Unit 7

Unit 7
Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills
Motivation
Index
Scheme 3
Key Ideas 4
7.1. Introduction and Objectives 4
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)
7.2. Theories of Motivation 4

7.3. Motivation to Learn a Foreign Language 10
7.4. Motivation and Language Teaching 15
7.5. Bibliographic References 22
In Depth 24
Test 27
MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION TO LEARN A
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION MOTIVATION AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Expectancy-value theories Phases in the history of L2 motivation Language teaching, classroom structures,
theory and motivation
Goal theories
Classroom structures and motivation Generating motivation
Self-determination theory
Academic emotions and boredom Maintaining motivation
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Scheme
Unit 7. Scheme
3
Key Ideas
7.1. Introduction and Objectives
This unit focuses on recent theories of motivation and their application to foreign
language teaching/learning. The first section introduces the main concepts related to
motivation and how their understanding has evolved over time. Then, it deals with
motivational theories in the field of foreign language learning. And finally, it looks at
the strategies teachers can adopt in the FL classroom to motivate their students.
The objectives of this unit are as follows:
 To discuss the most important theories of motivation and their characteristics.

 To distinguish the main factors that determine students’ motivation in the FL
classroom.
 To describe motivational strategies and their practical application in the
classroom.
7.2. Theories of Motivation
Motivation is an essential factor in education. In foreign language learning we cannot

ignore the difference between formal and non-formal education. After years of
frustrating classroom experiences, adults in non-formal educational context, for
instance, are usually highly motivated to master language and learn new skills.
Likewise, young learners and adolescents usually enjoy their English classes in non-
formal contexts. In formal educational context foreign language is compulsory, so
teachers cannot take for granted students’ motivation.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
The concept of motivation is as complex as human behaviour and has been the object
of an ongoing debate for years. It is intrinsically associated to people’s needs, goals,
and expectations and influenced by a great number of other factors that change over
time. To think of a unique theory on motivation, a kind of magical formula that we
can all use to predict our students’ behaviour and help them overcome anxiety and
wish to learn will be unrealistic. However, being aware of the main motivation
theories as a valuable source of teaching strategies will stimulate teachers to invest
time and effort in motivating their students. The starting point of the examination of
motivation and its role in EFL teaching can be Dörnyei & Ushioda’s (2011) definition:
Motivation concerns the direction and magnitude of human behaviour, i.e.

 The choice of a particular action: Why people decide to do something.
 The persistence with it: How long they are willing to sustain the activity.
 The effort expended on it: How hard they are going to pursue it.
Approaches to motivation have varied over the years. The main question researchers
have been trying to answer since early theories of motivation is: From what do people
derive their motivation? Focus shifted from unconscious drives, i.e. affect, to
cognition (e.g. expectations and goals) in the second half of the twentieth century.
The last fifteen years have witnessed a growing interest in the role of affect in
motivation. Culturally specific motives are studied in the field of cross-cultural
psychology, while “the rise of ‘positive psychology’ has increased interest in the study
of personal meaning, motives and emotional well-being” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011,
p. 5). To believe that there is a direct cause-effect relationship between motivation
and successful achievement of one’s goals would mean to simplify the concept of
motivation. Another persistent simplification of motivation in education is to take for
granted a cause-effect relationship between fun and motivation, a perception that
has led to the idea that teachers should somehow entertain their students all the
time. Motivation is generated gradually and fluctuates over time. In “sustained long-
term activities such as foreign language learning, motivation does not remain
constant during the course of months, years or even during a single lesson” (Dörnyei
& Ushioda, 2011, p. 6).

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Key Cognitive Theories
Expectancy-value theories
Expectancy-value theories are based on the idea that motivation depends on two
factors: expectancy of success (or how well an individual will do an activity) and the
value a person gives to this success on that activity. It was first developed by John
William Atkinson in the 1950s-60s and in the 1980s Jacquelynne Eccles extended the
Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation to education. Expectancy
influences not only choices, but also effort, performance, and persistence.
Expectance and value are determined by the individual’s ability beliefs, which are
defined as “the individual’s perception of his or her current competence at a given
activity” (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000, p. 70). Ability-related beliefs have important
motivational consequences in the classroom and are associated with self-perception
and, by extension, self-worth.
Components of achievement values

