Multiplexing, FDMA, CDMA & TDMA

a. Explain some advantages and disadvantages of digital multiplexing

Advantages of Digital Multiplexing

1. Easy adaptation: Digital Multiplexing can surely adapt to the transport of information in the
very same fashion that voice communication does.

2. Fairly high transmission speed: It can transport messages at speeds spanning from 64 kbps to
120 Mbps.

3. Absence of external impedance: The synchronous transmission has no impedance.

4. Digitization potential: Digital Multiplexing is a sophisticated way to transform a simple

framework into a digitized one.

5. Bandwidth efficiency: The signal is conveyed using the maximum channel bandwidth.

6. No particular need for the carrier: Digital Multiplexing do not necessitate a carrier wave or
carrier signal, although FDM systems must. Carrier signal partitions the main signal as per
frequency range.

7. No Intermodulation Disruption: Digital Multiplexing does not tend to suffer from

Intermodulation distortions.

8. Crosstalk isn’t a huge issue: Crosstalk can be triggered by pulse overlapping; that being said, it
can be minimized by employing guard time. As a consequence, there isn’t anything to be
particularly concerned about.

9. Ensures optimal performance: Dynamic coordination is a core feature of Digital Multiplexing.

Because Digital Multiplexing uses dynamic coordination, it is more efficient and reliable than
Analog Multiplexing.

10. A diverse range of application areas: Digital Multiplexing allows the administrator to do
operations such as faxing, voiceband data, and SMS, as well as activities such as mixed media
and video calls.

11. Cost-benefit analysis: Digital Multiplexing brings considerable investment funds in base-station
equipment, space, and support, which is becoming extremely important as cell sizes start to
shrink.

Disadvantages of Digital Multiplexing

1. There is a problem with memory space distribution: Every client creates a designated memory
space, so clients who move from one unit to the next do not automatically receive a planned
opening. A cell could be disconnected if, all of the time, allotments in the succeeding cell are
now engaged. Similarly to the way, if all of the time allotments in the cell where a customer
ultimately ended up are now occupied, the customer will not receive a phone line.

2. Need for major modifications: Increased data rates necessitated adjustment.

 3. The effort required for Synchronization: The synchronization burden is substantial. To maintain
adequate signal transmission and reception, the transmitter and receiver components must be
correctly and consistently synced.

b. Cite and explain some applications of FDMA, CDMA and TDMA

What is Multiple Access?

Whenever we talk about any satellite-based system, then it is obvious that multiple users form
connections with a single satellite transponder for the purpose of communication on a daily basis.
Hence, this requires that the available resources must be shared by each of them without hampering
each other’s data. So, to achieve this multiple access technique is used.

Multiple access is a way of transmitting the data from multiple transmitters over a common
communication channel. There are majorly three ways in which multiple access can be done, these are
as follows:

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): The multiple users that are willing to transmit are
provided different frequency bands to achieve simultaneous transmission.

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Here the multiple users are assigned different time slots
to access the overall channel bandwidth.

 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): In this technique, multiple users are provided separate
unique codes. By this, encoding of data is done and various users are able to transmit
simultaneously by utilizing the complete channel bandwidth.

FDMA - Frequency division multiple access

Frequency division multiple access is a frequency band. It is one types of channel access method can be
divided small frequency channel and also have different channel are allocated to different users.
Multiple users can transmit at the same time but on the different frequency channel.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue multiple access
methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that each conversation is
carried on a different frequency (as shown in the figure below).

FDMA Overview

In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to minimize crosstalk
between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one person, and it will received by
identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in the first generation of analog
mobile phone.

Advantages of FDMA

As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay spread, it offers the
following advantages −

 Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases the capacity.
  It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)

 Equalization is not necessary.

 An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily incorporated.

 Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for synchronization and
framing.

Disadvantages of FDMA

Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks as well, which are listed below −

 It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity depends on the
signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

 The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.

 Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.

 Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and therefore increases
the cost.

