Galinsoga parviflora

Galinsoga parviflora, Cyperus sp., Euphorbia sp.,

and Setaria glauca (S. pumila) are the major weeds
in Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India (Sinha,
2002).
From: The Agronomy and Economy of Turmeric
and Ginger, 2013

Related terms:

Seedling, Chlorophyll, Dietary Fiber, Melatonin,

Achene, Carex, Contaminated Soil, Veronica

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Agronomic practices
Shokoofeh Hajihashemi, in Steviol Glycosides, 2021

2.10.3 Weed control

The infestation of weeds is a ubiquitous threat to
crop productivity, especially in large field area.
Weeds compete with Stevia, which results in the
reduction of biomass, branching, and delayed
flowering (Angelini et al., 2016). Weeds such as
Ageratum houstonianum, Digitaria sp., Borreria alata,
Eleusine indica, Erigeron sumatrensis, Erechtites
valerifolia, Sida rhombifolia, and Galinsoga parviflora
have been reported in Stevia fields (Ramesh et al.,
2006). Various methods have been applied to Stevia
fields to control weeds, including cover crop and
living mulches, allelopathy phenomenon, suitable
nutrition management, rotation, intercropping,
competitive crop cultivars, and mechanical methods
(Angelini et al., 2016). In organic agriculture,
controlling of weeds should be done manually.
Since Stevia plant cultivation is done in raised beds,
intercultural operation by manual labor is an easy
practice. The weeding and hoeing are suggested to
be done days after transplanting and the
subsequent operation can be done one month later
(Brandle, 1999). Basuki and Sumaryono (1990)
reported that high plant density accompanied by
black plastic mulch is an effective natural technique
for weed control (Angelini et al., 2016).
Chemical weed control can be carried out using
herbicides. There are reports that Stevia was
tolerant of different herbicides such as trifluraline,
pendimethalin, aclonifen, quizalofop-ethyl isomer
D, oxyfluorfen, oxidiazon, linuron, and
phenoxaprop-p-ethyl. It should be noted that both
oxidiazon and pendimethalin can be used before
transplanting, while linuron and oxyfluorfen
treatment induced phytotoxicity symptoms in
Stevia. Oxyfluorfen and oxidiazon showed about
70% efficiency in weed control. Among the
herbicides, phenoxaprop-p-ethyl and
pendimethalin were the most effective
posttransplant herbicides in Stevia. Stevia is tolerant
of some preemergence herbicides such as
trifluraline, pendimethalin, linuron, phenoxaprop-
p-ethyl, oryzalin, bromacil, terbacil,
methabenzthiazuron, and alachlor. The
abovementioned herbicides plus haloxyfop,
clethodim, propyzamide, flumetsulam,
thifensulfuron, and pyridate can be used as a
postemergence treatment for Stevia (Angelini et al.,
2016). Hopkins and Midmore (2015) reported that,
among 16 herbicides, the application of 6.8 L/ha
oryzalin-containing herbicide was the most effective
for Stevia weed control.

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Cropping Zones and Production

Technology
K.P. Prabhakaran Nair, in The Agronomy and
Economy of Turmeric and Ginger, 2013

Weed Management
Initial slow growth of the ginger plant facilitates
rapid weed growth. Weeds compete for moisture,
nutrition, space, and sunlight. Mulching suppresses
weed growth and increases the crop emergence,
growth, and, ultimately, yield (Mishra and Mishra,
1982). In general, 2–3 weedings are done
depending on weed growth (Mohanty et al., 1990).
The first weeding is done just before second
mulching (at 45 days after planting) and the second
weeding is done 120–135 days after planting
(Kannan and Nair, 1965). Weed flora varies from
place to place. Melifonwu and Orkwor (1990) have
recorded some of the commonly occurring weeds
in ginger fields in Nigeria. Galinsoga parviflora,
Cyperus sp., Euphorbia sp., and Setaria glauca (S.
pumila) are the major weeds in Palampur, Himachal
Pradesh, India (Sinha, 2002). Manual weeding
consists of either just pulling out the weeds,
chipping with a hoe, or just cutting the roots with a
knife (Purseglove et al., 1981). The preemergent
herbicide diuron (4.5 kg a.i./ha) is used to control
weeds in Queensland, Australia, but its action
might vary depending on the soil in which it is used
(Whiley, 1974). Paraquat is used as a
postemergence herbicide in the early stages of
plant growth, applied between plant rows, and in
later stages limited to spot spraying between the
beds. Preemergence application of 2,4-D at the rate
of 1 kg a.i./ha (Mishra and Mishra, 1982) or atrazine
at 1.5 kg a.i./ha was also found effective in
controlling weeds (Rethinam et al., 1994).
Preemergence applications of mixtures of alachlor +
chloramben or fluometuron at the rate of 0.75 +
0.75 kg a.i./ha has provided effective control of
some weed species, though not all, and has led to
higher rhizome yield (Melifonwu and Orkwor,
1990). Kurian et al. (1997) have reported that in situ
green manuring reduced the weed problem in
ginger. Herbicide usage reduced labor requirement
in Nigeria (Aliyu and Lagoke, 2001). Black
polythene mulch was also effective in weed
suppression. But, the cost–benefit ratio was higher
in the case of grass + FYM mulching (Sinha, 2002).
Emulsifiable concentrate (EC) of 40%
pendimethalin + acetochlor as a preemergence
herbicide was found to effectively check weed
growth than in the case of separate applications
(Yang et al., 2004). Barooah and Saikia (2006a) have
reported that mulching after planting + hoeing 40
days after planting + grubber at 60 days after
planting + hand weeding at 90 days after planting +
mulching resulted in significant increase in yield
attributes, dry ginger yield, oleoresin, and volatile
oil contents. Weed management is an important
cultural operation in ginger production, but
traditional manual weeding is no more possible
because of labor paucity. An important offshoot of
excessive use of chemical herbicides is the adverse
environmental fallout.

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Current status of herbicide-resistant

weeds and their management in the
rice-wheat cropping system of South
Asia
Simerjeet Kaur, ... Bhagirath Singh Chauhan, in
Advances in Agronomy, 2022

3 Weed flora in rice and wheat crops in South

Asian countries
Weeds are one of the major biological constraints
that limit the potential productivity of any crop (Rao
and Wani, 2015). Weed competition in South Asia
resulted in yield loss in rice to the tune of
183 kg ha-1 and up to 88 kg ha-1 in wheat
(Waddington et al., 2010). Different types of weed
flora infest rice and wheat crops, including grasses,
broadleaves and sedges, according to ecological
regions. The predominance of weeds keeps on
shifting from one species to another due to
adopted weed management practices, or herbicide
use history, and adoption of improved agronomic
practices, such as a change in cropping system,
water management, fertility status, sowing time,
and crop cultivar. During and after the Green
Revolution, the application of higher doses of
fertilizers and assured irrigation, along with dwarf
and high-yielding cultivars, boosted wheat yield
significantly (Chauhan et al., 2012). However, these
farming practices triggered weed problems and as a
result, grass weeds (Phalaris minor Retz. and Avena
ludoviciana Durieu.) became very prominent in the
late 1960s in the wheat crop. For example, a typical
shift in the weed flora of north India was witnessed
as Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieb., Asphodelus
tenuifolius Cav. and Avena ludoviciana were replaced
with Phalaris minor, Poa annua L., Polypogan
monspeliensis (L.) Desf., Rumex dentatus L.,
Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. and Malva neglecta
Wallr. in wheat after the widespread adoption of the
RWCS (Walia, 2014).
Continuous use of a particular cropping pattern can
contribute inadvertently to a shift in dominance
and distribution of weeds, for example, P. minor is a
predominant weed of the RWCS and A. ludoviciana
is dominant in irrigated, well-drained, and light
soils in areas other than the RWCS. Apart from
resistance development, continuous dependence
on a single herbicide or herbicides with the same
mode of action can lead to a shift in weed flora
towards difficult-to-control weeds (Chancellor,
1979). A change from conventional tillage to a
conservation tillage system has led to shifts in weed
species composition, for example, the density of P.
minor was found to be low in zero-tillage wheat
fields, but perennial and broadleaf weed densities
increased. In wheat, the infestation of Phalaris
minor, Polypogon monspeliensis, Poa annua, Rumex
dentatus, Medicago denticulata Willd., Anagallis
arvensis L., Malva neglecta and Lepidium sativa L.,
Lolium temulentum L., Vicia sativa L., Lathyrus aphaca
L., Stellaria media (L.) Vill., Coronopus didymus (L.)
Sm., Spergula arvensis L. and Polygonum alatum L.
are reported in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan
(Chhokar et al., 2012; Kaur et al., 2016; Shah et al.,
2014; Singh and Singh, 2008; Ziar et al., 2017). In
Bhutan, Phalaris minor, Persicaria runcinata L.,
Chenopodium album L. and Galinsoga parviflora Cav.
are the most dominant weeds in wheat (Mann and
Hobbs, 1988). In Bangladesh, weeds namely
Polygonum orientale L., Chenopodium album L.,
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Sonchus arvensis L. and
Cyperus rotundus L. were reported to infest wheat
crop (Huda et al., 2017).
The major weeds reported in the rice crop in India
and Pakistan are Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.,
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link., Cyperus rotundus L.,
Cyperus iria L., Cyperus difformis L., Leptochloa
chinensis (L.) Nees, Paspalum distichum L.,
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd., Cynodon
dactylon (L.) Pers., Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. and
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl. (Hassan and Marwat,
2015; Rao et al., 2007). The most problematic
weeds reported in the rice crop in Afghanistan are
E. colona, Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla and C.
dactylon (Rao and Matsumoto, 2017). The major
weeds infesting rice in Bhutan are Blyxa aubertii
Rich., Schoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla, E. crus-
galli, Cyperus difformis, Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.
f.) C. Presl ex Kunth, P. distichum and Commelina
benghalensis L. under lowland conditions (Dorji et
al., 2013), while Ageratum conyzoides L., Galinsoga
parviflora Cav., Fagopyrum dibotrys D. Don. Hara.,
and Persicaria runcinata D. Don. H. infest rice in
upland systems (Tshewang et al., 2016). In
Bangladesh, major weeds such as Cyperus rotundus,
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler., Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntz., E. indica,
Cleome rutidosperma D.C., Galinsoga ciliate Blake.,
Phyllanthus niruri L., Aeschynomene indica L.,
Ageratum conyzoides L., Physalis heterophylla Nees.
and Paspalum spp. infest the rice crop (Ahmed et
al., 2014, 2015; Huda et al., 2017; Mamun, 1990;
Mazid et al., 2006; Rashid et al., 2012). In Sri Lanka,
Isachne globosa, Ischaemum rugosum Salisb., F.
miliacea, C. iria, C. pilosus Vahl and Ludwigia
hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell emerged as the most
abundant, troublesome and widespread rice weeds
in rice-growing districts (Chandrasena, 1988).
The puddled transplanted rice (PTR) production
system is labor-, water-, capital-, and energy-
intensive. With the increasing scarcity of these
resources, farmers are shifting from PTR to direct-
seeded rice (DSR) in South Asian countries. DSR
involves seeding of dry seeds in seedbeds prepared
with pre-sowing irrigation (dry-DSR), or by sowing
pre-germinated seeds in puddled fields (wet-DSR).
Dry-DSR requires 35–57% less water and 67% less
labor than PTR. However, these conditions are
conducive to a wider variety of weeds and a weed
flora shift from PTR was recorded due to adoption
of DSR (Dhakal et al., 2015; Gathala et al., 2013;
Kumar and Ladha, 2011; Mazid et al., 2006; Rao et
al., 2007). Weed emergence is greater in DSR,
because of a more favorable environment to a wider
variety of weeds, as compared to PTR, which
requires more stringent management to achieve
high grain yield (Rao et al., 2007). Yield losses due
to weed competition were also reported to be
higher in DSR than PTR (Singh et al., 2011). Weeds
in DSR can cause yield losses from 91% to 99%
compared to 16% in PTR (Chhokar et al., 2014). In
addition to Echinochloa species, other aerobic grass
weeds (e.g., Leptochloa chinensis, Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin., Eleusine
indica, Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.), broadleaf
weeds (e.g., Digera arvensis Forssk., Phyllanthus
niruri, Trianthema portulacastrum L., Physalis minima
L.) and perennial sedges (e.g., Cyperus rotundus)
were observed to be more devastating in dry-DSR
(Kumar and Ladha, 2011; Kumar et al., 2013). To
feed the increasing population, there is a need to
sustain the production of the RWCS in South Asian
countries. The high cost of weed management
could be a predominant reason for the low
adoption of DSR.

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Gentiana kurroo—A Rarest of the

Rare Himalayan Gentians
Aabid Hussain Mir, Azra N Kamili, in Reference
Module in Earth Systems and Environmental
Sciences, 2021

Threats and conservation implications

The species is facing many challenges for its
survival in its natural habitats and is mainly
threatened by a myriad of human disturbances. The
IUCN has inferred an 80% decline in its wild
population and has put it in the ‘Critically
Endangered’ category. The decline has occurred to
such an extent that at many places it is very hard to
find the species. For example, in Kashmir Himalaya,
the species has been threatened to such an extent
that it was not recorded in the wild for about
50 years, until 2004 when it was spotted in a
protected area (Khuroo et al., 2005). The species is
mainly exploited for its medicinal properties and
good market value. During extraction, the whole
plant is uprooted which hampers in the process of
its flowering/fruiting and indirectly reduces the
reproduction and regeneration. The natural habitat
of the species has been severely degraded due to
construction of roads, cement plants, tourist huts,
collection of fodder and fuelwood, encroachment
for human settlements and agricultural expansion.
Even grazing animals relish eating it, especially
during blooming season. There is a reduction in
the ability of dispersal over long distances because
of fragmented landscapes. This is also a cause of
concern for long term survival of the species. Also,
the explosion of invasive species such as Sambucus
wightiana, Xanthium strumarium, Ageratum
conyzoides, Galinsoga parviflora, Trifolium repens, etc.
in its natural habitats may put the species under
severe threat.
Anthropogenic disturbances, in general, are
detrimental for a plant species, but the timing of a
disturbance event also determine the impacts by
interacting with critical phenological phases of a
plant species (Upadhaya et al., 2018). For example
in our case, the grazing of the species is done
particularly during the flowering and fruiting
season which not only stops it from producing
seeds but also destroys it. Studies have found that
the disturbance which hampers the seed
production of a plant is the main accelerators of the
swift extinction (Upadhaya et al., 2018). While a
plant species accustoms itself to a particular
environment, hence scheduling its phenological
cycle accordingly, we have observed that this
species reproduces during odd times. The timing of
the reproductive events of the species could be a
risk to the continuing survival of the species. It
flowers during the autumn season when there is a
limited number of the pollinators available which
could affect its seed production percentage.
Moreover, climate change also has impacts on its
populations and natural habitat. For example, early
snowfall in the Kashmir Himalaya during the
fruiting season of the species has been observed to
abort the seeds thus restricting its dispersal
patterns (Mir et al., 2020) and cloudbursts in
western Himalaya (e.g. Uttarakhand) has destroyed
many of its natural habitats. Despite the plant
producing numerous seeds, seedling establishment
is poor mainly because of premature anther
development (Badola and Pal, 2002). Seed dispersal
during the autumn and winter seasons also expose
it to hostile environmental conditions, thus
hampering its natural regeneration. Since the seeds
have to pass through winter dormancy, they are
susceptible to being washed away by rain and snow
to unfavorable habitats and also get exposed to
seed pests.
The species is in grave danger and our efforts are
not yet adequately established to make a tangible
difference when it comes to keeping this species
safe. Enforcing protection and large scale
conservation interventions would bring this species
back from the brink. Along with a mass propagation
program for reintroduction, a thorough assessment
of population and natural regeneration is much
required for the development of any future
conservation plan. Regular monitoring of the
threats and habitat conditions needs to be done to
safeguard the species. Conservation capacity
building programs for local communities are
needed to inform people and discourage them
from overexploitation and habitat destruction.
Coordination between Forest Departments, Wildlife
Departments, Research and Development
Institutions and Non-governmental organizations
is strongly required for achieving long-term
conservation goals.

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Variation in Seed Dormancy and

Germination within and between
Individuals and Populations of a
Species
Carol C. Baskin, Jerry M. Baskin, in Seeds (Second
Edition), 2014

Seed Morphology
Germination differences occur in heterodiasporous
species whose diaspores differ in shape, and they
will be discussed first. At 20°C, flat fruits (i.e.
dispersal units with bracts removed) of the
dimorphic species Atriplex dimorphostegia
germinated to 32 and 68% in light and darkness,
respectively, while humped fruits with bracts
removed germinated to only 6 and 38%,
respectively. However, at 26°C germination of both
types of fruits was inhibited by light and promoted
by darkness (Koller, 1957). Disc achenes of the
dimorphic species Heterotheca latifolia are less
dormant than ray achenes, and thus the former
have the potential to germinate and establish
seedlings first (Venable and Levin, 1985a). Further,
survival is higher for seedlings derived from disc
than for those from ray achenes (Venable and Levin,
1985b). In the heterodiasporous species
Heterosperma pinnatum, disc achenes become ND
faster (and germinate sooner) than ray achenes, but
early germination may result in high percentages of
seedling death (Venable et al., 1987, 1995Venable et
al., 1987Venable et al., 1995). Ray achenes of the
achene-dimorphic species Galinsoga parviflora have
higher germination percentages and rates than disc
achenes. Seedlings from ray achenes had higher
survival rates than those from disc achenes at low
and at medium levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, while seedlings from disc achenes had
higher survival rates at high levels of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (Rai and Tripathi, 1987).
Peripheral achenes were more dormant than central
achenes in the achene-trimorphic ligulate
Asteraceae species Leontodon longirrostris (Hensen,
1999c; Ruiz de Clavijo, 2001) and L. saxatilis
(Brandel, 2007), but peripheral achenes were less
dormant than central ones in the achene-dimorphic
species Bidens frondosa (Brandel, 2004a). Ray
(peripheral) achenes of the achene-dimorphic
species Prionopsis ciliata had more mass than disc
achenes, but disc achenes germinated faster than
ray achenes (Gibson, 2001). Peripheral achenes of
the achene-heteromorphic species Crepis aspera
and Hedypnois cretica had more mass than central
achenes. After 6 mo of dry storage at 40 and 23°C,
more central than peripheral achenes of C. aspera
germinated regardless of storage temperature, and
for both kinds of achenes more germination
occurred after storage at 40 than at 23°C. Central
and peripheral achenes of H. cretica afterripened
equally well at both 40 and 23°C (El-Keblawy, 2003).
The achene-trimorphic species Calendula arvensis
has only ligulate flowers, but they produce three
kinds of achenes with the peripheral ones being
either rostrate or annular (round) in shape and the
inner ones cymbiform in shape. Cymbiform
achenes were the least dormant, and they
germinated to higher percentages over a range of
temperatures than did rostrate or annular achenes
(Ruiz de Clavijo, 2005). The achene-trimorphic
species Garhadiolus papposus also produces three
kinds of achenes with the central one having the
least amount of dormancy and the peripheral one
the most (Sun et al., 2009).
Differences in germination also are found in
species with genetic polymorphism. For example,
seven categories of achene shape have been
described in the genetically achene-polymorphic
species Soliva valdiviana and S. pterosperma, and the
hierarchy of germination rates in these seven
categories was: 1=2=3>4=5=6>7 (Lovell et al., 1986).
In England, papillate seeds of the genetically seed-
polymorphic species Spergula arvensis germinated
to higher percentages than the nonpapillate ones at
21°C, while at 13°C the reverse was true (New,
1958). Further, high moisture stress significantly
reduced the germination percentage of non-
papillate but not of papillate seeds (New and
Herriott, 1981). In California (USA), however,
germination responses of S. arvensis seeds to
temperature were not closely correlated with seed
morphology (Wagner, 1988). A higher percentage of
the genetically-fruit-polymorphic species
Valerianella umbilicata forma intermedia seeds (fruits)
afterripened during the summer dormancy-
breaking period and germinated in light (88 and
90% at 30/16 and 23/12°C, respectively) and
darkness (69, 40%) in autumn and than those of V.
umbilicata forma patellaria (86, 67% in light and 9,
5% in dark) (Baskin and Baskin, 1976b). Achenes
from non-radiate plants of the genetically achene-
polymorphic species Senecio vulgaris are less
dormant than those from radiate plants;
consequently, more seedlings are established from
non-radiate than from radiate achenes in autumn.
However, the reverse is true in spring (Abbott et al.,
1988).

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Environmental Virology and Virus

Ecology
Roger A.C. Jones, in Advances in Virus Research,
2018

2.7 Transmission via Direct Soil

Contamination
In some cases, plants can acquire virus infection
directly from virus-contaminated soils. Using bait
plants, several plant viruses with unknown vectors,
such as Tobamoviruses and Potexviruses, were shown
to occur in soils in forest ecosystems in Europe.
Potexviruses were the most common and included