Attainment value or
importance The importance of doing well on a given task
Intrinsic value The enjoyment one gains from doing the task
Utility value or
usefulness of the task How a task fits into an individual’s future plans
How the decision to engage in one activity limits access to other
activities, assessments of how much effort will be taken to
Cost accomplish the activity, and its emotional cost
Table 1. Components of achievement values. Source: adapted from Wigfield & Eccles, 2000, p. 72.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Goal theories
 Goal-setting theory was developed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham in the 1990s.
Goal-setting is determined by the perception of one’s value, i.e. “one’s values
create a desire to do things consistent with them” (Lunenburg, 2011, p. 2). Goals
should be challenging but attainable to avoid frustration. Research shows that
when people set more difficult goals, the achievement is also greater.
Commitment is essential element of this theory. According to Locke and Latham
(2002), goals affect performance through the following four mechanisms:
• Goals serve a directive function; they direct attention and effort toward goal-
relevant activities and away from goal irrelevant activities.
• Goals have an energizing function. High goals lead to greater effort than low
goals.
• Goals affect persistence.
• Goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of
task-relevant knowledge and strategies (pp. 706-707).
 Goal-orientation theory is particularly relevant in the field of education. It was

developed in the 1980s-90s by scholars such as John Graham Nicholls, Martin L.
Maehr, and Carole Ames. Goal orientations focus on “why and how people are
trying to achieve various objectives” and not so much on “what people are
attempting to achieve” (Kaplan & Maehr, 2007, p. 142, italics in original). Most
studies on goal-orientation focus mostly on two main orientations: mastery and
performance. Ames (1992) defines them as follows:
• Mastery: “Individuals are oriented toward developing new skills, trying to
understand their work, improving their level of competence, or achieving a
sense of mastery” (p. 262).
• Performance: “Focus on one’s ability and self-worth, and ability is evidenced by

doing better than others, by surpassing normative-based standards or by
achieving success with little effort” (p. 262).

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Unit 7. Key ideas
 Goal-content and multiplicity. Studies in human behaviour have long shown that
many different goals and motivational concerns can coexist. Some goals can be
predicted and others appear along the way. The presence of multiple goals
suggests that learners’ motivation cannot be limited to academic achievement.
Wentzel (2000) defines goals with respect to content and discusses how “students’
multiple social and academic goals might influence their academic
accomplishments” (p. 112). For Wentzel (2000), the relation between social and
academic goals can be:
• One-directional, with fundamental orientations toward the self and the social
environment guiding efforts.
• Complementary, with social and task-related goal pursuit independently
contributing to academic achievement.
• Reciprocal and hierarchical in nature, reflecting students’ beliefs about how to
achieve academic success (p. 112).
Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory shows that teachers should develop and support

autonomy, because autonomously-motivated students tend to be more successful.
Self-determination theory “differentiates motivation in terms of being autonomous
and controlled” (Deci & Ryan, 2012, p. 416). It draws on the studies of extrinsic
rewards on intrinsic motivation (for information on self-motivation, see “The
psychology of self-motivation” in the “In-Depth” section).
Self Determination Theory is specifically framed in terms of social and

environmental factors that facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation.
This language reflects the assumption that intrinsic motivation, being an
inherent organismic propensity, is catalyzed (rather than caused) when

individuals are in conditions that conduce toward its expression.
(Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 58)

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is probably the most widely used distinction when
we refer to motivation in the language classroom. Intrinsic motivation relates to “a
behaviour performed for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and
satisfaction”, while extrinsic motivation “involves performing a behaviour as a means
to some separable end, such as receiving an extrinsic reward (e.g. good grades) or
avoiding punishment” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 23) (for further information on
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, see “A Review of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations
of ESL Learners” in the “In-Depth” section).
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Behaviors and actions done for the positive experiences associated with exercising
and extending ones capacities.
A pervasive and important form of volitional activity.
A critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development because it is

through acting on one’s inherent interests that one grows in knowledge and skills.
Exists in the nexus between individuals and activities.
Maintained or enhanced by a sense of autonomy. Autonomy-supportive (in contrast