Applications of FDMA :

 Telephone system

 Radio system

 Cable TV

 Walkie talkies

 Mobile network for close user group. Example - WiFi

 Total access communication systems (TACS)

 2G mobile communication

 GSM uses FDMA in combination with TDMA

 UMTS in combination with other multiplexing techniques

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication technology. It
facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its technology divides a signal
into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.
TDMA Overview

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an accurate
synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems.
The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the exclusive use of a time interval.

In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a station.
However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used for the multiple
access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The mobile system that uses this
technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is assigned
definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after user ‘A,’ and
user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and larger by the burst
communication.

FDMA and TDMA

This is a multi-carrier TDMA system. A 25 MHz frequency range holds 124 single chains (carrier
frequencies 200) bandwidth of each kHz; each of these frequency channels contains 8 TDMA
conversation channels. Thus, the sequence of timeslots and frequencies assigned to a mobile station is
the physical channels of a TDMA system. In each timeslot, the mobile station transmits a data packet.

The period of time assigned to a timeslot for a mobile station also determines the number of TDMA
channels on a carrier frequency. The period of timeslots are combined in a so-called TDMA frame. TDMA
signal transmitted on a carrier frequency usually requires more bandwidth than FDMA signal. Due to the
use of multiple times, the gross data rate should be even higher.

Advantages of TDMA

Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −

 Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each time interval
translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).

 Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can be
changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the frame 2, one
slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
  No guard band required for the wideband system.

 No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA

The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −

 High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.

 Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for synchronization and
supervision.

 Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock instability).

 Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.

 Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

TDMA and Your Cell Phone

TDMA is one of several methods cell phone providers use to transmit data and is used in 2G, as Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM). AT&T and T-Mobile use GSM, while Sprint & Verizon use
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) to run their networks. TDMA was originally used by Western
Union in 1979 for its Westar 3 communications satellite.

The advantage of TDMA is this technology divides signals into different time slots. When calls are made,
each call uses a separate time slot, allowing multiple stations to share the same radio frequency while
using only a part of its channel capacity.

Phones that use GSM have a removable SIM card, which links the phone to a specific mobile carrier and
holds the customer's subscription information. You also have the ability to take a SIM card out and put it
in another phone that now has the new phone number.

Why Would Phone Carriers Drop GSM Service?

Major cell phone service providers have a license from the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) which gives
them access to blocks of frequencies at different locations across the country. These assignments limit
each carrier to a specified spectrum of space they can access for their customers. In an effort to free up
space within their limited block of frequencies, carriers are eliminating older technologies, like GSM, to
make room for more powerful and robust technologies like 5G.

GSM, which utilizes TDMA, is designed exclusively for 2G and doesn't have the capacity for 3G, 4G LTE,
or 5G. As a result, phone carriers will be turning off 2G to make room for these newer, more efficient
networks. Some have already turned off their 2G service; soon, no 2G GSM phones will work in the
United States.

What's the Impact of Limited GSM Coverage?

Each cell phone carrier has announced their plans for shutting down their 2G network in the United
States:

AT&T shut down its 2G network in 2017.

Sprint began shutting down its 2G and 3G network in 2021.

Verizon has shut down its 2G network at the end of 2019.

T-Mobile shut down its 2G in 2020.

Key Takeaways Regarding TDMA

Wireless devices that use the 2G network are inexpensive, but typically have slower data speeds, making
them ideal for kids, or people trying to save money on cell phone costs by not using their phones for
data.

These less expensive devices will no longer work within the United States as the 2G network shutdown
continues. When shopping for a new cell phone, don't buy a basic flip phone or imported phone made
outside of the United States that uses GSM networks, as they won't be supported by U.S. network
frequencies. If you already own a 2G device, it's time to upgrade to a newer device that uses 4G or 5G
technologies.

TDMA applications

TDMA is one type of multiple access method. First, let we check it out the full form of TDMA full form. In
each user allowed to transmit only in a specified time slot with a common frequency band. It allows
several users can transmit to share the same frequency band at a different time, so each using its own
time slot.

 TDMA used in digital cellular telecommunication.

 Satellite system.
 It is used GSM, IS-136, iDEN.
 Dynamic TDMA used for packet mode communication.
 Also, GSM uses TDMA in combination with FDMA. its a one types of advantages of TDMA
 PON network also uses for upstream traffic from premises to the operator.
 TDMA also used as telephone communication.
CDMA is a short form used for Code Division Multiple Access. CDMA is a technique that allows multiple
users to simultaneously transmit data signals over a common channel by assigning unique spreading
code to each individual user. This leads to the increasing of bandwidth used by transmitting stations
from a few Hz to a few MHz.

