Scalars and Vectors

Scalars: Are completely described by their magnitudes,

expressed in the appropriate units.
Examples:
A mass of 20 kg,
A time of 2 hours, well understood
A work (energy) of 100 J etc.

Addition of scalars: 20 kg +40 kg = 60 kg

Vectors: Are described by their magnitudes and

directions

A displacement of 1,000 km from Ibadan is not well

understood until the direction is stated. 1
Other quantities in the category of
vectors include

1. Force,
2. Velocity,
3. Acceleration,
4. Electric field intensity etc.
Vector Addition
The sum of 20N, 25N and 40N along east, west and
north respectively is not equal to 85N. The
computation has to take their direction into account.
2
Geometrical Method:
Representing the two vectors A and B say, by two
adjacent sides of a triangle inclined to each other at
the angle between the two vectors. The third side R is
the resultant vector

Use of Cosine Rule

R2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos (1800 – θ)
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
Exercise
Two boys pull a toy with forces 10 N and 15 N inclined
at 600 to each other. Find their resultant in magnitude
and direction. (R = 21.8N at 36.60 to the 10 N force).

We can use the sine rule if we want to state R relative

to vectors A or B
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
= =
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒂 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒃 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄

where A, B and C are the lengths opposite the angles a,

b and c, respectively.
Subtraction of Vectors
The same process as addition if we note that
A – B = A + (- B)

where –B is a vector equal in magnitude to B but

oppositely directed. The vector diagram is the form:

A -B

R2=A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R
The cosine rule becomes: R2 = A2 + B2 - 2AB cos θ
Scale Drawing: If convenient scales are used and the
lengths and angles are very carefully measured, the
geometrical method can be carried out by scale drawing
That is, V = iVx + jVy + kVz

The magnitude, 𝑉 = 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑥2 + 𝑉𝑦2 + 𝑉𝑧2

−1 𝑉𝑦
Direction to x-axis, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝑥
Example 1
If three forces, F1 =( 4i – j)N, F2 = (-3i + 2j) N and
F3 = -3j N act on a body in a plane. Find the
resultant
 F = i(4 – 3) + j(-1 + 2 – 3)= i – 2j

F = 1 + 2 = 1 + 4 = 5 = 2.23 N
2 2

y −1 − 2
 = tan −1
= tan = −63.430
x 1

That is, the resultant is 2.23 N at angle 63.430 to

the x-axis in the 4th quadrant.
Example 2
If three forces F1 = 20N, 300NE, F2 = 50N along W,
F3 = 40N 500NW act on a body. Find the resultant in
magnitude and direction.
Vector Multiplication

There are generally three types of multiplication

operations:

1. a vector by a scalar which always yields a vector, such

as F = ma

2. vector by a vector to yield a scalar, such as W = F.S

(Scalar or Dot product product)

3. a vector by a vector to yield a vector, such as

τ = F × S (Vector or Cross product)
Operation (i)
The product is always a vector in the direction of the vector
being multiplied with the scalar. For example:

(m × a = F) in direction of a (Newton second law)

Operation (ii)
Dot product of two vectors and it is defined by:
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where θ is the angle between them. Analytically,

𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝒊𝐴𝑥 + 𝒋𝐴𝑦 + 𝒌𝐴𝑧 . (𝒊𝐵𝑥 + 𝒋𝐵𝑦 + 𝒌𝐵𝑧 )

= 𝒊. 𝒊 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝒋. 𝒋 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝒌. 𝒌 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
= 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒛
Note that:
i . i = j . j = k . k = 1×1×Cos0 = 1 and
i . j = i . k = j . k = 1×1×Cos90 = 0

so that terms like (i . j)(Ax .By) and so on are zero.

Example
A force F = 2i + 4j (in N) acts on a body and causes a
displacement S = i + 5j (in m). Find the work done.

W = F .S
= (2 × 1) + (4 ×5) = 22 J.
Operation (iii)
Vector (or cross) product and it is defined as
A × B = n AB sin θ
where θ is the angle between them and n is a unit vector
perpendicular to both A and B

A  B = ABSin
It has the property that A × B = - B × A

A×B

B ×A
A × B and B × A are in opposite directions
 Use of a Matrix
The product vector is equal to the determinant of the matrix
formed by the two vectors.
A × B = (iAx + jAy + kAz) × (iBx + jBy + kBz)

i j k
= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= (Ay Bz – ByAz)i – (AxBz –Bx Az)j +(AxBy – BxAy)k

 Example
If A = 5i – 2j + k and B = 2i + 4j – 3k
i j k
A×B = 5 −2 1
2 4 −3

= (6-4)i – (-15 – 2)j + (20+4)k = 2i + 17j + 24k

A B = 2 2 + 17 2 + 24 2 = 29.5 in appropriate unit

Exercise
Find B × A and show that it is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to A × B.
Exercise
Two insects A and B fly in space with uniform velocities
VA = i + 4j + 3k and VB = 4i + 2j – 4k in m/s with respect to a
stationary observer at the origin (0,0,0).

Show that the insects fly at right angle to each other and
determine their distance apart after 5s. (39.37 m).
 Kinematics
This is the study of motions without considering the
forces causing the motions. We can have motion along a
line (1D), on a surface or plane (2D) or in space (3D).

Displacement.
Displacement is the effective distance between two points.
A motion from position P1(2, 2) to P2(6,4) is of the form:
Velocity and Acceleration
Velocity is the rate at which displacement is changing with
time. We may be interested in its

1. Average value over a period of time

2. Instantaneous value at a point of interest.
of
Example
A particle moving in a plane (or surface) has its motion
described by: x = 20t + 10 and y = 6t2 + 4t where distances
are in m and time is in seconds. Find the magnitude and
direction of its velocity at the instant 5s from rest