to controlling) teachers catalyze in their students´ greater intrinsic motivation.
Table 2. Intrinsic motivation. Source: adapted from Ryan & Deci, 2000, pp. 56-59.
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
In schools, intrinsic motivation becomes weaker with each advancing grade and
most tasks are extrinsically motivated.
A taxonomy of human motivation: amotivation → extrinsic motivation → intrinsic

motivation.
A sense of relatedness: The primary reason for behaviors is that they are valued by
significant others to whom they feel (or would like to feel) connected (e.g. a family,
a peer group, or a society).
Table 3. Extrinsic motivation. Source: adapted from Ryan & Deci, 2000, pp. 60-65.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Think about it!
Think of three ways to help maintain and increase learner intrinsic motivation in each of
the following groups: adults, adolescents, and young children.
7.3. Motivation to Learn a Foreign Language
Foreign language learning is different in many ways from other subject matters in
that it involves more than acquiring some skills. Close contact with the foreign
language traditions, literature, music, newspapers, or radio programs can have
important impact on the learners’ social and cultural beliefs. General theories of
motivation have a clear impact on language learning motivation, however studies in
language learning have shown that the motivational variables are complex and
interact in multiple ways to incorporate the foreign language social and cultural
context. Thus, L2 motivation theories draw on general motivation theories, but
reflect the development of research in the FL learning/teaching process.
Phases in the history of L2 motivation theory

Origins: Wallace Lambert and Robert Gardner.
The social psychological Individuals’ attitudes towards L2 and L2 community exert a
period (1959-1990) directive influence on their L2 learning behaviour
The work of Graham Crookes and Richard W. Schmidt is crucial in
this phase. Language motivation in line with cognitive revolution
The cognitive-situated in mainstream motivational psychology and focus on a more
period (during the 1990s) situated analysis of motivation in specific learning contexts
Marion Williams and Robert Burden were among the first to
The process-oriented point to the temporal perspective of motivation. Focus on the
period (the turn of the temporal organization of motivation or the motivational

century) processes as they happen in time
Table 4. Phases in the history of L2 motivation theory.

Source: adapted from Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, pp. 39-61.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
In a general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing
cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies,
terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial
wishes and desires are selected, priorised, operationalised, and (successfully
or unsuccessfully) acted out. (Dörnyei & Ottó, 1998, p. 64)
It is important to note that theories developed in the first and second period are still
relevant in many ways. One of the key aspects in motivational theories is interest. It
can be related to intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, or often a combination of the two.
What is important is trying to arouse students’ interest in the foreign language and
connect their natural curiosity to the course content. In this way, students will feel
that class instruction relates to their needs and expectation, i.e. activities will be
relevant to them (for further information on relevance, see “Relevance for Learning
and Motivation in Education” in the “In-Depth section). One of the greatest
challenges for teachers is to adjust the difficulty of the tasks to students’ proficiency
level and capacity to achieve the goals. The perceived probability for success is
referred to as expectancy and satisfaction is often obtained by an extrinsic award,
such as positive feedback. A number of works explore the relation between learner’s
autonomy and its relation to intrinsic motivation. Autonomy support has positive
impact on learners’ intrinsic motivation and self-confidence (for further information
on autonomy and motivation, see “Is Human Autonomy a Western Ideology or a Basic
Need?” in the “In-Depth” section).

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Think about it!
Some teachers display in the classroom successful works created by students as a
reward. This will no doubt be stimulating for those whose works are exposed, but what
about the rest? Do you think it will motivate or put pressure on those whose work was
not selected? Will you display your students’ works? If so, which ones?
Figure 1. Classroom walls. Source: https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/our-classroom-walls/
Three other aspects influence learners’ motivation: the course (syllabus, teaching
materials, methodology), the teacher (personality, enthusiasm, teaching style,
sanctions and rewards), and the group (cooperative and supportive or individualistic
and competitive, size, cultural norms). The same learner might be motivated by one
teacher or another, feel conformable in one group and uncomfortable in another,
which will affect his/her motivation during the course. If one of these factors
demotivates a student, the others should be strong enough to keep him/her
interested in the learning process.
Ames (1992) examines how classroom structures can make some achievement goals
salient. She focuses on the design of tasks or activities, evaluation, and distribution
of authority and responsibility and shows that these structures are interdependent.
 Tasks: Varied and meaningful; their presentation should emphasize personal