This content is all about code division multiple access, in which, unlike TDMA and FDMA, neither time
nor frequency slots, respectively are required to be divided amongst the various users. As by assigning
separate unique codes to each user, the data is combinedly transmitted over the channel, and at the
other end, the receiving stations use the respective codes that were used by the transmitting stations to
retrieve the actual message signal of each station.

Hence, in CDMA, with the help of unique spreading codes, multiple users simultaneously access the RF
bandwidth for signal transmission.

It is to be noted here that, in this approach, the codes to be used are selected in a way that there must
be the least possible correlation between them.

There are two ways in which CDMA is implemented, namely,

 Direct Sequence/ Sequencing

 Frequency Hopping

These two are different in a way that direct sequence spread spectrum makes use of high-speed
spreading code to have wider bandwidth while in frequency hopping technique carrier frequency is
shifted to obtain the same.

Direct Sequencing CDMA

The principle of operation of DS-CDMA is such that two or even more signals of the same bandwidth,
get individually spread by a user-specific orthogonal code. Over the communication channel, the signals
are mixed and sent combinedly. Here the energy for transmission will remain the same however,
bandwidth requirement will be more. At the receiving end, de-spreading of signals is done using the
replica of the orthogonal code.

The figure below shows the block diagram representation of DS-CDMA for transmission and reception of
the signal:

Initially, for transmission, the pseudorandom code generator generates a unique spreading code. This
random code sequence is multiplied by the input data stream that the user actually wants to transmit.
For each individual user, willing to transmit over that channel, a specific PN code will be generated for
spreading the bit sequence.

Further, the modulator (PSK type) performs the modulation of obtained bit sequence with a carrier
signal thereby providing a BPSK modulated signal as output. This signal is then broadcasted using an
antenna.

The waveform representation is shown below clearly represents the generation of BPSK modulated
signal:
Here, the product will be 1 only when both data and code bit will be the same i.e., either 0 or 1
otherwise product will be 0.

At the time of signal reception, first, the obtained signal is amplified to raise its level. Then
demodulation of the signal is performed using radio-frequency carrier. Here the obtained sequence
appears nothing more than noise. However, the replica of code produced by the pseudo code generator
is multiplied with the data stream obtained after demodulation.

To get the original data stream (i.e., for de-spreading) the PN code generated at the receiver end must
be same as that produced as the transmitting end for each individual user. After multiplication with the
de-spreading code, original data is retrieved by the receiving station.

Suppose a1(t) data is multiplied with c1(t) code to produce b1(t) = a1(t)c1(t) as output. Similarly, a2(t) and
code c2(t) gives b2(t) = a2(t)c2(t) as output. The received signal will be:

R(t) = Σ b1(t) + b2(t)

So, to retrieve actual information, data is to be multiplied with the respective code of each user. In this
way using direct spreading, signals can be transmitted over a channel at the same time.

Frequency Hopping CDMA

The word hopping corresponds to jumping or switching. The frequency hopping type of CDMA
technique is based on accessing different frequency slots of a complete channel bandwidth at different
instants of time by multiple users. It is not FDMA or TDMA because in that case a fixed frequency or time
slot respectively is provided to different users. However, here each specific user can access to same
frequency slot in different time instants.

Consider the graphical representation shown below-representing slotting of available frequency band
and various users are accessing the bands in different time slots:

Here, in time slot t4, the signal is transmitting in band f 5, likewise in t2, band f4 is transmitting, and so on.
Also, in slot t3, band f4 is again transmitting. Thus, the frequency and time slots are showing variable
nature. The time interval between two slots is called chirp duration or hopping interval and is denoted
by Tc.

To understand how this happens, consider the block diagram shown below:
Here frequency synthesizer is used to change the carrier frequency. The message signal is first fed to the
modulator, according to a pre-determined sequence, the carrier frequency is generated that hops in
steps. Basically, the overall satellite bandwidth is divided into series of frequency slots with which the
encoded carrier sequentially hops here. This hopping sequence must not be easily predictable like the
PN code of DS-CDMA. Externally, it appears that a single signal is occupying the complete bandwidth but
in actuality, it is occupying a single slot at a time.

At the receiving end, a similar frequency synthesizer must be present for generating a replica of carrier
frequency, which is mixed with the received signal, and the output is filtered for noise removal. This
provides a fixed intermediate frequency signal which is demodulated to get the actual message signal.

Example for DS-CDMA

Now, consider an example to understand signal transmission and reception through CDMA.
Suppose there are four stations M, N, O, and P individually transmitting 1, 0, 1, 1. And each one is having
a unique code sequence (C1, C2, C3, C4) where the codes are of orthogonal nature.

To represent data bits and code bits we will use polar signaling thus,

 Binary 0 will be represented as -1 and

 Binary 1 will be represented as +1 (or 1)

Thus, data vector i.e., (M, N, O, P) will be(1, -1, 1, 1).

Parameter for choosing codes:

 The sum of resultant bits obtained from the multiplication of codes of any two stations must be
0.
It is to be noted here that always while finding the product of two data sequences, 1 st bit of one
sequence is multiplied with the first bit of another sequence. Likewise, 2 nd bit with 2nd bit and so on.

Suppose here, C1*C4 = (1, 1, -1, -1).(1, -1, 1, -1) = (1,-1, -1, 1)

On addition of all 4 bits of resultant, we will get 0. Thus, codes are of orthogonal nature.

 The sum of resultant obtained when a code sequence is multiplied with itself must indicate the
total number of stations transmitting.

Suppose, C2*C2 = (1, -1, -1, 1). (1, -1, -1, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1)

So, 1+1+1+1 will give 4 as output. Hence, verifying that there are 4 stations transmitting at a time.

Transmission: We have discussed previously that, to perform DS-CDMA, first, data bits are to be
multiplied separately with their respective code.

Hence, the resultant of product of data bit and code bit will be:

Now, over the channel, the bits will be transmitted combinedly.

The complete bit sequence to be transmitted will be produced by adding the bits according to their
positional sequence:

The sequence transmitted over the channel will be: 2, 2, 2, -2.

Reception: The receiver will get the above sequence. Now, to retrieve the actual information from this
received (coded form) data, each receiving station must have the code sequence of their respective
transmitting station.

Here each receiver will get the original data sequence by multiplying the received bit sequence with its
respective code stream.
R1 = (2, 2, -2, 2)

R2 = (2, -2, -2, -2)

R3 = (2, 2, 2, -2)

R4 = (2, -2, 2, 2)

Hence, by summing every bit of the sequence and dividing it will the total number of transmitting
stations one can get the originally transmitted data bit. So, calculating for each receiving station, we will
get:

R1 = [2 + 2 + (-2) + 2]/Number of stations = 4/4 = 1

R2 = [2 + (-2) + (-2) + (-2)]/Number of stations = -4/4 = -1

R3 = [2 + 2 + 2 + (-2)]/Number of stations = 4/4 = 1

R4 = [2 + (-2) + 2 + 2]/Number of stations = 4/4 = 1

According to polar signalling 1 denotes binary 1 and -1 denotes binary 0. Therefore, the data bits
received at each receiving station will be 1, 0, 1, 1.

It can be clearly checked that the received bits are exactly the same as the one which was transmitted
from the transmitting stations. Hence, in this way CDMA can be implemented.

Advantages

1. It offers a considerable increase in user capacity than TDMA and FDMA.

2. Low cost than GSM.

3. Highly secured way of information transmission.

 4. Quite beneficial for voice and data communication.

5. The chances of interference are low.

6. It offers the use of complete channel spectrum.

Disadvantages

1. The system operation is complicated.

2. The original data can only be recovered when orthogonal codes are used in a synchronous
manner.

3. The loss of orthogonality between codes leads to self-jamming.

Applications of CDMA

The high capacity and security offered by CDMA make it worthy for use in the field of wireless
technology such as mobile telephony, radar, and navigation systems. The combined use of CDMA with
GSM technology has provided high-speed internet services like 4G.