PPT_ BXE Unit 5

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UNIT-V
SENSORS
Classification of a sensors, Active /Passive Sensors,
Analog/Digital Sensors, Motion Sensors (LVDT,
Accelerometer), Temperature Sensors (Thermocouple,
Thermistor, RTD), Semiconductor Sensors(Gas Sensors),
Optical Sensors (LDR), Mechanical Sensors (Strain Guage,
Load Cell, Pressure sensors), Biosensors. (Working
Principle and one application).
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Contents
Allotted Lectures : 07 Hrs

⚫ Classification of Sensors
⚫ Motion Sensor
⚫ Temperature Sensor
⚫ Semiconductor Sensor
⚫ Optical Sensor
⚫ Mechnical Transducer
⚫ Biosensors

Lecture -1
⚫ Introduction of Sensors:
Classification of a sensor, Active/Passive,
Analog/Digital Sensor.
3
What is a transducer ?
⚫ Transducer is a device which converts a physical parameter

into an equivalent electrical signal ( voltage or current ).
⚫ A physical parameter to be measured can be temperature,

pressure, displacement, flow, vibration etc.
⚫ The electrical signal obtained from the transducer is then used

to control the physical quantity automatically and to display the
same.

Classification of transducer
⚫ Transducers can be classified into different

types based on various criteria. Criteria are as
follows :
1. Depending on the quantity to be measured.

2. Depending on the principle of operation.
3. Depending on the application area and
4. Depending on whether an external source of
excitation is required or not.
⚫ The last criteria of classification gives rise to the

terms called “active transducers” and “passive
transducers”.
Classification based on quantity to be
measured
Transducer
Temperature Pressure Displacement Flow Others

Transducers Transducers Transducers Transducers

Classification of transducer
based on principle of working

Active transducer
⚫ These transducers do not need any external

source of power for their operation. Therefore
they are also called as self generating type
transducers.
⚫ The active transducer can be further classified
as :
1. Photo voltaic
2. Thermo electric
3. Piezoelectric
4. Electromagnetic.
⚫ The active transducers are self generating
devices which operate under the energy
conversion principle.
Passive transducer
⚫ These transducers need external power
supply for their operation. So they are
not “ self generating” transducers.
⚫ Passive transducers depends upon the
change in an electrical parameter.
⚫ They are also known as externally power
driven transducers.
⚫ Passive transducers are further
subdivided into following:

Passive transducer

Comparison of active and Passive transducer
Sr. Active transducers Passive transducers
No.
1 They do not require any They require an external
external source or power source of power for their
for their operation operation.
2 They are self generating They are not self
type transducers. generating type
transducers.
3 They produce electrical They produce change in

parameter such as the electrical parameter
voltage or current such as inductance,
proportional to the resistance or capacitance in
physical parameter response to the physical
under measurement. parameter under
measurement.
4 Examples : Examples : Thermister,
Other Subjects:
thermocouple, https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes
photocell, LDR, LVDT,
Analog or Digital transducer
⚫ Depending on the nature of output obtained from a

transducer, it is classified into two categories namely
analog transducers and digital transducer.
⚫ Analog Transducers:
⚫ The output of these transducers is in analog form that
means it is a function of time. The examples of analog
transducers are thermocouple, LVDT, strain gauge etc.
⚫ Digital Transducers :
⚫ The output of these transducers is in the digital form
that means it is in the form of digital pulses discrete in
time.ex- push button,
Other Subjects: distance sensor
Primary and Secondary transducer
⚫ Some transducers contain the

mechanical as well as electrical devices.
The mechanical device converts the
physical quantity to be measured into a
mechanical signal. Such mechanical
devices are called as the primary
transducers.
⚫ The electrical device then converts this

mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical devices
are known as the
Other Subjects: secondary transducers.
Primary and Secondary transducer
LVDT ( Secondary
Transducer )
C Output
AC O voltage
Inpu R
t E
Diaphragm (Primary
Pressur
transducer )
e
Characteristics of a transducer
⚫ Ruggedness
⚫ Linearity
⚫ Frequency response
⚫ Repeatability
⚫ Accuracy
⚫ High stability and reliability
⚫ Speed of response
⚫ Sensitivity
⚫ Small size