relevance, offer personal challenge and give students a sense of control over the
product; defined in terms of specific and short-term goals; involve students in
applying self-regulatory and metacognitive skills; embedded in the social
organization of the classroom.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
 Evaluation and recognition: Students’ perception of the meaning of the evaluative
information is essential; avoid social comparison (e.g. public charts of students’
scores, ability grouping, and displays of selected papers and achievements); avoid
focusing on winning or out-performing other students; focus on improving
students’ own performance; should be accompanied by the opportunity to
improve to make effort more salient; avoid excessive use of rewards.
 Authority: Relation between students’ autonomy and intrinsic motivation; give
students choices (guided by their interests); assign students responsibilities that
provide opportunities for self-regulatory strategies and positive self-perception;
emphasize independent thinking; create a sense of self-worth.
Emotions are central in recent research in motivation. Most studies focus on how to
create positive emotions in order to generate motivation, but few explain what
seems to be a common negative experience in educational context and one of the
major obstacles to motivation — boredom.
The individual who is bored has difficulty paying attention, difficulty

concentrating, and effort is required to maintain focus on (and not become
distracted from) what is going on in the environment. [Boredom] involve[s]
some combination of disengagement, dissatisfaction, inattention, altered time
perception, and impaired vitality. (Macklem, 2015, pp. 1-2)
Macklem (2015) argues that although the study of emotions has recently gained
prominence in motivational theories in the field of education, academic emotions
(sometimes called ‘achievement emotions’), defined as “those emotions that are
associated with learning, classroom instructions and school achievement” have not
received enough attention (pp. 3-4). While teachers focus on generating positive
emotions, they do not seem to pay much attention to negative ones, such as anger,
hopelessness, shame, and boredom.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Production skills Interaction skills
Students cope with stress more adaptively, Interfere with students’ achievement scores,
organize their study time, use summarizing decrease engagement and performance,
skills, prepare for tests more strategically, more decreased motivation to perform, can create a
likely to believe that they can enhance their conflict between their academic goals and their
intelligence through effort, have more emotional goals, associated to teacher-
confidence, have more satisfaction and centered approaches and lack of interaction in
motivation. Enjoyment, pride, and self- the classroom. Can increase perseverance
regulation predict grades. under certain circumstances.
Table 5. Positive and negative emotions. Source: adapted from Macklem, 2015, pp. 4-6.
The effects of positive and negative emotions cannot be simplified and we should
bear in mind that students alternate between them. Sometimes, the performance of
a single task can be associated with both of them simultaneously. Temporary
boredom has a function, like the rest of positive and negative emotions. It can help
us establish new goals and look for a positive alternative to the current situation.
Research into boredom in educational contexts points to three academic situations:
class time, while studying, while doing homework. Boredom is particularly common
during homework, because of the lack of social interaction related to the task. Having
integrated motivation in classroom activities, teachers often focus on the knowledge
component when they assign tasks for homework and this leads to lack of motivation.
As mentioned above, if students think the task is relevant, they will be less likely to
feel bored.
It is interesting to note that “more often it is the low-ability students who report
being bored, particularly at the middle school level” (Macklem, 2015, p. 11).
However, boredom is not limited to this type of students. Gifted students are often
bored at school when tasks are not challenging enough for them. Boredom is
associated to low task autonomy, i.e. students are likely to get bored when
performing highly-controlled and repetitive tasks. Challenging tasks adapted to
learners’ proficiency level and promoting autonomy are likely to reduce boredom in
the classroom. Even in these cases, gifted students may still be bored, which means

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Unit 7. Key ideas
that they need careful attention and adjustment of the competency level of their
tasks. Teacher behaviour can have a great impact on students’ academic emotions,
although, obviously, it is not the only factor that affects boredom and frustration.
7.4. Motivation and Language Teaching
Motivating students is one of the greatest challenges teachers have to face. The
growing number of studies on motivation in language teaching shows the complexity
of the issue and the great diversity of effects on different groups and students. The
number of key variables often makes it virtually impossible to apply a motivating
strategy and achieve the same effect on all the members of a group. What is more,
once motivation is created, it might be even more difficult to maintain it during a
year-long course.
Language teaching, classroom structures, and motivation
The course
Our knowledge and experiences of the world influence how we process a text and
the visual cues it can be accompanied by. That is why, course materials and tasks
should relate to students’ interests and concerns. Course books are often written for
a universal learner and focus only on the proficiency level, but not on the age.
Sometimes, students have to do the same type of tasks over and over again all
throughout the book. It is particularly challenging to manage large classes and some
teachers might assign tasks that help them keep students quiet. Inappropriate tasks
will put students off and might even affect their long-term attitude to learning a
foreign language. If materials and activities do not match students’ needs, interests
and proficiency level, they are unlikely to generate motivation. Doyle (1983) identifies
four types of tasks.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
1. Memory tasks: Students are expected to recognize or reproduce information
previously encountered.
2. Procedural/routine tasks: Students are expected to apply a standardized and
predictable formula or algorithm to generate answers.
3. Comprehension/understanding tasks: Students are expected to (a) recognize
transformed versions of information previously encountered, (b) apply
procedures to new problems or (c) draw inferences.
4. Opinion tasks: Students are expected to state a preference for something.
When considering the type of tasks that can motivate their students, teachers can
also draw on Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) which originally contained the following six
categories: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and
Evaluation or the Revised Bloom’s taxonomy (2001), which contains the following
dimensions: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create.
The original Bloom’s taxonomy and Cinderella.
Figure 2. The original Bloom’s taxonomy and Cinderella. Source:

https://archive.org/stream/cinderella00dalziala#page/10/mode/2up
Knowledge: Why is Cinderella living with her stepmother and her two
step-sisters? Comprehension: What is the difference between Cinderella
and her sisters? Application: What would have changed if Cinderella were
not so beautiful? Analysis: Which are Cinderella’s three best virtues?
What flaws does she have, if any? Synthesis: Should Cinderella have

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Unit 7. Key ideas
punished her stepsisters for being mean to her? Evaluation: How can you
improve the end of the story?
Can you adapt the questions to the revised taxonomy?
Do you think the story still inspires girls today? Is it inspiring for boys? If
so, in what way? There has been a tendency to rewrite classic fairy tales
to empower girls to build a better world for everyone. Which version will
you use in class and why: the classic fairy tale or a reimagined version?
As seen above, expectancy-value theory has practical significance for deciding which
tasks will motivate students. The principles of this theory can apply to the course as a
whole. For instance, if students believe that a task/course has a high utility-value, they
will be more committed to its goals. Students can have a personal interest in the course
or a situational interest in the course/task. Situational interest is determined by a
number of variables related to a course/task. When students have prior knowledge of a
topic, e.g. a book, a film, or a popular TV series, it will be easier for the teacher to
generate and maintain interest in this topic. These types of tasks sometimes overlap with
what are known as culturally-based tasks. Tasks should be realistic, relevant, action-
oriented, and motivational.
The teacher
Teachers can influence learners’ motivation in many ways. Their motivating skills can
affect not only learners’ present motivation and self-confidence, but also their future
beliefs and goals. If students have pleasant and rewarding experiences in the English
classroom, they might develop interest in language and literature and will be willing
to take English language courses in the future, i.e. teachers’ behaviour can have long-
term effects on their students. It is important to take into account that achievement
rewards, such as showing the best works to the whole class or publishing the best
papers in a school blog, will be motivating for some students, but can affect others
negatively. Creating positive expectations about the subject can change students’
attitude from the very beginning and if teachers are excited about teaching, their
students will be excited about learning with them.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Dörnyei (2001) draws out attention to four general points. The teacher’s:
 Enthusiasm: Project enthusiasm; talk about your personal interests in L2; show
your students how teaching enriches your life.
 Commitment to and expectations to students’ learning: The teacher is the group
leader par excellence and embodies the class spirit. Offer students assistance;
offer to meet students individually to explain things; send students copies of
interesting articles or other material; show concern when things aren’t going well.
 Relationship with the students: Share warm, personal interactions with your
students; respond to their concerns in an empathic manner; have non-judgmental
attitude; greet students and remember their names; show interest in their
hobbies, etc.
 Relationship with the students’ parents: Keep parents informed about their
children’s progress and ask for their assistance in supporting their children in some
tasks at home.
Think about it!

Parental involvement and support are a valuable source for learner motivation in the
context of formal education. Although many parents are trying to motivate their
children, their help is often ignored by teachers. How can teachers work with parents to
enhance students’ motivation?
The environment
Home is a place where people feel secure and comfortable. The same principle
should apply to the classroom. Teachers should create a safe and supportive
environment for their students. Learning a foreign language can be stressful for some
learners, especially those who are shy and insecure. They might feel uncomfortable
talking in front of their classmates in a foreign language. Positive class dynamics are
essential in building a safe environment and students should know that they can
make mistakes and learn from them. Teachers should be supportive and help

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Unit 7. Key ideas
students understand the need to be supportive with their classmates. On their part,
students can keep notes of their teacher’s and peers’ constructive and positive
comments and look back at them when they feel they are unable to complete a task.
Bare walls make a space feel cold. Decorate your classroom cheerfully. Make it
welcoming and cozy by using colours. Walls can become part of the learning
experience if you make a progress chart, so that students can see their gradual
improvement by drawing or marking their achievements on the chart. All the
topics/units of a course can be drawn on the chart and this will help students have a
global vision of the subject. If a student is absent, he/she will be able to see the
progress of the class. The chart can be a jigsaw, for instance.
The idea of Christmas advent calendar can be used to make a chart and students can
open doors to see the objectives or activities of each unit. There can also be inspiring
thoughts in the chart, which can be used as a starting point for a conversation or
inserted into an activity. Another possibility is to make a vision board on the topic
‘what makes you happy’ with a list of words related to positive emotions. Be creative;
introduce surprise and intrigue. Students can be asked to find pictures in newspapers
and magazines of things, places, activities, etc. that make them happy and stick them
on the board. This will contribute to the positive dynamics in the classroom and to
improving students’ self-esteem and a sense of growth.
The group
One of the most important motivational elements in the FL classroom is the cohesion
of the group. Students spend a lot of time together in formal educational context. If
they feel they belong to the group and are at ease with their classmates, they will be
willing to complete group tasks. Cooperative or collaborative projects/activities are a

great source for establishing common goals and working together to achieve them.
Dörnyei (2001) suggests using “small-group tasks where students can mix” and trying
to “prevent the emergence of rigid seating patterns” (p. 45). As might be expected,

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Unit 7. Key ideas
there should be class rules, which can be discussed by the whole class and eventually
agreed on. The list of norms can then be displayed on a vision board.
Once the classroom structures and teaching style have been adjusted to create basic
motivational conditions for teaching/learning a foreign language, motivation is
generally understood as a two-stage process: generating and maintaining motivation.
Generating motivation
Dörnyei (2001) proposes a focus on relation between attitudes and values from three
perspectives:
 Intrinsic value: Actual process of learning the target language.

 Integrative value: Target language itself and its speakers.
 Instrumental value: Consequences and benefits of having learnt a target
language.
It is essential to highlight those aspects of learning a foreign language that students

are likely to enjoy. This involves creating interest in the foreign language culture and,
in general, open-minded attitude towards difference. The benefits of teaching culture
in the language classroom have received much attention recently and studies show
that teaching English through its cultures is motivating for students. Bringing cultural
products to class will also develop students’ intercultural awareness. Whenever
possible, teachers should encourage contact with members of the foreign language
community through twinning projects and activities. It is crucial to make goals and
assessment criteria clear and provide sufficient information about the tasks students
have to perform. Working for the well-being of the group as a whole does not mean
ignoring diversity. Teaching practices would make a long list of motivational tools,
such as music to keep teachers’ and students’ energy up, mind maps for learning
vocabulary, word puzzles, riddles, creative writing, etc.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Maintaining motivation
Although generating motivation does not present major problems, maintaining

motivation can be difficult. Learning a foreign language in non-formal educational
context is more often than not enjoyable and stimulating. Let us start with the
question: How is teaching/learning different in formal and non-formal contexts? At
school students have about five classes on a daily basis and they are often tired at
the end of the day. They spend long hours in the classroom, most of the time seated
and there are few opportunities for them to move around. At the same time, teachers
work under pressure to cover the curriculum and prepare their students for exams,
i.e. for obtaining noticeable and measurable results in a short period of time. Despite
these difficulties, there is a great variety of motivational strategies that teachers can
use to maintain motivation.
Dörnyei (2001) identifies three main types of strategy:

 Breaking the monotony of learning.
 Making the tasks more interesting.
 Increasing the involvement of the students.
Teachers should pay special attention to the rhythm and sequence of tasks. Not only
the type of task is important, but also the timing and sequence. It is essential to bear
in mind that although activities might focus on one skill, integrating the four macro
skills contributes to parallel development in reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Students enjoy activities which include something new and unexpected, something
intriguing. For example, to motivate writing you can create a school blog about their
town. They can write posts about the past and present of their town, its monuments,
museums, shopping centers, parks, etc, using different grammatical structures and
vocabulary. It would be interesting for them to take pictures of the places they write
about and post them together with the text. Students can also discuss their idea of
the perfect town and propose improvements of their own town. They can also think
of a fictional character and describe his/her adventures in their town, which will
activate the so called ‘fantasy element’ in the task.

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Unit 7. Key ideas
Teacher motivation.
Access to the video through the virtual campus
7.5. Bibliographic References
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, Structures, and Student Motivation. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A.

W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol.
1, pp. 416-436). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ottó, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation.
Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, 4, 43-69.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Harlow, UK:
Pearson.
Doyle, W. (1983). Academic Work. Review of Educational Research, 53(2), 159-199.

22
Unit 7. Key ideas
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The Contributions and Prospects of Goal
Orientation Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal
Setting and Task Motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717.
Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation. International Journal of

Management, Business, and Administration, 15(1), 1-6.
Macklem, G. L. (2015). Boredom in the Classroom: Addressing Student Motivation,

Self-Regulation, and Engagement in Learning. New York & London: Springer.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions
and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
Wentzel, K. R. (2000). What Is It That I’m Trying to Achieve? Classroom Goals from a
Content Perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 105-115.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement

Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68-81.

23
Unit 7. Key ideas
In Depth
Relevance for Learning and Motivation in Education
Albrecht, J. R., & Karabenick, S. A. (2018). Relevance for Learning and Motivation in
Education. The Journal of Experimental Education, 86(1), 1-10. Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220973.2017.1380593
First, Jeffrey R. Albrecht and Stuart A. Karabenick offer a brief history of perspectives
on educational relevance, which reveals the complexity of the concept of educational
relevance and the lack of consensus among scholars. They suggest that we
understand the concept from students’ perspective, if we want to generate
relevance-based motivation.
A Review of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations of ESL Learners
Ng, C. F., & Ng, P. K. (2015). A Review of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations of ESL
Learners. International Journal of Languages, Literature and Linguistics, 1(2), 98-105.
Retrieved from
http://www.ijlll.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=36&id=303
Chiew Fen Ng and Poh Kiat Ng discuss the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in
second language teaching, describing diverse teachers’ motivational practices. The
authors also discuss parental encouragement in language learning motivation, i.e.
how social and contextual factors influence motivation. The review concludes by
identifying some of the key factors that affect FL learning motivation.

24
Unit 7. In Depth
Is Human Autonomy a Western Ideology or a Basic Need?
Ryan, R. M. [Mizzou Visual Production Services]. (2016, November 4). Richard M.Ryan: Is
Human Autonomy a Western Ideology or a Basic Need? [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUgNbWkcnHs
In this video, critical psychologist Richard M. Ryan discusses the connection between
intrinsic motivation and human well-being. He describes how mindfulness influences
the process of human autonomy and reflects on the social factors and ingredients
that support people’s flourishing.

25
Unit 7. In Depth
The psychology of self-motivation
Geller, S. [TEDx Talks]. (2013, December 5). The psychology of self-motivation | Scott
Geller | TEDxVirginiaTech [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7sxpKhIbr0E
Scott Geller explores the issue of self-motivation and relates it to feeling empowered.
Geller suggests asking three questions to know if a person feels empowered: Can you
do it? Will it work? Is it worth it? In self-motivation, it is also important to be aware
of how you communicate to yourself.

26
Unit 7. In Depth
Test
1. Motivation:
A. Concerns the direction and magnitude of human behaviour.
B. Is the knowledge of how to pursue a task effectively.
C. Is the main reason for academic success.
D. Concerns all unconscious drives that help the individual stay focused on a
task.
2. There is a cause-effect relation between:

A. Intention and motivation.
B. Entertainment and motivation.
C. Mastery and motivation.
D. None of the above.
3. Expectancy-value theories are based on the idea that motivation depends on two
factors:
A. Expectancy of success and value.
B. Effort and performance.
C. Self-perception and self-worth.
D. Effort and value.
4. In the goal-setting theory:

A. Goals affect ability.
B. Goals affect self-awareness.
C. Goals affect persistence.
D. Goals affect irrelevant activities.

27
Unit 7. Test
5. Intrinsic motivation refers to:
A. A behaviour as a means to some separable end.
B. A behaviour performed for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and
satisfaction.
C. A behaviour that is catalyzed when individuals are in conditions that conduce
toward its expression.
D. A, B, and C are correct.
6. The process-oriented period in the history of L2 motivation theory focuses on:

A. The importance of relevance and satisfaction.
B. The learners’ expectancy and satisfaction.
C. The role of learners’ personal interests.
D. The temporal organization of motivation or the motivational processes as
they happen in time.
7. Regarding evaluation, teachers should avoid:

A. Social comparison.
B. Excessive use of rewards.
C. Focusing on winning.
D. All of the above.
8. Negative academic emotions:

A. Are temporary.
B. Are associated with the teacher.
C. Decrease motivation.
D. Decrease autonomy.
9. Doyle identifies four types of tasks:

A. Memory tasks, procedural tasks, comprehension tasks, opinion tasks.
B. Reading tasks, writing tasks, listening tasks, speaking tasks.
C. Knowledge tasks, comprehension tasks, application tasks, analysis tasks.
D. Memory tasks, opinion tasks, evaluative tasks, and creative tasks.

28
Unit 7. Test
10. According to Dörnyei, which of the following strategies can be used to maintain
motivation:
A. Increasing the involvement of the students.
B. Making the tasks more interesting.
C. Breaking the monotony of learning.
D. All of the above.

29
Unit 7. Test

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Unit 7

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

7.2. Theories of Motivation 4

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

7.1. Introduction and Objectives

The objectives of this unit are as follows:

 To discuss the most important theories of motivation and their characteristics.

7.2. Theories of Motivation

Motivation is an essential factor in education. In foreign language learning we cannot

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Motivation concerns the direction and magnitude of human behaviour, i.e.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Components of achievement values

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

 Goal-orientation theory is particularly relevant in the field of education. It was

• Performance: “Focus on one’s ability and self-worth, and ability is evidenced by

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Self-determination theory shows that teachers should develop and support

Self Determination Theory is specifically framed in terms of social and

inherent organismic propensity, is catalyzed (rather than caused) when

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

A pervasive and important form of volitional activity.

A critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development because it is

Exists in the nexus between individuals and activities.

Maintained or enhanced by a sense of autonomy. Autonomy-supportive (in contrast

A taxonomy of human motivation: amotivation → extrinsic motivation → intrinsic

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

7.3. Motivation to Learn a Foreign Language

Phases in the history of L2 motivation theory

period (the turn of the temporal organization of motivation or the motivational

Table 4. Phases in the history of L2 motivation theory.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Figure 1. Classroom walls. Source: https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/our-classroom-walls/

 Tasks: Varied and meaningful; their presentation should emphasize personal

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

The individual who is bored has difficulty paying attention, difficulty

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

7.4. Motivation and Language Teaching

Language teaching, classroom structures, and motivation

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

The original Bloom’s taxonomy and Cinderella.

Figure 2. The original Bloom’s taxonomy and Cinderella. Source:

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Can you adapt the questions to the revised taxonomy?

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Think about it!

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

willing to complete group tasks. Cooperative or collaborative projects/activities are a

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

 Intrinsic value: Actual process of learning the target language.

It is essential to highlight those aspects of learning a foreign language that students

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Although generating motivation does not present major problems, maintaining

Dörnyei (2001) identifies three main types of strategy:

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Access to the video through the virtual campus

7.5. Bibliographic References

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, Structures, and Student Motivation. Journal of

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A.

Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:

Doyle, W. (1983). Academic Work. Review of Educational Research, 53(2), 159-199.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills