CAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) 1. Rocks and minerals and their exploitation 1.4. Formation of rocks + The rockcycle:s representation ofthe changes Between the tree roct types and:he proceses causing them. + Types cf rocis: Igneous racks: 1 Made whenliquidmagra cals to form slid rk and lava when ft reaches the surface + Berucveigneousrocl fhe rock ease guy small crystal are formed eg basal + ruse igneous rock: he ack cool Slowly, lage crystal are ormed eg. granite + seamentary rocks: + Formed by he weatherng of exiting roc atthe + Foss maybe present. + Sediments (smal parties of ocks)accurulate -to layers and get pressurized dueto the newer Seposts above them +The sediments ae transported by water and wed erosion) + Parnes ke lays sts sands gravels and small boulders are found in sediments + Examples: mestone Croes canbe gran in ‘inhospitable areas oe Herbie eSSUEE MY Reeyctonin these p00 Crops ith ongerstrare ines + Controlled envirrments: + Greeshouse: used to manage the environment for lant grown, Grow | owtoncreae | Howto oacene Operate (rere erected eect ‘asaton. Sippleeniany — had aire ioe lighting. roof. Tri | Wing ui. Operon Se lighting. curtains. wate | Sprinkler orirrigation.| D*S988=material panes = underneath. 3.5. Impact of agriculture + Overuve ofherbides and mec: ‘+ Regular use cf oneinsectide an cause resistarce wahin tie pes population. Solon use arangeot Gfferent pesticides + Uninterded envonmental danage-denctial insects le bees are azo afected and food web iscstued + Spray eft herbicies sta longerin the sland may fect the nex crop. ‘+ Heawy rainfall can cause leaching the chemical ito nearby lakes. veruse of feriers ‘Adaiton of extraminera nutrients wast ofmoney and Heaw raincan dscohe the ruvints and cause leaching: Excess water corainirg dissolved fries cain into nearby lakes and rivers, leading to eutrophication;bet lel SACL [) + Ntrates from erties consumed can cause diseases sich asbluesaby smreme: + Large quanives can affect the pH ofthe sallandin tur, the avait of mnerak: + Toomuch of race elements can be toxic tothe plant 2 Toomuch fericerdehyeratarthe pnt (ecorcing + Imbalance ofnuvrien makes the plart produce lots of + Solution: tric limits on where, whenand how the feruse's must be applied; can replace wih organic fertiiers ‘+ ismaragementotirigaton cusing alinzaton ana ter legging + Damageto sel structure. sls compacted; + Daath fplare roots as waterlogged sols preven plant ‘cots from getting enough oxygen: + Less of nutrients as they are clssolved and washed away weh water, + Hahleveis ofrunof «sol eroson, + Soll capping: surface ofthe sollbecomes hard ligation water soaks into the ol toa great deh Salts ezolvein thewater ata great depth: Water evaporates fom tefl Water and sats arecrawn up tthe surface; Sat romaine athe surface andl lant oot + Prevents ol culation a its ifuk to cultivate sail, wth afigh-water content + Orerproducton and waste: + Waste from overproduction: the unsold proportion of he + Waste of storage space: nay tae longer tose 2crop; + Waste of transportation: sella ropa farmer may need {otrave! longer distances, + Waste of qualty products low quality means ess "Waste of labour net an ficient use of tm and labour if tcomuch is produce + Thefarmers use the sll ver andover again with ltl ‘ono estwnir leaves the sol depleted of nerienss ‘andmineal. + Soluson: crop ration, mixed croppingand leaving then fallow + Sol erosion: + Overcuithation: sols shat are cutvatedreguarlylese sollstructire and aremore unable o erosion ae they breat down to aller parties. 1+ Cash crops replacing food crops: * Most commercial farmers preferto grow crops that generate more cash. This causes adecinein the ‘Saplefood svalabla 3.6. Causes and impacts of soil erosion WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + Causes of sl ersion: ‘+ Removal ofnaturalvegetstion-no more rots robin the solltogetnerorsiow downthe torrents of water, safiash once ar rairwnterrun-f pick the =a and cary taway. + Overeutvatien: ploughing break the coilitoemllor and lighter particles. These aremore easily cared 1+ Overgrazing:Wwestock reduces the vegetation to early ground level someames leavig no 0%5:0 hold the soit ‘+ Aoimaetramote down te plars ang tetrnaots campact the ground + Wind erosion: deforestation due to need for space, excessive grazing increase deveopment oF arabe crop) increases the chance of soll getting eroded by ‘+ Wate eroson: heavy rainfalcavies the parties anay ‘+ Eicessunof water that cant be absorbed by sol twanspers the soll rom tat area; + Sol compaction reéuces infiltration: + Gully erosion volume of water erodes loca sol furtheriferms deeper and deeper crevices. + Impacts of sal eeson + Topsolis removed: the most producive layers sbtent(cubral lacks in nutrons 0 ai epazoe. + Oganims ining inthe topsoil ose thelr habitat: importon the entire econytors + Sting up of watercourses: loading occurs as water bodies cant hold ercess water pace taken up bys) + Sit deposts can form lagoons:provdng breeding ‘Bounds for masquices, + Sit affecs the qualty and avalbltyof water for cncing ‘+ Aquatic organisms are buried under the sity layer: prevening ight from reaching he underwater plants {low oxygen levesin ecrystem no photosynthesis + Dasetieation: the process by which fete and becomes desert. * Severe drought leadto migration ofthe whcle communi, + Riskof famine and malnutrtion, kang to lesser food soure 3.7. Managing soil erosion + Terracing: prevents the erosion of ob rairater on steep slopesbet eel SA ECL D) and volume, crryirg slin ther Ina eraced ope water's neti te natcerraced areas, causing less sk ofrun-ffandmare chance of intra. (ten used for cultivation ofr. Contour ploughing: ploughing cf and along the contour na paral way contour Ridges and troughs (furrons) ren along the contour Ezch urow holds water and prevent are torrents of ater running down the lope, preventing he formation cofgulies andun-of of tepsoll, Useful forall gradients ofsiopes unde rfl hark athe odooe of growing spacas ts eld back water — Useful for crops that requre most sls eg rice Increases the quanity and ertity ofthe so lpact of win on an aes WWW.ZNOTES.ORG ‘without windbreaks, the sali ered anay. spaces, increasirg wind speed and causing ed curents Permeablestructres, ke vegetaton alow some wnd t passthrough, dereasing its speed and thus, he ammount find eresion. ‘Advantages addtional habitats fo: beneficial insects: roots ofthe winchreak prevent erosion due turf Malnaining vegetation cover Sowing legumes immediately after acrop hasbeen Irals proudes nore nitrogen to the so, increasingits Wher cultnating the legumes canbe simply ploughed. ‘No dg mehed!: Existing vegetation is et unl the new crop isgrowe. Rather than cultivating the sal herbicides areappied 0 kal the weeds. Roots ofthe exisingvegetaton bind the sll unt the ‘majr plan is esablshed. Risks herbeide residues bud up. the contra ofthe cover vegetations inefectv, i may campetewith-he mmaincrop asa weed. ‘Addion of organic matter to improve sl structure: Provides ational ai gaps n the sol mprores sal Increases cecomposers inthe sollas they feed on the ‘ads nutrients tothe sl aftr decompston. dehydration of the sot basta smaller particles, Planing ees: Row aftrees acts 25 windbreok “Tree canopy can prowde shade fr smater plants tat dontehrvefor sung: Prove 2 natura habit for animals tht feed on pests; “Tree eaves falta the ground and addon to the organic Mixed cropping: rowing more than anetype plant ntheCAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) Mixed Cropping ‘+ Resources inthe soil kenutrens,2e used more ficiently. + lntercrepping: rows of ifferent rep aregrowr Dbtweenthe‘ows of the main cop. This maximises the se of space and other resources. 1+ Cop rotation: (rte to section 3.4 increasing agricultural lds Crop Rotation) 3.8. Sustainable agriculture + amsofsustanableagriature: “+ Meeting te needs ofthe population for agricultural products, + Making ecient use of nonenewable resources; + Supoortrg the natural ecosystem by fllowirg natural processes with arming techniques + Sussiing the economic independence of farmers. + Organic erisers: + Are slow zing reduces the risk f eutrophication; + Area wase prec using tem saves an disposal [re sitoaty procont on many farms minimal ransport, + lsc improve sl structure. + Menoged srecing: "Prevention of orergreaing: + ensure suiene grazng, + Maintaining appropiate sol frit by animal was “+ Mamtainng gous aranage prevents compacion o: thesol. + top retain: (rteto section 3.4 increasing agricultural yields Crop rotation). + Use of pes resistant varieties of crops: recces peste + Use of érougheresstantvarietes of erops:recuces water sage for inition + Use of herbicide resistare varieties of crops: reduces “Tiel dip rigation: Refer to section 3.4 nereasing apieultural elds; rigaton YAU el achel tc) + Rainwater harvesting: he calection of rainaater, for tanker resarvoirfr ltr use. 4. Water and its management 41. Global water distribution Distribution of Earths Weter + Oceans cojer 71% of the Ears surface (Oceans and seas contain 97% of al the Earth wate: * Only 3% of water on Earth is freshwater. 1+ Neary two thirds (54) of ths 3% resh-nateris inthe ‘deep teen inthe icesheets 42. The Water Cycle Tre hyerlege cyte + Preebtation: mcisture that reaches the surface in the + Rain's themost oman type + Surece runoff preciptation that flows over he ground surface, eventually fining ts way into seams and ves. + interception: pecptanon erat doesnt each be ears surface du to being ostruced by tres and plants ‘+ initvavonprecpeatcn soa into sub-surtate sos and ‘moves intcrocks though cracks and pore spaces.CAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) + Through ow: downslope movement of water through ‘act, roughly paraleito the ground surface + Grund water flow slow herrontalmovernent of water trough roc. + Gaporation: wate from ocsuns, 250 and other water todiesis changed from water dropets te water vapour (vse gn the atmosphere due to heat + Transpiration: evaporation o difusion of wate from anc eaves. + Condensatin: waervasour converted back ito lig (water droplets or sole (parties ct ce) duet 2 ecrease in emperature with increasing height by ar caren, eg duis 4.3, Water supply + surface water: water inikes rivers and swamps. 1+ Ground water szerinthe il an in rece under the surface of re round, 1+ Aauifes ware sored in porous rocks under the ground, Groundwater and Water Table Porous ook saturated ‘+ Aternating liyersof permeate and impermesble rocks + Foldedlayers of reck sowater accumulates the mos: in ‘me down fou, WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Permeable rcks oucroppingon the surface reeivenew ‘ater estore inte imestane and sanéstone (porous) rocks below the water abe: Mechanical rump, or human labour areused0 race + Artesian aquifer an aquifer in which the water is luncer pressure ‘Artesian Well \ «+ Water froma wellsunk inp an artesian aquter wil Fiseto the surtice wahaurthe need er 2 pump. Potable safeto den. supply. usualy created tehiné a dam or by theside ofa rer bankesie reservar). “Service reservoir: 2 ese-oir where potable water is Sredeg Water wer and Cstern. Wells z hole bored ar dug into rockto reach the water sored n them. vers: alge, natural sreamof water fowingin 2 channel tothe sea alake, or another river. “They providesurare transfers of water to lowand areas here farms, vllages, tawns and cies are concentrated Desalratian:remeval eel Fam eawatr by- Dstlaton: water boiled and relessed 2 vapour, “+ Thevapour is then condensed as liquid water and éan be used, + 10-09 eiciert anduses lt of energy. + Provsionof energy and sat water (brne) sa source of plltion Reverse osmosis: pumping water athigh oressure ‘through a fre membraneCAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) Reverse Osmosis Apples Pressure Pare Water oe Es Water Fow diesitation. 4.4.Water usage Domestic ‘+ Athome for chnking andcooking (of demeste water) + MeDee ‘Washing and fushingthe tlt (58) * washing dothes 20%) washing es Inuit Cealing: Maing end making prodicts such ascyes and pnts Battingand canning in food ar erik industries Power generation. Agricultura {+ Main foe wrgation parts need wate for ransporting ‘neral, for photosynthesis, and forthe preverin at vate + Fordomestic animals. 4.5. Water quality and availability + Wisterich countries countries with planta fresh water supplies: + cme ar large countries with plenty of and for sin to fallon eg. Russia, Canada, Chira, and some wththe ols greatest rier loning trough them eg Ameo, Yangize Mssssipt. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG However, tig areas donot ensure wateravalbilty 2g. ‘ucts rgentins, Sudan, ue t containing cubes areas of deer within ts borders. + Water poor countries: ounce with arc rch water supplies: Dominate by desert countries. Except Singapore and Mauris since they receive igh precpitatien ots, burare ony snd sates mat have fly small areas or rant fall on ‘Water conte: contr between ccuntnies, states, or ‘groups over an access to water resources. + Physcal water scarcity not enough water to meet both human demands and those of ecesystems to function effectively. + Aid regiors frequently sue from physical water scarey + fealen occurs whore vater stems sbuncant. bit resources sre ver-commtted, + Economie water scarey caised by 9 ack of investment in water inrastrctureor inficent human capacty to tithe demand of watarn areae whore the popustioncannetafferd to ure an adequate source of Unie Rural aress, Urban area have higher accesso safe drinking water because Cies are more wealthy places with factories and ofices; (on average, people's incomes are nigher Easier to put pressurean the politciansor leaders ‘make improvements; ‘Weathy people are mor aly tolive inci: Water pipes ae easier and cheaper to alld when alot of people lveclosetogether 48. Multipurpose dam projects + Bxarple: tne Ramgangs Dam, Utarakhri nd + Chole of ste: + igh precptaton to provge sumcent water; * Low temperature to prevent evaporation; ‘+ Bulton song impermeable rockso water doesnt drain and has a good foundation: Bulthigh up in crder to have good potential for hyero- electric power Narrow, step sided valley for economicreasens; Rivers andlakes nearby to provide wate: ‘Away rom developed areasto reduce the rskoF polsion in resenirs Easily accesible; ‘Advantages Disadvantages ae Relocating people hydro-electric power plans Scie Flood contrat —Fiooding ind Disrptingthe ite cycles of Irigation fis andother quate6. Managing natural hazards Start of End of 4.6 cheCAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) ‘+ Constructive (divergent) plate boundary: = Sia Two plats move away fom eachother nen two oceanle plates move avay, agmarisesto ‘the surface (orventin current) and sais when it ‘Themagrna turns t ava ard forms new basshic ‘They ca also ferm shield o basic volcanoes (cutmarie) ang have non-explosve eruptions Thisis known a: se8 oor soreadng orridge auch ‘Small Eartiquates are riggred If two continental plates meve away from each other, 2 nftvaley may frm. + Dastrucive (converging) late boundary: * Twoplates move toward each oer + When an aceane pat and comtitetalplate ove towards ech oer te denser (oceans) patie forced down subducted) under thebgeer (continent pit “ishappaneinthe sibducion zone ad an ocean trench ormed ‘The icon between the plates tggers Earthquakes. descending plate intomagma. ‘Themagra cars tice srl art (ue t pressure) ‘thecugh aweakness inthe cust aan exposve Folemountaineare ao formed, ‘Tnemagina tha erups at te surface forms 2 chain ‘of yleanc islands caled an sland are Irtwo connenta plates ve ronaras each otner, the sedimant between the wo plates are ‘compressed (calisionzone}and pushed upwards to WWW.ZNOTES.ORG SE + Eathquatesozur bt ro vokarc tty teres ceo + conserve pate boundary "tron! sepa eo the Teasers poe 1 Te me gu ected tote and pressure bus up smulcresedaenextigae os a + The magnitude (strength) ofan Earthquake is measured using Seismometer en the Richter scale.CAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) Richter Magnitude o 2 Fete by people ue ating tents Seng s wats Some butaingscotapse many outings desroyea ‘esa dearacton of tla, res and eas + Distribution and causes cf volcanoes ‘I + Causedue w ne tector act (fer to 6.1 Fate boundves). + Found on corstrucive and desructve plate boundaries and hospots. + Dstribution and causes of Eartnquates: + Cqureddue tthe tectonic acti (eer to 6. Fate boundaries. + Occur mostly on the destructive andconsevative pate boundries (and sometimes onthe constructive pate boundaries + Earthquakes: *+ Focus: wherethe Earthquake begins undererourd, + Fpleenre: pont onthe surfaceabove the focus {+ ‘Slsmometer an irstumant weed tomeasire the ‘magritude ofan Earthquake (on the ict sal). + Factorethat foc th impact ofan Earthquake: * Location ofthe epicentre; Geclogy f the area Severity of aftershocks Level of development or human sewement Population density, Butaing cenit and strengi. 6.2. Tropical cyclones + Causes of opel cones: WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + Ocean surace temperature of at last 2° + Ocean depth ofc leas: 6omdeep. + mese conattons occurring benween Sand 20° non and south to have sifiient Cori fect makingthe ar spr. + Very ite wind shear (change in wnd speed o direction) ‘lows the tical developmert ofthe storm. + Distrbutin of topical cyclones: Between Sand 20° north and south ‘Theydo net form onthe equator because the Coriols '+ The arat the equator tends toflow straight from high 63, Flooding Physicaleause impact vay rintan | ROASCOE to inflaton capacny nett | prolonged rainfall ‘Srurates the sil; Causes the water table to ise, ! reducing infrationcapaciy._ snowmelt ‘Steeper gadlerts lead to faster landretit overland ow spanwater has. litle imetoinftrateCAIE IGCSE EVM (0680) Physical use impact The moresatuated the sale (Geforethe rainfall lesser intitration and more versa lon. Flooding f lowsying coastal "Reduces irercepeen and ifitaion. roughing down rater thin across cheater fw (Concrete and tarmac sre imaermeable Uransstion | zurfaces (no infratan aw ‘Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter + Predation {ADVI mount on aro “Monitoring the amount of anil and river discharge + Using te features ofthe drainage bisin and typeof ‘orm b determine the sevey ofthe fad,Fresccngh cp ete 1 Peel ofrmnng rier ch al amends + Cregnear res mayprovea sare bod, iter come ‘erasers tonometer eave ‘67. Opportunities presented by natural bazarde eau rewrite na na ete rs