Important factors for transducer selec
⚫ Measurand characteristics
⚫ Electrical characteristics
⚫ Mechanical characteristics
⚫ Time span
⚫ Environmental considerations
⚫ Cost and availability
⚫ Compatibility

Block diagram of Instrumentation
system
Print
Displa
y
Contr
ol

Instrumentation system
The block diagram shown above is of basic
instrumentation system. It consist of primary sensing
element, variable manipulation element, data
transmission element and data presentation element.
Primary sensing element
The primary sensing element is also known as sensor.
Basically transducers are used as a primary sensing
element. Here, the physical quantity (such as
temperature, pressure etc.) are sensed and then
converted into analogues signal.
Variable conversion element
It converts the output of primary sensing element into
suitable form without changing information. Basically
these are secondary transducers.
Instrumentation system
Variable manipulation element
The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e.
voltage, current or other electrical parameter. Here,
manipulation means change in numerical value of
signal. This element is used to convert the signal into
suitable range.
Data transmission element
Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of
the quality at a particular place (Example –
Measurement of temperature in the furnace). In such a
case, the data should transfer from one place to another
place through channel which is known as data
transmission element. Typically transmission path are
pneumatic pipe, Otherelectrical cable and radio links. When
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⚫ Motion Sensors:
⚫ Motion sensors detects the motion of
objects.
⚫ They are used in Security, automated
lightning control, automatic door
opening etc.
Example- LVDT & Accelerometer.
22
Inductive Transducers e.g. LVDT
1. Variable inductance type (LVDT) : Linear

Variable displacement
Transformer(LVDT) is the inductance or
variable inductance type transducer
changes in proportion with the
displacement .
2. It has one primary and two identical
secondary windings.
3. Change
A magnetic core in is Inductance
placed inside α the
winding assemblyDisplacement which provides low 3/8/2022
reluctance path for magnetic flux
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Primary
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondar Secondar
y -1 y-2

Block Diagram & Circuit Diagram of
LVDT
Primary
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondar Secondar
y -1 y-2
AC
Inpu
Primar t
y
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondary
e0
e0
1 3/8/2022
e = e https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes
Other Subjects:
o
–01 2
(LVDT)
AC
Inpu
Primar t
y
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondary
e0
e0
1
eo = e01 – 2
e02
Output voltage
IeoI
B 0 A Core position
3/8/2022
Linear
LVDT
AC
Inpu
Primar t
y
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondary
e0
e0
1
eo = e01 – 2
e02
o
=
zero Output voltage
IeoI
0 Core position
3/8/2022
(LVDT)
AC
Inpu
Primar t
y
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondary
e0
e0
1
eo = e01 – 2
e02
o
=0–
eoe02
= Output voltage
negative IeoI
A 0 Core position
3/8/2022
Linear
(LVDT)
AC
Inpu
Primar t
y
Core
Displaceme
nt Secondary
e0
e0
1
eo = e01 – 2
ee02=
o
positive Output voltage
IeoI
B 0 A Core position
3/8/2022
Linear
Performance characteristics of LVDT
⚫ Some of the important characteristics of

LVDT are :
1. Null voltage
2. Resolution
3. Linearity
4. Sensitivity
5. Dynamic response
3/8/2022
Advantages of LVDT
⚫ Very fine resolution

⚫ High accuracy
⚫ Very good stability
⚫ Linearity of transfer characteristics
⚫ Ease of fabrication and installation
⚫ Ability to operate at high temperature
⚫ High sensitivity.
3/8/2022
Disadvantages of LVDT
⚫ LVDT is sensitivity to the external fields.

To minimize this effect magnetic
shielding is necessary.
⚫ Complicated circuitry is needed.
⚫ Larger displacements are required to get
differential output.
3/8/2022
Accelerometer
⚫ One of the most common inertial sensors is the accelerometer, a

dynamic sensor capable of a vast range of sensing. Accelerometers
are available that can measure acceleration in one, two, or three
orthogonal axes. They are typically used in one of three modes:
⚫ As an inertial measurement of velocity and position;
⚫ As a sensor of inclination, tilt, or orientation in 2 or 3 dimensions,
as referenced from the acceleration of gravity (1 g = 9.8m/s2);
⚫ As a vibration or impact (shock) sensor.
⚫ There are considerable advantages to using an analog accelerometer
as opposed to an inclinometer such as a liquid tilt sensor –
inclinometers tend to output binary information (indicating a state
of on or off), thus it is only possible to detect when the tilt has
exceeded some thresholding angle.
3/8/2022
Accelerometer
⚫ Types of Accelerometer
⚫ There are several different principles upon which an analog
accelerometer can be built. Two very common types
utilize capacitive sensing and the piezoelectric effect to
sense the displacement of the proof mass proportional to
the applied acceleration.
⚫ Capacitive
⚫ Accelerometers that implement capacitive sensing output a
voltage dependent on the distance between two planar
surfaces. One or both of these “plates” are charged with an
electrical current. Changing the gap between the plates
changes the electrical capacity of the system, which can be
measured as a voltage output. This method of sensing is
known for its high accuracy and stability. Capacitive
accelerometers are also less prone to noise and variation
3/8/2022
with temperature, typically
Other Subjects: dissipate less power, and
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Accelerometer
⚫ Piezoelectric
⚫ Piezoelectric sensing of acceleration is natural, as
acceleration is directly proportional to force. When certain
types of crystal are compressed, charges of opposite
polarity accumulate on opposite sides of the crystal. This is
known as the piezoelectric effect. In a piezoelectric
accelerometer, charge accumulates on the crystal and is
translated and amplified into either an output current or
voltage.
⚫ Piezoresistive (Strain gauge )
⚫ Piezoresistive accelerometers (also known as Strain gauge
accelerometers) work by measuring the electrical resistance
of a material when mechanical stress is applied. They are
preferred in high shock applications and they can measure
acceleration down to 0Hz. However, they have a limited
3/8/2022
high frequency
Otherresponse.
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Piezoelectric Accelerometer
⚫ Piezo-electric crystals are man-made or naturally occurring crystals that

produce a charge output when they are compressed, flexed or subjected
to shear forces. In a piezo-electric accelerometer a mass is attached to a
piezo-electric crystal which is in turn mounted to the case of the
accelerometer. When the body of the accelerometer is subjected to
vibration the mass mounted on the crystal wants to stay still in space due
to inertia and so compresses and stretches the piezo electric crystal. This
force causes a charge to be generated and due to Newton law3/8/2022 F=ma this
force is in turn proportional to acceleration. The charge output is either
Accelerometer
⚫ Applications
⚫ The Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
⚫ For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive
accelerometers are used.
⚫ To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
⚫ To display images in an upright position on screens of
digital cameras.
⚫ For flight stabilization in drones.
⚫ Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate
acceleration, vibration, shock.
⚫ Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and
mobiles.
⚫ High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial
acceleration in biological applications for discrimination 3/8/2022
of behavioral patterns of animals.
• Temperature Transducer:
Introduction, Block Diagram, Operating Principles and Applications .
Other Subjects: https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes 1

Introduction
Definition: A Temperature Transducer is a device that converts the

thermal quantity into any physical quantity such as mechanical energy,
pressure and electrical signals etc. E.g. In Thermocouple the electrical
potential difference is produced due to temperature difference across its
terminals.
The following are the characteristic of the temperature transducer.

1.The input is always a thermal quantity.
2.Transducer mostly converts the thermal quantity into an alternating quantity.
3.It is used for measuring the temperature and heat flow of the devices.

Temperature Transducers
❑ Basic Principle of operation

•Change in Resistance is due to change in Temperature of
Conductor
•Types
1. Thermocouples
2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
3. Thermistor
3/9/2022 Other Subjects: https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes

Resistance type temperature sensor (RTD)
1. It has been observed that the resistance of some metal increases with
increase in temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a positive
temperature coefficient of resistivity.
2. However , some semiconductor materials have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistivity, that means their resistance decreases with
increase in temperature.
Thus change in temperature changes the resistance of the conductor
• The resistance type temperature sensors are of two types

1. Platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) and
2. Thermistor.
Construction of (RTD)
• As shown in figure, the resistance temperature detector is composed

of resistance element , internal conductors, insulated tube
reinforcing tube or sheath. Material used for construction of RTD
are platinum, nickel, copper, nickel- iron, etc. These different
materials can have an effect on the functionality of the RTD.

RTD resistance measurement
VBA OP-
AMP
R1 R3
VS
Voltage proportional to
Change in temperature
B A
R2
RTD
Whetstones bridge

Advantages of RTD
• They can be used for measurement of small as well as large temperature
difference.
• High accuracy.
• High reproducibility i.e. characteristics remain unaltered.
• Good dynamic response i.e. it responds very quickly to the changes in
temperature.
• Wide temperature range ( - 2000C to 6500C )
• Disadvantages of RTD
• Large size
• Sophisticated instrumentation is necessary for
protection of resistance wire.
• External DC power source is required
• High cost.
Thermocouple
• The operation of thermocouple is based on a phenomenon called as

seeback effect. It is observed that electricity is created between a
thermocouple when the two ends are subjected to a
temperature difference between them is known as seeback
effect. Due to this current flow, an emf proportional to the temperature
difference is produced.
Metal A (+) Current i
T1 T2
Hot junction Metal B (-)
Cold junction
T1 > T 2

Materials used for thermocouples
• Different metals used for manufacturing the thermocouple are as follows:

1. Copper-constantan : 0 – 20000 F
2. Iron – constantan : 0 – 12000 F
3. Platinum – Platinum/ rhodium alloy : 0 – 30000F
4. Chromel – Alumel alloy : 0 – 9000 F
Thermoelectric
Emf (mV)
n
anta
80 n
nta
onst
ta
60 ons
-c
el - c
n a ntan od
ium
Iro nst / Rh
m
40 co
- um
Chro
er tin
Co pp Pla
m –
20 nu
Plati
Temperature 0F
1000 2000 3000
Advantages of thermocouples
1. Wide temperature range (-2000C to 11000 C)
2. External DC source is not required
3. Good sensitivity i.e. small changes in temperature can be sensed.
4. Fast dynamic response i.e. it responds quickly to any temperature
changes.
5. Less expensive and small in size.
Limitations of thermocouples
1. The temperature characteristics of thermocouple is slightly
nonlinear.
2. Thermally generated emf is small. Hence amplification is required.
3. Cold junction compensation needs to be done for accurate
measurement of temperature.
Application of thermocouples
• They are used in applications where:

1. Wide operating temperature range is required.
2. Temperature at remote places are to be measured.
3. High response is required.

Thermistors
• Thermistors are also temperature dependent resistors (RTD). They are made of
semiconductor materials which have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistivity.
• The variation of resistance with changes I temperature is nonlinear.
• Thermistors can be used to measure temperatures in the range of -1000C to
3000C.
Resistance
0 100 200 300 Temperature 0C

Thermistors
• The resistance of a thermistor expressed as :
RT = Resistance at T 0 K
RT = Ro Exp β 1 1
R0 = Resistance at TO0 K
T T
o β = characteristics temperature
Material used in Thermistor construction- Thermistors are constructed by using

the materials such as sintered mixtures of sulphides, selenides oxides of
manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper etc.

Construction of Thermistors
Glass
Leads
Glass coated
Leads
1. Bead 2. Probe
Leads Leads
3. Disc 4. Rod
Advantages of Thermistors
• Small size and low cast

• Comparatively large change in resistance for a given change in
temperature.
• Fast response over a narrow temperature range.

Disadvantages of Thermistors
• Temperature Vs resistance characteristics is nonlinear.
• Needs external DC power supply for its operation.
• Not suitable for wide range operation. (range -1000C to

3000C)

Applications of Thermistors
• As a temperature sensor with or without compensation.
• In biomedical instrumentation.
• In measuring the temperature distribution or temperature

gradient.

•Semiconductor Sensor: Gas Sensor
Introduction, Block Diagram, Operating Principles and Applications .
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Gas Sensor
Introduction :
Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the gas comes
in direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material used in
semiconductor . sensors, and the electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased when it comes in
contact with the monitored gas.
Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation mechanism (semiconductors,

oxidation, catalytic, photoionization, infrared, etc.). Gas detectors come packaged into two
main form factors: portable devices and fixed gas detectors
Electrochemical
Catalytic bead (pellistor)
Photoionization
Infrared point
Semiconductor
Ultrasonic
Working of gas sensor
• The ability of a Gas sensor to detect gases depends on
the chemiresister to conduct current. The most commonly used
chemiresistor is Tin Dioxide (SnO2) which is an n-type semiconductor
that has free electrons (also called as donor). Normally the
atmosphere will contain more oxygen than combustible gases. The
oxygen particles attract the free electrons present in SnO2 which
pushes them to the surface of the SnO2. As there are no free
electrons available output current will be zero. The below gif shown
the oxygen molecules (blue color) attracting the free electrons (black
color) inside the SnO2 and preventing it from having free electrons to
conduct current.
•

• Applications of Gas Sensors
• Used in industries to monitor the concentration of the toxic gases.
• Used in households to detect an emergency incidents.
• Used at oil rig locations to monitor the concentration of the gases
those are released.
• Used at hotels to avoid customers from smoking.
• Used in air quality check at offices.
• Used in air conditioners to monitor the CO2 levels.
• Used in detecting fire.
• Used to check concentration of gases in mines.
• Breath analyzer.

Unit 5-Sensors
Optical Sensors (LDR), Mechanical Sensors (Strain Gauge, Load Cell,
Pressure sensors), Biosensors. (Working Principle and one application).

Construction of an LDR
• The construction of an LDR includes a light-sensitive material

that is placed on an insulating substrate like ceramic. The
material is placed in a zigzag shape in order to get the required
power rating and resistance. The area of zigzag separates the
metal-placed areas into two regions.

Light sensors-LDR
• The light dependent resistor (LDR) is used as a light sensor. It is made of
cadmium sulphides or cadmium selenide whose resistance depends on
amount of light present.
• This resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. It is nothing but,
when the light falls on its surface, then the material conductivity reduces
and also the electrons in the valence band of the device are excited to the
conduction band. These photons in the incident light must have energy
greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material. This makes the
electrons to jump from the valence band to conduction.
• These devices depend on the light, when light falls on the LDR then the
resistance decreases, and increases in the dark. The resistance of
photoresistor varies from about 15 MΩ when in the dark to about 5 KΩ
when in a bright light.

• LDR Advantages
• Sensitivity is High
• Simple & Small devices
• Easily used
• Inexpensive
• There is no union potential.
• The light-dark resistance ratio is high.
• Its connection is simple
• LDR Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of LDR include the following.
• Spectral response is narrow
• Hysteresis effect
• Temperature stability is low for the best materials
• In stable materials, it responses very slowly
• The use of LDR is limited where the light signal changes very quickly
• It is not so much a responsive device.
• It provides incorrect result once working temperature alters
Applications
• are mainly used when there is a need to sense the absence and
presence of the light such as
• burglar alarm circuits
• alarm clock
• light intensity meters
• light Intensity Control for Street Lights

Strain gauge – Pressure sensor
• Pressure Sensors:
• Usually, strain guages or linear variable difference transformers (LVDTs) are
used to convert pressure to a proportional electrical signal.
• Strain is the geometrical deformation caused by the action of stress on a

physical body. Strain is calculated by first assuming a change between two
body states: the beginning state and the final state. Then the difference in
placement of two points expresses the numerical value of strain. Strain
therefore expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape.
• If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed ,its resistance changes on
account of the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change.
also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is
strained and this property is called piezoresistive effect.
• Resistance strain gauges are also called piezoresistive gauges.
• A strain guage is a small resistor whose value changes when its length
is changed. It may be made of thin wire, thin foil, or semiconductor
material.
• The characteristics of the strain gauge are :
• gauge sensitivity,
• range of measurement,
• accuracy,
• frequency response
• the ambient environmental conditions it can withstand.

• Applications strain gauge
• The applications of the strain gauge are
• Aerospace Cable bridges
• Rail monitoring Torque and power management in rotating
equipment
• Residual stress Vibration and torque measurement
• Bending and deflection measurement Tension, strain, and compression
measurement
• Advantages strain gauge
• The advantages of the strain gauge are
• Inexpensive Affordable
• Accurate

Load cell
• Working-When a force is applied on the load cell, it bends or
stretches causing the strain gauge to move with it. And,
when the length and cross-section of the strain gauge
changes, its electrical resistivity also gets altered, thereby
changing the output voltage.
• Working using Wheatstone Bridge -A load cell works only
when the strain gauge has some change in its resistance and
we use the Wheatstone Bridge to measure this change

• Common types of load cells
• There are several types of strain gauge load cells:
• Single Point load cells; used in small to medium platform scales
with platform sizes of 200x200mm up to 1200x1200 mm.
• Planar Beam load cells; used in low profile solutions where
space is limited, like medical scales and retail scales.
• Bending Beam load cells; used in pallet, platform and small
hopper scales.

• Advantages of a Load Cell
1. Load Cells have rugged & robust construction along with outstanding reliability and long term stability
2. They are specially designed to suit the harsh & severe industrial environment.
3. Load Cells are temperature compensated.
4. They have a stable system with no moving parts and linkages.
5. A few of them have multiple strain gages incorporated to reduce positioning effect.
6. Any standard strain gage bridge measuring read-out device can be used with the load cells.
7. The load cells have negligible side and eccentric load effect
• Applications of Load Cells
1. To determine the load in rock bolts, tiebacks, foundation anchors, cables or struts.
2. Proof testing and long term performance monitoring of different kinds of anchor systems.
3. Compressive load measurement between structural members i.e. tunnel supports or at the junction between
a beam and the top of a pile strut.
4. Used extensively for correlating data obtained from borehole extensometers.
5. To determine the load in experimental research, pile testing and measurement of the thrust of rocks.
6. Compressive load measurement between structural members.
7. Measurement of compressive load and axial forces in struts.
8. Load testing in piles.
9. Determination of roof convergence in underground mines.
Mechanical pressure sensors
• Bourdon tube.
• Bellows and capsules.
• Diaphragm.

Construction:
• A C-type Bourdon tube consists of a long
thin-walled cylinder of non-circular
cross-section, sealed at one end,
• made from materials such as phosphor
bronze, steel and beryllium copper,
• attached by a light line work to the
mechanism which operates the pointer.
• The other end of the tube is fixed and is
open for the application of the pressure
which is to be measured.
• The tube is soldered or welded to a
socket at the base, through which
pressure connection is made.
Bourdon tube
• http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressure/diaphragm-pressure-gauge.html
• Principle: When an elastic transducer (bourdon tube in this case) is subjected to a
pressure, it deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when
calibrated.
• As the fluid under pressure enters the Bourdon tube, it tries to change the section
of the tube from oval to circular, and this tends to straighten out the tube. The
resulting movement of the free end of the tube causes the pointer to move over
the scale. The tip of the Bourdon tube is connected to a segmental lever through
an adjustable length link. The segmental lever end on the segment side is
provided with a rack which meshes to a suitable pinion mounted on a spindle. The
segmental lever is suitably pivoted and the spindle holds the pointer.
• Bourdon tubes are made of a number of materials, depending upon the fluid and
the pressure for which they are used, such as phosphor bronze, alloy steel,
stainless steel, “Monel” metal, and beryllium copper.
• Bourdon tubes are generally made in three shapes: C-type, Helical type and Spiral
type

• Advantages:
• 1. These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give accurate results. 2.
Bourdon tube cost low. 3. Bourdon tube are simple in construction. 4.
They can be modified to give electrical outputs. 5. They are safe even
for high pressure measurement. 6. Accuracy is high especially at high
pressures.
• Disadvantages:
• 1. They respond slowly to changes in pressure 2. They are subjected
to hysteresis. 3. They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations. 4.
Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end of the
bourdon tube is low. 5. It cannot be used for precision measurement.

Bellows-construction and working
• The bellow type pressure gauge consists
of thin-walled metallic discs allow it to
expand and contract, with one end linked
to pointer and the other end remains
open.
• When the pressure is applied from the
open side of the bellows, it expands the
size of discs. The closed-end moves
freely and the rod connected between
the open end and the closed-end move
upwards and rotate the pointer which will
show the value of pressure.
Bellows
• https://instrumentationtools.com/bellows-pressure-sensors-working-princip
le-animation/
• General characteristics of the bellow pressure gauges are as below:
• The diameter may vary from 0.5 to 12 inches. A larger diameter
means higher sensitivity and improvement of accuracy.
• The number of folds can vary between 5 to 20. More numbers of folds
mean larger stroke length and they generate larger forces.
• The bellows may be fabricated from different materials such as
Phosphor Bronze, Brass, Beryllium Copper, Stainless Steel, or other
metals that are suitable for the intended purpose of the gauge.

Advantages of bellows-
Bellow joints do not require access; i.e. They can be direct buried,
• No maintenance is required.
• Low cost
• Can be used to measured differential pressure
Disadvantages
Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
• No in place maintenance or repair can be performed - they must be
replaced if damaged.
Require that the system to be shut down when a failure occurs.
• Smaller pressure range of application.
• Temperature compensation needed.
Diaphragm
• Construction: It is made up of rubber or other flexible material.
Making a diaphragm allows it to move large distance in response to a
small pressure. A pointer is attached with the diaphragm via linkage.
Pressure is applied at the input and is indicated on the scale.
• Working -The diagram of a diaphragm pressure gauge is shown on
next slide. Unknown pressure is applied to the input of the gauge
which will exerts force on the slack diaphragm. When a force acts
against a thin stretched diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the
diaphragm with its center deflecting the most. This movement is
transferred to the pointer mechanism via leaf spring as shown in
figure.

• Non-metallic or slack
diaphragms are used for
measuring very small
pressures. The commonly
used materials for making
the diaphragm are
polythene, neoprene, animal
membrane, silk, and
synthetic materials.
• Metallic diaphragm- use thin
metal sheet as a diaphragm
.Working principle is same as
that of non-metallic
diaphragm

advantages and disadvantages of Diaphragm pressure gauge.
Advantages of Elastic diaphragm gauges:
Best advantage is they cost less 2. They have a linear scale for a wide
range 3. They can withstand over pressure and hence they are safe to
be used. 4. No permanent zero shift. 5. They can measure both
absolute and gauge pressure, that is, differential pressure.
Disadvantages of Elastic diaphragm gauges:
1. Shocks and vibrations affects their performance and hence they are
to be protected. 2. When used for high pressure measurement, the
diaphragm gets damaged. 3. These gauges are difficult to be repaired

Biosensors
The simplest definition of a Biosensor is given here: A Biosensor is an analytical device that
detects changes in Biological processes and converts them into an electrical signal
Working of Biosensors
The combination of biological sensitive element and a transducer will convert the biological
material into a corresponding electrical signal. Depending on the type of enzyme, the output of
the transducer will be either current or voltage.
If the output is voltage, then well and good. But if the output is current, then this current
should be converted into equivalent voltage (using an Op-Amp based current to voltage
converter) before proceeding further.
The output voltage signal is usually very low in amplitude and superimposed on a high
frequency noise signal. So, the signal is amplified (using an Op-Amp based Amplifier) and then
passed through a Low Pass RC Filter.
This process of amplifying and filtering the signal is the job of a Signal Processing Unit or a
Signal Conditioning Unit. The output of the signal processing unit is an analog signal that is
equivalent to the biological quantity being measured.
The analog signal can be displayed directly on an LCD display but usually, this analog signal is
passed to a Microcontroller, where the analog signal is converted into digital signal, since it is
easy to analyze, process or store a digital signal.
Biological material
Signal
Biosensing Transducer conditioning Micropro-cess Display
Material Ckt or
Reference value
Amplifier
Wave shaping,
Filters
A/D converter

Example of Biosensor
Before proceeding further with different types of Biosensors and applications of Biosensor, let us
quickly take a look at a simple example of a Biosensor: The Glucometer, which is one of the most
common applications (unfortunately).
Diabetes is a disease characterized by the levels of glucose in the blood. Regularly checking the blood
glucose levels is very important for diabetes patients. Glucometers are a type Biosensors, which
measure the concentration of glucose in blood.
Usually, they consists of a test strip, which collect a small sample of blood to analyze the glucose levels.
This particular sensor implements the Electroenzymatic approach i.e. oxidation of glucose.
•Advantages of biosensors
•Small size
•Low cost
•Quick results
•Very easy to use
Biosensors are frequently used.

•Medicine, Clinical and Diagnostic Applications
•Environmental Monitoring
•Industrial Applications
•Food Industry
•Agriculture Industry

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Allotted Lectures : 07 Hrs

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⚫ Transducer is a device which converts a physical parameter

⚫ A physical parameter to be measured can be temperature,

⚫ The electrical signal obtained from the transducer is then used

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⚫ Transducers can be classiﬁed into diﬀerent

1. Depending on the quantity to be measured.

⚫ The last criteria of classiﬁcation gives rise to the

Temperature Pressure Displacement Flow Others

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⚫ These transducers do not need any external

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3 They produce electrical They produce change in

⚫ Depending on the nature of output obtained from a

⚫ Some transducers contain the

⚫ The electrical device then converts this

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1. Variable inductance type (LVDT) : Linear

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⚫ Some of the important characteristics of

⚫ Very ﬁne resolution

⚫ LVDT is sensitivity to the external ﬁelds.

⚫ One of the most common inertial sensors is the accelerometer, a

⚫ Piezo-electric crystals are man-made or naturally occurring crystals that

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Definition: A Temperature Transducer is a device that converts the

The following are the characteristic of the temperature transducer.

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❑ Basic Principle of operation

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• The resistance type temperature sensors are of two types

• As shown in figure, the resistance temperature detector is composed

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• The operation of thermocouple is based on a phenomenon called as

Metal A (+) Current i

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• Different metals used for manufacturing the thermocouple are as follows:

• They are used in applications where:

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0 100 200 300 Temperature 0C

Material used in Thermistor construction- Thermistors are constructed by using

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• Small size and low cast

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• Temperature Vs resistance characteristics is nonlinear.

• Needs external DC power supply for its operation.

• Not suitable for wide range operation. (range -1000C to

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• As a temperature sensor with or without compensation.

• In measuring the temperature distribution or temperature

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Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation mechanism (semiconductors,

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