonate scales
• CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
 Hard water, form white precipitate with soap

solutions, instead of producing lather.
 This effect arises because the di- cations destroy
the surfactant properties of the soap by forming a
solid precipitate.

sofTening of Hard waTer
 Thermal Power plants always treat at least some
of the water used in the plants. This is due to the
special requirements for use in boilers, cooling
towers, heat exchanger and similar equipment.
 Treatment of water is done to control corrosion

and formation of scale on equipment, to remove
the turbidity caused by solids, to eliminate
staining and also to assure safety for
consumption.
 Satisfactory procedure for water supply may be

inadequate for another. Designing a water
treatment system for a Thermal Power plant must
be considered on an individual plant basis.

sofTening
Softening of water is done to remove the
hardness of water due to deposition of
minerals.
Different methods are applied for water
softening as:
 Cold lime method
 Base exchange softening method
 Demineralizing (Deionizing) water supplies
 Filtration Reverse osmosis (RO) system

Cold lime method
 Many municipal water treatment plants use the cold lime
softening method.
 In this method, calcium oxide (CaO) is added to the hard
water to form calcium hydroxide, which reacts with
magnesium and calcium bicarbonates and free CO2 to form
insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide.
 Magnesium hydroxide is used a good flocculating agent
which aids in precipitating the calcium carbonate particles.
 This treatment will usually result in water with about 70 to
85 ppm of calcium (4 to 5 grains per gallon) when
discharged from the final filtration unit.
 Sand and gravel filters are commonly used for removing
the precipitated salts by the cold lime softening method.
base excHange sofTening meTHod
 Most food plants uses the base-exchange process for
softening the water for cleaning and other uses.
 The main materials used in the ion exchange are
natural or synthetic zeolites which often are hydrous
silicate or styrene based resins.
 Mostly Sodium zeolite softening is use of ion
exchange.
 In zeolite softening, water containing scale-forming
ions, like calcium and magnesium, it passes through a
resin bed containing strong Acid Cation resin in the
sodium form.
 Softening water with a sodium cycle ion-exchanger is
most commonly found in processing plants.
Softening Plant
FILTER WATER IN
SOFTENING
VESSEL
SOFT WATER OUT

Softening Exchanger
SOFTENING EXCHANGE REACTION:
R-Na +Ca or Mg Salts R-Ca, R-Mg + Na Salts

Regenration Of Softening Exchanger
NaCl IN
SOFTENING
VESSEL
DRAIN OUT
Softening Exchanger
Regeneration of softening exchanger

R- Ca, R-Mg + NaCl R-Na +CaCl2 or MgCl2

Chlorination Plant

cHlorinaTion of waTer supplies
 Addition of small amounts of chlorine to
water supplies acts as a safeguard against
water-borne diseases.
 Power plants unit have increasingly been
chlorinating water to control growth of active
algae and microbes in water.
 Chlorine may be added to water systems in
power plants as type of gas or as a solution of
chlorine compounds which are mainly hypo
chlorites of sodium or calcium.
 Some plant operators have found chlorine
dioxide to be very satisfactory where
considerable organic matter is present, such
as in recycled water systems.

Water Chlorination
• Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine or chlorine

compounds such as sodium hypochlorite to water.
• This method is used to kill bacteria, viruses and other microbes
in water.
• In water treatment plants of Jal Boards where drinking water is
produced, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of water
born diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid.
• Chlorine also helps eliminate slime bacteria, molds and algae
that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls
of water mains and in storage tanks.
Chlorination process
• When chlorine gas is added to the water, it hydrolyzes rapidly

to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
– Cl2+H2O HOCl + HCl
• This hypochlorous acid will then dissociate into hypochlorite
ions (OCl-) and hydrogen ions (H+).
– HOCl OCl- + H+
• Because hydrogen ions are produced, the water will become
more acidic (the pH of the water will decrease)

Chlorinators
• Normally vacuum chlorinators are used for

chlorination of water.
• In a vacuum chlorinator, chlorine gas is pulled from
the cylinder/tonner into the source water by a
vacuum.
• The flowing water pulls chlorine into the water,
both chlorinating the source water and creating a
vacuum in the chlorine line which pulls more
chlorine gas out of the cylinder/tonner.
Chlorine
Tonner
Handling

Chlorine
Tonner

Chlorine
Cylinder

Vacuum
Chlorinator

Flow Diagram Of Chlorination Plant

Safety aspects of chlorine
• Chlorine is delivered as liquid Chlorine

• Dosing is done either through liquid side or
through gas side
• Concentrations above 400 ppm are usually fatal
over 30 minutes.
• Above 800 ppm, fatality ensues within a few
minutes.
• Liquid exposure causes much more damage due
to burns and blistering.

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Water

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 1

• M.Sc. (Chemistry) from IIT Delhi & Ph.D. in Chemistry

• Water Treatment Plant

• Effluent Treatment Plant

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 3

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 4

In order to produce water of required quality following water

In addition to water treatment plants, Chemistry department is

– For Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 6

– For Hydrogen Plant

– For SWAS lab

– For Chemical dosing plant

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 8

 As per Gazette Notification of Ministry of Power regarding Revised Tariff Policy

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 9

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 10

 It removes existing water contaminants and so

 The amount & type of treatment process

Screening Floating matter

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 12

 To produce clear water, removal of particles in colloidal

 Since colloidal suspensions are relatively stable, a

 Some inorganic chemicals are used as coagulants are Ferric

 The demineralized (deionized) water treatments are

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 16

Raw or STP CLARIFLOC CW

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 17

Sources of Raw water

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 18

Conductivity µmho 200-500 200-500 40000- 1000- 1000-2200 1000-2200

Gravity sand filter/pressure

Twin bed filters (anthracite &

DOSING FLASH MIXER

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 22

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 23

FILTERED WATER FILTERED WATER

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 24

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 25

BACK WASH INLET BACK WASH INLET

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 26

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 27

WEAK STRONG D.M.

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 28

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 29

• Ion exchange resins are polymers onto which

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 30

MATRIX TYPE CROSS LINKED STYRENE DVB STRYENE DVB CROLSSLINKED

FUNCTIONAL -N+R3 -NR2 -SO3- -COO-

TOTAL EXCHANGE 1.0-1.5 1.1-1.7 1.7-2.2 3.7-4.5

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 31

• To remove excess residual chlorine

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 32

Cation exchange reaction:

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 33

• H2CO3 H2O + CO2

03-Aug-22 Dr. Parvin Gupta 34

Anion exchange reaction: