Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

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Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jece

Development of novel waste tea-derived activated carbon promoted with

SiO2 nanoparticles as highly robust and easily fluidizable sorbent for
low-temperature CO2 capture
Maryam Tahmasebpoor a, *, Milad Iranvandi a, Mohammad Heidari a, 1, Babak Azimi a, 1,
Covadonga Pevida b, *
a
Faculty of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 51666–16471, Iran
b
Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología del Carbono, INCAR (CSIC), Francisco Pintado Fe, 26, 33011 Oviedo, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: <Dong-Yeun Koh> Waste-derived biomass-based sorbents being employed in many applications, e.g., post-combustion CO2 capture
process, are in rising interest. This work investigates the CO2 capture technique by activated carbon (AC) derived
Keywords: from waste tea (WT) biomass. The synthesis protocol consists of carbonization followed by activation with KOH
Waste tea and NaOH, known as chemical activators, utilizing the wet impregnation method. With the aim of developing the
Activated Carbon
AC sorbent fluidizable in fluidized-bed systems, an essential factor in the industrialization of the CO2 capture
CO2 capture
process, these sorbents are mixed with the easily fluidizable SiO2 nanoparticles (NPs). Prepared samples are
Fluidization
Biomass characterized via SEM, EDS, BET, FTIR, and TG analysis. Based on the TG analysis assessed in three consecutive
Silica nanoparticles adsorption/desorption cycles, 457 %, 141 %, and 69 % higher average CO2 capture capacity is recorded for KOH-
promoted AC (2.316 mmol/g) compared to raw waste tea (0.416 mmol/g), NaOH-promoted AC (0.961 mmol/g)
and commercial AC (1.370 mmol/g), respectively. Fluidization experiments show that the WT-derived AC mixed
with 2.5 wt% SiO2 NPs presents a 45 % higher average bed expansion ratio linked with a homogeneous and
bubbleless fluidization regime than its silica-free counterpart, which presents the bubble- and channel-containing
bed with a non-uniform regime. This modified sorbent shows a 9% more CO2 capture capacity (2.53 mmol/g)
than the WT-derived AC and superior multicyclic stability during 25 multiple adsorption/desorption cycles.

1. Introduction sorbents have more grabbed researchers’ attention [19–21]. The

The detrimental human-made pollution in the terrain environment
endangers our society [1-3]. The troublingly increasing greenhouse ef­
fect due to human-made emissions to the atmosphere implies trapping
and slowing heat loss to the atmosphere leading to global warming. The
sharp rise of CO2 gas is generally identified as the most substantial
climate change driver over the last century [4–7]. Post-combustion CO2
capture that refers to capturing CO2 from a flue gas generated after
combusting a carbon-based fuel, has been widely recognized as a
promising method of reducing CO2 emissions from extensive stationary
industrial sources [8,9]. Absorption [10–12], membrane [13,14], cal­
cium looping [15,16], and adsorption [17,18], are the most known
post-combustion carbon capture techniques. Among them, solid-based
adsorption technique benefits from the potential of high capacity and
selectivity, rapid kinetics, superior mechanical characteristics of sor­
bents, resilience after multiple adsorption-desorption cycles, ability to
be retrofitted for short to medium-term, and negligible equipment
corrosion [22,23]. Carbon-based sorbents [24], MgO [25], Li4SiO4 [26],
CaO [27–29], and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) [30,31] have been
studied more for post-combustion CO2 capture. Promising features,
namely widely accessible, easily-preparation, and cost-effective, make
carbon-based sorbents more favorable candidates compared to other
utilized CO2 sorbents [32–34]. Highly remarkable properties, the facile
synthesis and modification, reversibility in cycles at low adsorption and
desorption temperatures, considerable porosity, chemical resistivity to
alkaline and acidic conditions, thermal and mechanical stability, and

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: tahmasebpoor@tabrizu.ac.ir (M. Tahmasebpoor), moh.heidari94@gmail.com (M. Heidari), babak92azimi92@gmail.com (B. Azimi), cpevida@
incar.csic.es (C. Pevida).
1
Co-authors

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110437
Received 27 February 2023; Received in revised form 1 June 2023; Accepted 23 June 2023
Available online 25 June 2023
2213-3437/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Tahmasebpoor et al.
recoverability at a low cost, distinguish porous carbon-based sorbents,
significantly activated carbon (AC) among CO2 sorbents [35,36]. ACs
are widely developed from the renewable, inexpensive, and globally
abundant resources of agriculture wastes or biomass residues due to
their cost-effective and readily available features [37,38].
The adsorption capacity of AC relies on its roughness and surface
chemistry [39]. Non-activated carbon-based sorbents have limited
porosity and CO2 adsorption capability [40]. After physical and chem­
ical treatments, modified carbon displays large pore volumes and high
surface area owing to the etching process [41]. In physical activation,
the precursor is initially carbonized before being thermally activated
under oxidizing gas, such as steam, O3, or CO2 [42]. In contrast, for
chemical activation, the precursor is impregnated with a chemical agent
such as KOH, NaOH, H3PO4, K2CO3, and ZnCl2; hence, pyrolysis and
activation stages are simultaneously completed to form the final product
[43–45]. Considering the conducted studies, the chemically activated
carbons have presented better textural characterization and cyclic per­
formance under the CO2 capture process [46]. The summary of con­
ducted investigations on developing chemically activated carbon from
biomass materials for the low-temperature CO2 capture process is
included in Table S1. Yue et al. [47] investigated the influence of
K2CO3-based activation on the CO2 adsorption performance of
carbon-based sorbent derived from coconut shells. The CO2 capture
capacity of unmodified coconut-shell-derived carbon at 25 ℃ increased
from 1.53 to 4 mmol/g through an activation with KOH-based additive
at 600 ℃ for 60 min, associated with improving its surface area and pore
volume 65.86 and 28 times, sequentially. Singh et al. [48] proved the
effectiveness of KOH-based activation through the single-stage process
on bio-carbon derived from Arundo Donax. The activated sample
showed ~ 3 times higher sorption capacity at 1 bar and 25 ℃ than the
inactivated counterpart. Choi et al. [49] developed the novel KOH-based
activated carbon obtained from the pyrolysis of bee-collected pollens
with a KOH/carbonized pollen mass ratio of 1/1, indicating the CO2
capture capacity of 3.38 mmol/g at 25 ℃.
One of the most essential and significant aspects governing the
adsorption process carried out within a fluidized bed is the fluidization
behavior of the sorbent [50,51]. Heterogeneous fluidization behavior of
fine powder particles, arising from van der Waals, electrostatic, and
capillary interparticle adhesion forces, causes the appearance of per­
manent gas channels and slugs, leading to the non-uniform flow gas
distribution through the bed, inefficient particles-gas contact, and
consequently reduced CO2 capture efficiency [23,52]. Thus, homoge­
neous fluidity is required to hinder bubble-forming across the bed and
boost the gas-solid contact efficiency [53].
Among all internal and external approaches recently employed to
improve the fluidization behavior of cohesive powders, manually
incorporating easily-fluidizable auxiliary additives into the material has
resulted in more efficient outcomes by decreasing the interparticle
adhesion forces [52–56]. The uniform covering of cohesive powder with
fluidizable nanoparticles (NPs) minimizes the intercellular attraction,
hampers the development of large compact aggregates, and conse­
quently increases the effective surface area directly exposed to CO2 [57,
58]. Azimi et al. [59] investigated the effects of adding three different
flow conditioners on the fluidizability of a synthetic CaO/Al2O3 sorbent
for the CO2 capture process. The findings demonstrated the improve­
ment in the sorbent’s fluidity behavior by adding 10 wt% of hydrophilic
Al2O3 and 15 wt% of hydrophobic silica NPs, leading to a homogeneous
and uniform fluidization behavior. Moreover, integrating 15 wt% SiO2
NPs into the [ZrO2 +Al2O3 +CeO2]-promoted CaO nano-scale sorbents
led to an increasing bed expansion ratio at the gas velocity of 5.5 cm/s
from 1.71 to 3.15, and complete disappearance of gas channels through
homogenizing the fluidized bed [52]. Tahmasebpoor et al. [57] aimed to
improve the fluidity of hard-to-fluidize Al2O3 and TiO2 NPs through
mixing with easily fluidizable SiO2 and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
NPs. Outcomes indicated that the simultaneous utilization of 20 wt%
SiO2 and 15 wt% FCC with Al2O3 and TiO2 considerably improved their
2
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437
fluidization quality, resulting in the homogeneous fluidized bed and 117
% and 88 % increases in bed expansion ratios of Al2O3 and TiO2,
respectively. In a recent study by Javidi et al. [22], adding 5 wt% silica
NPs to the amine-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes-based
sorbent led to a considerable increase in its fluidity and increased the
average CO2 adsorption capacity by approximately 8 %.
Recently conducted investigations reveal the great activity of
biomass-derived activated carbon under a low-temperature CO2 capture
process. However, no research has focused on developing a biomass-
based CO2 sorbent from locally and widely ubiquitous waste tea
generated daily in coffee shops with high organic content [60]. In other
words, the fabrication of low-temperature CO2 sorbent from waste tea
has not been understood as of yet. Moreover, minor consideration has
been paid to preparing the easily fluidizable and highly efficient
biomass-derived AC sorbent for CO2 capture. To the best of our knowl­
edge, none of the previous studies has improved the gas-solid contact
efficiency and fluidizability of AC-based CO2 sorbents in fluidized bed
systems to facilitate their industrialization. In the present investigation,
for the first time, the highly cyclic robust, and easily fluidizable waste
tea-derived carbon-based sorbent, activated with KOH and NaOH and
physically mixed with a minor concentration of low-cost SiO2 NPs, was
innovatively prepared. Additionally, the remarkable effectiveness of
minor SiO2 NPs on CO2 capture activity, cyclic stability, and fluidization
of waste tea-derived activated carbon has been well understood.
To this purpose, carbon source was first produced from waste tea and
then activated using two activating agents, KOH and NaOH, to discover
the best candidate. In addition to multicyclic CO2 uptake performance,
the impacts of adsorption temperature and CO2 concentration of inlet
gas on the uptake capacity of the sorbents were thoroughly assessed via
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The best AC sorbent was selected and
physically mixed with a minor content of SiO2 NPs to enhance the gas-
solid contact efficiency in the lab-scale fluidized bed and multicyclic
activity during the CO2 capture process. The fluidity, CO2 adsorption
capacity, and stability of the silica-doped waste tea-derived AC were
evaluated to confirm this novel, green, and low-priced sorbent as a
promising candidate for industrial applications.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
Waste tea (WT) taken from a local tea shop located in Iran was
employed as the precursor for preparing the activated carbon sorbent.
Commercial AC was also purchased (from Arman Sina, Iran) to compare
with synthetic activated carbon. KOH (Merck, Germany) and NaOH
(Merck, Germany) were employed as chemical activation reagents for
the activation procedure. Distilled water and hydrochloric acid (Arman
Sina, Iran) were utilized within synthetic processes for washing and
dissolving. Hydrophobic SiO2 nanoparticles (Aerosil® 974) with high
SiO2 content (>99.8 %), BET surface area of 110 ± 20 m2/g, a primary
particle size of 16 nm, particle density of 2200 kg/m3 and bulk density of
50 kg/m3 were purchased from Evonik.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Preparation of activated carbon
Waste tea was washed with distilled water in the first stage to remove
the excess elements. Then it was dried in an oven at 100 ◦ C for 24 h
before being crushed and sieved to a particle size of 250 µm. A specific
amount of WT was chemically activated with predetermined concen­
trations of KOH and NaOH solutions at room temperature for 24 h. The
impregnation ratio of activating agent: biomass 1:1 and the activation
temperature of 600 ◦ C were utilized to identify the optimal activation
conditions. After impregnation, the samples were dried at 85 ◦ C over­
night, put into a muffle furnace, and pyrolyzed in the air. After reaching
the pyrolysis temperature, the samples were kept at that temperature for
M. Tahmasebpoor et al.
2 h to carry out carbonization in the air and complete the activation. The
resulting products were washed with a 1 M HCl solution to remove
excess activating reagent and then washed with water until the pH was
neutral. After 24 h of drying at 105 ◦ C in an oven, the ACs were ground
and sieved to 150 µm. The final product produced was named X.WT,
where X represents the activating agent type expressed as K for KOH and
N for NaOH. A schematic of the activated carbon production procedure
is presented in Fig. S1. The production yield of the prepared activated
carbons has been calculated according to Eq.1 [61]:
Weight of activated carbon
Yield of activated carbon(wt%) = × 100
Weight of dried waste biomass
(1)
2.2.2. Physical mixing with silica nanoparticles
Hydrophobic silica nanoparticles were selected as additives to in­
crease the fluidization features of the specified sorbent with the highest
adsorption capacity. To this end, silica nanoparticles were first sieved
using a 150 µm mesh size to eliminate large agglomerates and provide
homogeneous SiO2 NPs. Small quantities of SiO2 nanoparticles with a
weight percentage of 2.5, 5, and 7.5 were physically added to AC by
hand dry-mixing method for 30 min. The final product was designated
as K.WT.Sx, where x represents the weight percentage of added silica.
2.3. CO2 capture measurements
The cyclic adsorption capacity of the synthesized AC samples,
including pristine WT-derived carbon, KOH and NaOH-based activated
carbon sorbents, and SiO2-coated sorbents were analyzed via the TGA. In
addition, the stability of best counterparts was measured in a TGA/DSC1
STARe system from the Mettler Toledo instrument working at atmo­
spheric pressure. In the first step, the samples were preheated to 120 ◦ C
in the atmosphere containing nitrogen gas (50 mL/min) for 1 h to
remove physisorbed moisture and gases adsorbed on the sorbents.
Firstly, to determine the better conditions for evaluating CO2 capture
capacity od sorbents, the following conditions were employed for
adsorption and desorption stages of KOH-activated carbon sorbent
derived from waste tea:
• Carbonation: at 25 or 50 ℃ for 1 h under the inlet gas containing
different CO2 concentrations of 10, 30, 50, and 90 vol% balanced
with N2 gas.
• Desorption: at 120 ◦ C under N2 with a flow rate of 50 mL/min for
30 min.
After scrutinizing the effects of adsorption temperature and CO2
concentration of inlet gas for this stage, all developed samples were
analyzed under the following adsorption condition:
• Carbonation: at 25 ℃ for 1 h under the gas containing 90 vol% CO2
balanced with 10 vol% N2.
After complete desorption, the chamber was cooled to adsorption
temperature, and the cycle was repeated. Stability experiments of the
selected sorbents with the maximum CO2 adsorption capability were
performed at 25ºC in the presence of flow gas containing 15 vol% CO2
over 25 successive sorption-desorption cycles. The CO2 adsorption ca­
pacity at desired temperatures was evaluated by measuring the sorbents’
weight variations. Obtained results were presented in terms of sorption
capacity (mmol CO2 captured/g of sorbent), as follows:
mn − m0 1000
CO2 adsorption capacity = × (2)
m0 MCO2
where mn refers to the mass of the adsorbed sample at the n cycle,
and m0 is the mass of the initial sample before the first sorption step.
MCO2 is the molar mass of CO2 [28].
3
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437
2.4. Fluidization test
Fluidization tests were carried out in a fluidized bed made of an
80 cm glass column with an inner diameter of 26 mm and a height of
800 mm at 25 ◦ C and atmospheric pressure. The schematic of the flu­
idized bed is presented in Fig. S2. A controlled flow containing 15 vol%
CO2 balanced with pure nitrogen (99.99 vol%) was introduced to the
bed through the high-porous plate distributor. A cyclone and an air filter
were installed to have clean gas in the output of the bed. The fluidization
behavior of the sorbents was interpreted by bed expansion ratio (H/H0)
against different gas velocities; H0 was attributed to the initial bed
height when no gas entered the bed, and H was the bed attitude at the
specific gas velocity. The higher the bed expansion, the less the existence
of gas channels and the better the fluidity; thus, the more efficacious gas-
solid interaction [59,62]. All the experiments were repeated 3 times
with 5 min intervals between two tests to achieve the highest accuracy
and stable condition.
2.5. Characterization
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) measurement was performed to
investigate synthetic sorbent compared to the initial precursor and
detect the functional groups’ presence on their surface, using a TENSOR
27 FTIR (Germany) instrument from Brucker Co. The morphology and
surface structure of the raw and synthetic sorbents, along with those
mixed with SiO2 auxiliary nanoparticles, were assessed via scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) using a 6301 F HOEL (United States) mi­
croscope. The BET surface of commercial and synthetic sorbents was
measured by employing N2 physisorption at 77 K with the BELSORP
MINI II (Japan) instrument. Before the measurements, the samples were
degassed in a vacuum at 120 ◦ C for 2 h.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Activated carbons derived from waste tea
Firstly, the optimum CO2 adsorption conditions, including the
adsorption temperature and CO2 concentration of inlet gas, are deter­
mined. The CO2 capture performance of K.WT is further assessed in
three consecutive sorption/desorption cycles at different adsorption
temperatures of 25 and 50 ◦ C under 10, 30, 50, and 90 vol% CO2, and
the corresponding results are presented in Fig. S3 and Fig. 1. As illus­
trated, the adsorption capacity increases by raising the CO2 concentra­
tion in the intake gas at both adsorption temperatures. For instance, K.
WT shows the average CO2 uptake capacity of 1.15 mmol/g under
10 vol% CO2 at 25 ºC, reaching up to 1.54, 2.87, and 2.32 mmol/g with
increasing the CO2 concentration to 30, 50, and 90 vol%, sequentially.
Raising the CO2 concentration in the inlet feed gas increases the
Fig. 1. The average CO2 adsorption capacity of K.WT within three cycles at
adsorption temperatures of 25 and 50 ◦ C under 10, 30, 50, and 90 vol% CO2.
M. Tahmasebpoor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

interaction between CO2 and the sorbent particles, resulting in enhanced Table 1
CO2 adsorption. Moreover, due to the exothermic nature of the TGA results for WT, K.WT, N.WT, and Com. AC samples within three cycles at
↱physisorption process, the quantity of adsorbed CO2 decreases with the adsorption temperature of 25 ◦ C and under 90 vol% CO2.
increment in adsorption temperature at all CO2 ↱concentrations. For Sample CO2 adsorption Adsorption capacity
example, the average amount of CO2 adsorbed under 90 vol% CO2 is capacity unit
1st 2nd 3rd Average
2.32 mmol/g at 25 ◦ C, whereas it drops to 1.63 mmol/g at 50 ◦ C, indi­ cycle cycle cycle
cating a 30 % decrement in the CO2 capture level by increasing the
Com. AC wt% 6.04 6.01 6.03 6.03
adsorption temperature from 25 ℃ to 50 ℃. According to acquired mmol/g 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.37
outcomes, the capture performance of the samples is further analyzed at WT wt% 1.75 1.92 1.82 1.83
25 ℃ in the next sections. mmol/g 0.40 0.44 0.41 0.42
The CO2 adsorption capabilities of WT, K.WT, N.WT, and Com. AC N.WT wt% 4.47 4.21 4.01 4.23
mmol/g 1.02 0.96 0.91 0.96
are studied at 25 ◦ C under a gas stream containing 90 vol% CO2 to K.WT wt% 10.30 10.14 10.13 10.19
investigate the effect of raw material activation on CO2 adsorption mmol/g 2.34 2.31 2.30 2.32
performance. Fig S4 depicts the ultimate sorption capacity results based K.WT. wt% 10.74 11.29 11.33 11.12
on the weight loss and gain during the processing time for the first cycle. S2.5 mmol/g 2.44 2.57 2.57 2.53
K.WT.S5 wt% 10.15 9.87 9.73 9.92
Once the samples were settled in TGA, the temperature was first
mmol/g 2.30 2.24 2.21 2.25
increased to 120 ℃ under the N2 atmosphere for 1 h. The severe weight K.WT. wt% 9.79 9.65 9.60 9.68
loss recognized at the beginning of the process is ascribed to the removal S7.5 mmol/g 2.26 2.19 2.18 2.20
of moisture and gases adsorbed on the fresh sorbents during the cold
calcination step [27]. As can be seen, both activated samples of K.WT
and N.WT exhibit a greater CO2 uptake capacity than the original Table 2
biomass due to the porous texture formation after activation with KOH Surface area, pore characteristics and yield (%) of the developed sorbents.
and NaOH, respectively. Furthermore, the KOH-activated sample has
Sample N2 adsorption at 77 K Yield (%)
greater CO2 adsorption capability than the NaOH-activated counterpart
and Com. AC. The CO2 adsorption performance of Com. AC, WT, N.WT, SBET (m2/g) VBJH (cm3/g)

and K.WT over three adsorption/desorption cycles at 25 ℃ and under
90 vol% CO2 for the adsorption stage, and 120 ℃ under 100 vol% N2 for
the desorption stage is presented in Fig. 2 and summarized in Table 1.
The synthetic sorbent activated by KOH indicates superior CO2 capture
capacity values in each cycle compared to the other samples. In the
initial cycles, 2.34 mmol CO2 is captured by 1 gr K.WT, followed by
1.37, 1.02, and 0.40 mmol CO2 by 1 gr Com. AC, N.WT, and WT,
respectively. K.WT adsorbs the largest CO2 amount, demonstrating an
average sorption capacity of 2.32 mmol/g in three cycles, 5.6, 2.4, and
1.69 times larger than the average amount of CO2 adsorption by WT
(0.42 mmol/g), N.WT (0.96 mmol/g) and Com. AC (1.37 mmol/g),
respectively, at the same conditions.
In order to find out the main reasons for the superior multicyclic CO2
capture activity of K.WT compared to Com. AC, N.WT, and WT, the
morphological and textural properties of developed samples obtained
from the BET and BJH analyses are listed in Table 2. It is worth to
mention that the production yields of WT, K.WT and N.WT were ob­
tained equal to 44.3 %, 39.7 %, and 36.1 %, respectively. According to
our findings, activating WT biomass with KOH and NaOH enhances the
specific surface area of WT from 59.15 m2/g to 470.67 and 270.12 m2/
g, respectively. Moreover, the pore volume of WT-derived ACs reaches
up to 0.307 and 0.106 cm3/g from 0.03 cm3/g, sequentially. Addition­
ally, K.WT possesses 1.8 and 3.3 times higher surface area and pore
Fig. 2. CO2 adsorption capacity of Com. AC, WT, N.WT, and K.WT samples
over three cycles at the adsorption temperature of 25 ◦ C and under 90 vol
% CO2.
Com. AC 264.4 0.093 N/A
WT 59.15 0.03 44.3
N.WT 270.12 0.106 39.7
K.WT 470.64 0.307 36.1
K.WT.S2.5 453.18 0.292 N/A
K.WT.S5 403.51 0.238 N/A
K.WT.S7.5 362.48 0.207 N/A
volume compared to Com. AC. Fig. 3 illustrates the pore volume dis­
tribution of the abovementioned carbon-based sorbents. The represen­
tative diagrams show a more homogeneous distribution of micropores
and small-diameter mesopores in the case of K.WT compared to N.WT,
WT, and Com. AC, corroborating the higher porosity and pore volume
value in Table 2. The literature has previously proven that micropores
and mesopores with small sizes play the most prominent role in
adsorbing CO2 molecules during CO2 capture at low temperatures [37].
According to the goal of fabricating adsorbents containing more mi­
cropores and small-diameter mesopores, K.WT can be the more
convincing candidate for CO2 capture applications. In conclusion, it can
be deduced that the applied simple single-step activation process pro­
duces highly porous material, and the KOH-based activation of WT
substantially increased the porosity of WT-derived carbon-based
sorbent.
To determine the type of porosity of developed samples, N2
adsorption/desorption isotherms of WT, N.WT, K.WT, K.WT.S2.5, and
K.WT.S5 were determined at 77 K and are illustrated in Fig. S5. The
plots disclose reversible type II isotherms for all the prepared CO2 sor­
bents, showing the presence of micro and mesopores, and monolayer
adsorption up to high relative pressures [63,64]. Furthermore, with the
P/P0 being raised, the multilayer adsorption embarks on as the mono­
layer adsorption terminates [65,66]. The hysteresis loop is of type H4 for
these sorbents, demonstrating the narrow slit-like pores and
irregular-shaped mesopores. The reported isotherm type and hysteresis
corroborate the microporous texture of WT, N.WT, K.WT, K.WT.S2.5,
and K.WT.S5.
These remarkable increases in surface area and pore volume values
of WT through an activation with KOH and NaOH considerably affect its
low-temperature CO2 capture capacity. Fig. 4a and b present the influ­
ence of textural property on the adsorptive features of advanced sor­
bents. According to Fig. 4a, the more surface area, the more CO2 capture
capacity at initial cycles. With the surface area of WT being increased

4
M. Tahmasebpoor et al.
Fig. 3. Pore volume distribution of Com. AC, WT, N.WT, K.WT, K.WT.S2.5, K.WT.S5 at pore diameter ranges between 1 and 16 nm.
~700 % through the KOH-based activation, 5.9 times higher CO2
amount is captured at the first cycle by K.WT. It can be concluded that
the extensive porosity of K.WT provides more surface area exposed to
CO2 than other samples, probably leading to a better capture perfor­
mance. The average CO2 capture capacity of developed WT-based AC is
linearly proportional to its pore volume with correlation coefficient of
R2 of 0.91. To this point, promoting the pore volume of WT from 0.03 to
0.307 cm3/g results in boosting the average CO2 capture capacity from
0.42 to 2.32 mmol/g. Having been promoted with KOH-based activa­
tion, the internal porous zones increase significantly and then facilitate
the distribution of CO2 molecules into inner parts of AC for CO2
adsorption.
To confirm the textural properties obtained from the BET/BJH tests,
to validate the greater CO2 capture activity of KOH-based activated
carbon derived from WT, and to visualize the surface structures of
prepared sorbents, the SEM images of Com. AC, WT, K.WT, and N.WT
are illustrated in Fig. 5a, b, c, and d, respectively. Fig. 5a represents a
compact and porosity-free morphology for commercial AC associated
with hardly-visible narrow channels. It seems that improper carbon­
ization or activation conditions have been probably applied in Com. AC
preparation. A compact surface with no porosity proven for Com. AC
leads to a limited capacity of this sample towards CO2 adsorption. As
depicted in Fig. 5b, the WT substance represents a rather dense and
indiscrete morphology with no porous structure, channels, or voids.
However, biomass carbonization and activation enhance surface
porosity, forming a sponge-like structure with relatively uniform
spherical pores and morphologies. The sample obtained by KOH
impregnation shown in Fig. 5c demonstrates the more porous structure
than those of Com. AC and WT. Having a look at the morphologies of
ACs produced by various activating agents, activation with KOH
(Fig. 5c) is known to result in the production of carbon with the greater
spongy form and increased porosity compared to NaOH-based AC,
shown in Fig. 5d, which presents a smaller dimension and separate
particles. In addition to surface area and pore volume values, the SEM
images justify less adsorption capacity of N.WT compared to the KOH-
activated counterpart. The central reason for the increase in the
porosity during activation with KOH is that potassium is an alkali metal
and corrosive to carbon materials at high temperatures that shuttles
back and forth through the material, creating a large number of pores
[67]. Therefore, the WT impregnated with KOH enhances the porous
5
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437
structure during carbonization more than of that impregnated with
NaOH at the same conditions of activation ratio and temperature. These
results and observations are consistent with the findings of previous
similar research [67,68]. Complete conformity between morphological
properties, including surface area and SEM images, corroborates the
higher surface area of K.WT compared to other counterparts, resulting in
considerably higher CO2 capture capacity over 3 cycles at low
temperatures.
As known, carbon is the most abundant element in biomasses, fol­
lowed by oxygen and nitrogen in considerably smaller amounts, making
them a suitable precursor for the production of AC. Surface reactions
and surface behaviors of activated carbons are mainly affected by the
oxygen and nitrogen atoms present in the carbon matrix. Their orga­
nized structure is also directly influenced by carbon atoms which play a
major role in aromatization [60]. The results of the chemical elemental
analysis of Com. AC, WT, N.WT, and K.WT are reported in Table 3.
According to the EDS results, the carbon content of the samples increases
following the carbonization step. On the other hand, the oxygen content
is significantly reduced due to the removal of the volatile components
after KOH or NaOH activation. However, the synthesized material still
shows significant oxygen content, which plays a vital role in not only
CO2 uptake processes but also surface reactions with ammonia during
the possible modifications. Nevertheless, the nitrogen content of WT
biomass and activated samples is not significantly different. Minor po­
tassium and sodium contents of activated carbons reveals that the
chemical activation reagents were distributed properly and the chemical
activators were well removed during the preparation process.
Fig. S6 illustrates EDS analysis results for pyrolytic and activated
samples. As expected, the intense peaks attributed to C prevail in all the
samples. In addition, determined peaks related to the O element can be
seen in the sorbent, which owns lower values in the case of activated
samples. Some peaks in activated sorbents also correspond to K and Na
due to the remaining traces of the activating agents after washing. Ca is
the main metallic element in the raw biomass. Moreover, other trace
metallic elements appeared in the case of raw and KOH-activated sam­
ples, which are attributed to the nature of the precursor.
The adsorption capacity of activated carbon is affected by vital
textural properties, including surface area, pore structure, and chemical
surface composition. On the structure of the AC, several elements, such
as C, O, H, and N, may occur as individual atoms or in the form of
M. Tahmasebpoor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

Fig. 4. (a) Initial CO2 adsorption capacity of developed sorbents versus BET surface are, and (b) Average CO2 capture capacity of prepared sorbents versus pore
volume values.

functional groups that overshadow the final product’s properties. The
FTIR technique was used to determine the surface functional groups on
the surface of WT, K.WT, and N.WT samples plotted in Fig. 6. WT is
richer in functional groups, particularly volatile chemicals, than acti­
vated samples due to the lack of heat treating. Furthermore, the pre­
sented figures demonstrate the disappearance of several peaks in AC
after the carbonization process due to the decomposition of volatile
components of the raw material through activation. Some relatively
weak peaks are seeable in the wavenumber range of 3900–3700 cm− 1
due to the moisture-induced O-H stretching. The broad absorbance peak
in the 3600–3200 cm− 1 region is related to hydroxyl (-OH) groups
which are originated from alcohols, phenols, and carboxylic acids
[69–71]. However, peaks in the 3431 and 3391 cm− 1 may belong to the
N-H (amine) bonds. Strengthened O-H bonds related to humid or poly­
meric groups in activated samples compared to non-activated samples
points to the great influence of chemical activators in obtained sorbent
construction [72,73]. Through the hydrolysis reactions within the syn­
thesis procedure, a large portion of tea leaves, such as lipids, terpenoids,
and esters, are cleaved by the chemical activator and form the small
peptides, amino acids, carboxylic acids, and alcohols [74]. Aliphatic C-H
stretching is associated with five bands at 2923, 2922, 2857, 1383, and
1324 cm− 1. The peaks indicate C-C bonds at 1152 and 587 cm− 1. The
C–– C and C-O stretching peaks are relatively lengthy at 1647 and
1052 cm− 1 [70]. The detected peaks at 883 and 823 cm− 1 are connected
to the C-O-H group. Furthermore, the peaks at 1741, 1570, and
1557 cm− 1 might be ascribed to the aromatic ring and carboxylic acid
C–– C stretching [75]. The adsorption peak recognizes C-O bands at
1379 cm− 1. Moreover, some detected peaks at 1226 and 997 cm− 1 can
be due to the presence of the C–
– O (carbonyl) groups [76].
3.2. Silica-doped activated carbon derived from waste tea
The effect of adding 2.5, 5, and 7.5 wt% silica NPs, recognized as
highly fluidizable auxiliary additives [22,50,52], to the pristine K.WT is
explored in depth in terms of its textural and morphological properties,
and CO2 uptake activity. Textural and morphological features of SiO2-­
doped WT-derived AC reported in Table 2 and shown in Fig. 3 reveal
dramatic drops in surface area and pore volume of K.WT after being
manually doped with 2.5, 5 and 7.5 wt% SiO2 NPs. Having merged with
2.5, 5, and 7.5 wt% silica, the surface area of K.WT reduces from
470.64 m2/g to 453.18, 403.51, and 362.48 m2/g, and its pore volume
turns down to 0.292, 0.238, and 0.207 from 0.307 cm3/g, sequentially.

6
M. Tahmasebpoor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

Fig. 5. SEM images of (a) Com. AC (b) WT, (c) K.WT, (d) N.WT, and (e) K.WT.S2.5.

7
M. Tahmasebpoor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

Table 3 Fig. S7 depicts the CO2 capture profiles of K.WT, K.WT.S2.5, K.WT.
Elemental analysis of developed samples. S5, and K.WT.S7.5 sorbents during three cycles of adsorption/desorp­
Sample Elements (wt%) tion at 25/120 ◦ C in a gas stream containing 90 vol% CO2. Multicyclic
sorption tests were conducted in the TGA instrument. The corresponding
C N O Na Ca Al Zr K
CO2 capture capacity at all three cycles and the average capacity of the
Com. AC 78.38 5.22 14.71 0.37 0.47 0.52 0.33 - samples are also presented in Fig. 7. Based on the acquired outcomes,
WT 60.83 4.09 34.69 - 0.39 - - -
K.WT 73.93 5.97 18.69 - 0.33 0.25 0.19 0.08
adding 2.5 wt% SiO2 increased the sorption potential of K.WT, and this
N.WT 78.40 5.53 15.71 0.37 - - - - silica-coated sorbent adsorbs more CO2 in all intermediate and ultimate
cycles. Even though the initial sorption capacity of K.WT decreases from
2.34 to 2.30 mmol/g over three cycles, K.WT.S2.5 shows the ultimate
This ~ 4% reduction in surface area of K.WT.S2.5 compared to its CO2 capture capacity of 2.58 mmol/g. On average, K.WT.S.2.5 captures
silica-free counterpart stems from the fact that silica NPs are not only 9 % more CO2 over three cycles than SiO2-free samples. Comparing the
cover the portion of K.WT surface area but also insert into sorbent pores, textural and morphological features of K.WT.S2.5 with K.WT there is a
reducing its porosity. With the SiO2 NPs been increased to 5 and 7.5 wt slight reduction in the textural characteristics of K.WT in the presence of
%, the porosity of K.WT is more deteriorated. Even though mentioned SiO2. Therefore, the superior sorption capacity of K.WT.S2.5 can only be
decreases in surface area and pore volume of K.WT through integrating attributed to the CO2 adsorption potential of SiO2 NPs at low tempera­
with 2.5 wt% silica do not affect its CO2 sorption capacity, a decline in tures. It has been previously reported that SiO2 NPs can capture CO2 at
sorption capacity in the cases of K.WT.S5 and K.WT.S7.5 arises from this low temperatures [77,78]. Accordingly, the adsorbed CO2 by 2.5 wt%
significant textural destruction. SiO2 NPs might compensate for the reduction in CO2 adsorbed on K.WT.

Fig. 6. FTIR spectra of WT, N.WT and K.WT.

Fig. 7. CO2 adsorption capacity of K.WT, K.WT.S2.5, K.WT.S.5, and K.WT.S7.5 over three cycles at the adsorption temperature of 25 ◦ C and under 90 vol% CO2.

8
M. Tahmasebpoor et al.
The literature review argues that the strong interparticle van der Waals
attraction forces of K.WT particles, which hinder the diffusion of the CO2
to the inner active, decrease with the addition of SiO2 NPs. Conse­
quently, adding SiO2 diminishes interparticle cohesive forces and facil­
itates internal CO2 diffusion [59,62]. Therefore, the diffusion of CO2
through the sorbent mixed with an appropriate amount of silica nano­
particles is enhanced, and, as a result, the CO2 adsorption capacity is
increased.
However, there is a limit in the SiO2 content to be added in the WT-
derived AC since dramatic decrements in sorption capacity are observed;
so the average CO2 capture capacity of K.WT drops from 2.32 to 2.25
and 2.2 mmol/g by mixing with 5 and 7.5 wt% SiO2 NPs. There is a
significant reduction in the surface area and pore volume. It is worth
noting that the addition of SiO2 NPs might partly cover the surface area
and limit the accessibility of CO2 to the AC particles [23]. In conclusion,
a further increase in the silica loading to 5 and 7.5 wt% leads to a decline
in available AC particles for adsorbing CO2 and also blockage of their
porous structure.
Furthermore, to address the covering quality of host and guest par­
ticles on each other, SEM picture taken from K.WT mixed with 2.5 wt%
silica nanoparticles is also shown in Fig. 5e. As can be seen, the surface
of AC has become uniformly coated with SiO2 NPs, hence homogeneous
mixing is obtained. It may be discussed that strong attraction electro­
static forces are established at the contact points between the hydro­
phobic SiO2 NPs and the sample particles due to contact charging [79,
80]. Conformed to BET and BJH findings, the utilization of silica NPs
adversely strikes the morphology of WT-derived AC by covering the
porous structure, leading to decreased specific surface area and porosity.
According to the structural/textural properties and multicyclic activity
of SiO2-doped WT-derived ACs, K.WT.S2.5, along with K.WT, are
selected as the best samples for evaluating their stability and
fluidization.
3.3. Multicyclic stability during multiple cycles
The CO2 capture activity of K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 were tested upon
25 adsorption/desorption cycles. The adsorption was performed at 25 ºC
under the atmosphere containing 15 vol% CO2, followed by regenera­
tion at 120 ºC under a pure N2 atmosphere, more representative of large-
scale industrial conditions. The sorption durability test was carried out
twice to ensure the experiment’s accuracy. The outcomes of weight
change versus time and CO2 uptake versus the number of cycles are
Fig. 8. CO2 capture capacity of K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 during 25 successive cycles at adsorption temperature of 25 ◦ C and 15 vol% CO2 concentration.
9
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437
represented in Fig. S8 and Fig. 8, respectively.
K.WT.S2.5 sorbent still shows a higher adsorption ability with an
average CO2 capture capacity of 1.20 mmol/g compared to K.WT with
1.16 mmol/g during 25 cycles. In other words, the average CO2
adsorption capacity of the silica-added sample (K.WT.S2.5) increases by
approximately 3.3 % during 25 multiple cycles compared to its silica-
free counterpart, arising from the trade-off effect of adding silica NPs.
Furthermore, both K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 samples demonstrate excellent
cyclic durability of 94.55 % and 94.56 %, respectively after 25 cycles
based on the trend-line of the multicyclic outcomes, demonstrating
highly stable activity during multiple adsorption/desorption cycles
performed at low temperatures.
To better comment, the CO2 adsorption capacity and stability of the
most promising sorbent developed in this work are benchmarked with
the literature. Recording an average CO2 capture capacity of
1.20 mmol/g and ~5 % decay in stability during 25 successive cycles for
K.WT.S2.5 corroborates the efficiency of this sorbent compatible with
other synthetic samples reported in the literature. According to Gholi­
doust et al. [81], the CO2 adsorption capacity of AC synthesized from
petroleum coke decreased by roughly 14 % after 15 adsorption/de­
sorption cycles at adsorption/desorption temperatures of 50 ◦ C/110 ℃.
Compared with our previous work, K.WT.S2.5 demonstrates superior
stability to the synthetic carbon nanotube (CNT) [17,34], which
endured 9 % deactivation under the same experimental condition
applied in this work. According to Shahrom et al. [82], the CO2
adsorption of commercialized AC impregnated with 20 % ionic liquids
decreased by roughly 10 % during four cycles at a desorption temper­
ature of 60 ◦ C.
3.4. Fluidizability of sorbents
As previously noted, another key parameter in selecting the efficient
sorbent to be used on an industrial scale is its proper fluidizability in a
gas-solid fluidized bed system, which cannot be addressed in the TGA
[52,59]. The significance of the fluidity of particles can be attributed to
the fact that the homogeneous fluidization behavior of sorbents en­
hances the effective interaction between the gas phase and the solid
particles, resulting in enhanced CO2 adsorption [83,84]. ↱In this regard,
scrutinizing the fluidization behavior of selected K.WT based on its
adsorption behavior in the absence and presence of silica NPs is essen­
tial. It is worth mentioning that even though the fluidized-bed reactors
perform under the fast fluidization regime in realistic conditions,
M. Tahmasebpoor et al.
assessing the fluidization behavior of ACs in a lab-scale fluidized bed at
low gas velocities of the order of cm/s could also be inspiring and highly
beneficial to determine their fluidity quality [23,83]. Three main pa­
rameters of fluidization assessment, including minimum fluidization
velocity calculated using the pressure drop variations versus the gas
velocity, bed expansion ratio (H/H0), and n index of Richardson-Zaki
equation, are measured for K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 sorbents. The bed
expansion profile and pressure drop diagram of corresponding samples
are illustrated in Fig. 9a and b, respectively. As well documented in the
literature [57,58], the higher bed expansion and lower minimum
fluidization velocity indicate the homogeneity of the particles’ fluidity.
Based on the visual observations, the bed height of K.WT remains sub­
stantially unchanged at low gas velocities up to 0.6 cm/s, indicating no
fluidization occurs. After the gas velocity is increased until ~ 3 m/s
slowly, the bed height slowly boosts along with the disappearance of gas
channels and big macro-agglomerates. It seems that the driving force
applied by gas velocity above 3 cm/s overcomes the weight of the par­
ticles, confirmed by the calculation of umf (3 cm/s) using the pressure
drop diagram (Fig. 9b). With exerting the higher gas velocity, the bed
expands, although the diaphragm motion of particles is realized on the
bed surface. As seen, the general trend of the bed expansion is ascending
for K.WT, and a bed expansion of ~2.9 is seen at a gas velocity of around
5.5 cm/s. However, the bubble-containing fluidization associated with
the fluctuated surface hinders a remarkable increase in its bed expan­
sion. This so-called agglomerate bubbling fluidization (ABF) behavior
reveals the heterogeneous fluidizability of K.WT and the necessity of
improving its fluidity performance toward industrialization. Due to the
severe elutriation of particles, the fluidity of ACs was not examined at
velocities higher than 5.5 cm/s. It should be noted that two types of
fluidity are generally accepted for fine cohesive powders: agglomerated
particle fluidity (APF) and agglomerate bubbling fluidity [53,62]. APF
refers to a homogenous, bubble-free, smooth, and stable behavior that
leads to a high bed expansion even at low superficial gas velocities [58].
ABF is, on the other hand, linked with the presence of bubbles and
non-uniform distribution of agglomerates, a high minimum fluidization
velocity, and small values of the bed expansion even at increased su­
perficial gas velocities [85].
To investigate the influence of 2.5 wt% silica on K.WT samples, the
fluidizability of K.WT.S2.5 is included in Fig. 9. As shown in digital
images taken from the beds containing K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 samples
fluidized at inlet gas velocity of ~2 cm/s, the altitude increment from
6.1 cm to 10.2 cm affirms the positive role of silica nanoparticles on the
fluidity of AC sorbent, hereupon liquid-like fluidization appears. The
upper surface fluctuations also disappear, creating a fully smooth sur­
face on the bed. Mixing AC particles with easily fluidizable silica NPs
weakens the inter-particle forces and prevents the formation of large
agglomerates. Accordingly, the improved fluidity of K.WT.S2.5 dem­
onstrates the bed expansion of ~4 at the gas velocity of 5.5 cm/s, almost
1.4 times higher than that for K.WT at the same gas velocity. Further­
more, the Umf value calculated from the pressure drop curve of K.WT.
S2.5 concedes the onset of complete fluidization at 2 cm/s, shifted to
slightly lower gas velocities compared to K.WT (see Fig. 9b). Perfectly
smooth and uniform fluidization along with high bed expansion and low
Umf ensures agglomerate particulate fluidization (APF) behavior for K.
WT.S2.5, apparently arising from the attendance of SiO2 NPs. This
behavior guarantees a considerable improvement in the CO2 capture
performance of a realistic process performed in a fluidized-bed system,
considered the main target of our forthcoming projects.
Richardson and Zaki [86,87] proposed the R-Z equation based on the
experimental fluidization data to recognize the fluidity behavior of
materials scientifically utilized for gas-solid systems in the literature
[88,89]. This equation linearly relates the gas velocity (Ug) to the bed
expansion ratio (H/H0), terminal velocity (Ut), and bed voidage (εb) as
follows [90]:
10
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437
1 − εb0
logUg = logUt + nlog [1 − ] (3)
(HH0 )
where εb0 refers to the initial bed voidage, and n is known as the R-Z
index and clarifies the fluidization quality. It should be noted that the n
index higher than 5 corresponds to APF fluidization behavior, and the n
index < 5 refers to the ABF quality [23,52]. The εb0 of 0.22 is considered
in this study for WT-derived AC [23,91]. Based on the bed expansion
data depicted in Fig. 9a, the modulated diagram derived from Eq. 2 for
K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 is plotted in Fig. 9c. The representative plots show
the n index of 3.66 and 7.09 for K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 with correlation
coefficients R2 of 0.95 and 0.97, indicating the ABF and APF quality,
respectively. There is great conformity between visual observation, bed
expansion ratios, and R-Z n index, revealing the effectiveness of 2.5 wt%
SiO2 to homogenize the fluidization of WT-KOH-derived AC.
It is worth mentioning as the significant finding of this study that the
incorporation of 2.5 wt% SiO2 NPs into the novel WT-derived carbon-
based sorbent activated with KOH significantly improves its multicyclic
CO2 capture activity at low temperatures and greatly homogenizes its
fluidity in fluidized-bed systems.
With the aim to clarify the sensitive impact of adding SiO2 on the
fluidity of activated carbon and its supremacy, similar performed in­
vestigations have been briefly represented in Table 4. Employing the
internal method through additive substance can effectively develop
fluidity of hard-to-fluidize sorbent particles. Among the performed in­
vestigations around the evaluation of AC fluidization behavior, the
fluidity of biomass-derived AC was improved by up to 50 % in our
previous work. It is obvious that exploiting SiO2 NPs resulted in double
fluidization improvement value in comparison with applying the sound-
assisted method.
3.5. Discussion
The CO2 sorption capacity of developed K.WT.S2.5 (1.20 and
2.53 mmol/g under 15 and 90 vol% CO2 concentrations, respectively),
is benchmarked with available literature reported in Table S1. This
comparison demonstrates the KOH-promoted AC developed in this work
as one of the highly efficient and robust sorbents for CO2 capture in
terms of sorption capacity.
It is also worth mentioning that this sorbent is prepared from waste
material with broad availability in Southeast Asia; as a result, it has
more suitable concerning economic aspects and easily productive
properties. On the other hand, homogeneous fluidity of K.WT.S2.5, as a
fundamental requirement in industrially-scaled fluidized bed reactors,
indicates its remarkable performance as a realistic CO2 sorbent. Sum­
marizing, the development of a cost-effective, green and readily utili­
tarian carbon-based sorbent derived from waste tea and SiO2
nanoparticles leads to a novel nanocomposite with enhanced fluidity
and substantial CO2 sorption potential. However, further necessary steps
should be considered to solve the remaining challenges in forthcoming
studies. To illustrate, performing adsorption/desorption cycles in the
fluidized-bed system under industrially relevant conditions instead of
TGA is suggested. According to the facile preparation route, low-cost
materials employed, great multicyclic performance, and striking
fluidity characteristics of the novel SiO2-decorated K.WT, we anticipate
no considerable related issues to the industrialization of this environ­
mentally friendly AC sorbent.
4. Conclusion
In the present study, we developed novel, green and cost-effective
SiO2-decorated ACs from waste tea biomass by pyrolysis under high
temperatures and then activation with KOH and NaOH using wet
impregnation method. The developed sorbents were employed for
multicyclic capture of CO2 at different adsorption temperatures and CO2
M. Tahmasebpoor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

Fig. 9. (a) Bed expansion, (b) pressure drop curves, and (c) the plot of log Ug versus log εb in the linear form of the R–Z’s equation for K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 in
different gas velocities.

11
M. Tahmasebpoor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11 (2023) 110437

Table 4
Comparison of AC fluidization behavior in several studies.
Fluidization assisting Auxiliary Minimum fluidization velocity Gas velocity (cm/ Bed expansion ratio (H/ Fluidization improvement Ref
method material (cm/s) s) H0) (%)

- - - 1.5 1.29 24.03 [92]

Sound assisting method - 0.31 1.5 1.6
- - 2.9 - - - [93]
Adding auxiliary material K2CO3 4.35 - - - [94]
- - - 1.5 1.65 51.51 [36]
Adding auxiliary material SiO2 - 1.5 2.5
- - 3 1.5 1.65 51.51 This
Adding auxiliary material SiO2 2 1.5 2.5 work

concentrations. Based on the performed analyses, K.WT, the sorbent
activated with KOH at the activating ratio of 1:1 under the temperature
of 600 ◦ C presented the largest CO2 capture capacity with an average
amount of 2.32 mmol/g at 25 ◦ C adsorption temperature and 90 vol%
CO2 concentration. Lab-scale fluidization tests under low gas velocities,
as those exploited in pre-combustion CO2 capture applications,
announced that mixing the developed WT-KOH-derived AC with easily
fluidizable SiO2 nanoparticles is a highly efficient strategy to boost its
flowability. Merging 2.5 wt% silica nanoparticles with pristine K.WT
leads to a 45 % average higher bed expansion, associated with a ho­
mogeneous and bubbleless fluidization regime, and a 9 % (2.53 mmol/
g) more increase in CO2 capture capacity compared to its silica-free
counterpart. Moreover, the remarkable sorption stability of up to
94.55 % and 94.56 % was recorded for the K.WT and K.WT.S2.5 sam­
ples, respectively, after 25 cycles. The high adsorption capacity, stabil­
ity, and proper fluidity of this novel and green AC sorbent promise its
wide applications.
Funding
The authors acknowledge funding from CSIC through the i-COOP
2021 program (Ref. COOPA20492).
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Maryam Tahmasebpoor: Supervision, Project administration,
Visualization, Conceptualization, Writing - Original Draft. Milad Iran­
vandi: Investigation, Methodology. Mohammad Heidari: Formal
Analysis, Writing - Original Draft. Babak Azimi: Formal Analysis,
Writing - Original Draft. Covadonga Pevida: Formal analysis, Review &
Editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The authors do not have permission to share data.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.jece.2023.110437.
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