Highway Project b3[1]

Extensive Survey Project Report New Highway Project
NEW
HIGHWAY
PROJECT
Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 1

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
The transportation network is a need of economic growth, as every commodity - from food to
fashion, industrial products to medicines - relies on it to reach its destination. This process
has far-reaching effects on a country's economic, industrial, social, and cultural landscape.
The three primary modes of transportation are land, water, and air. However, road
transportation is the most comprehensive, encompassing not only modern highways but also
urban streets, local roads, and rural pathways that cater to a diverse range of vehicles and
pedestrians.
Road transportation is the only mode that offers universal accessibility, with the added
benefit of being able to provide door-to-door service. To ensure the smooth operation of this
network, road engineers and highway officials work tirelessly to design, build, and maintain
road and roadway facilities that meet the needs of road users.
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:
 To determine the most practical and cost-effective alignment for the road project,
considering factors such as economic feasibility, engineering viability, safety
considerations, and practicality.
 To develop highway design specifications for the proposed road, including sight
distance calculations, horizontal and vertical curve designs, extra widening
considerations, and superelevation requirements, all in accordance with relevant
Indian Road Congress (IRC) standards.
Fig. 1.1 Aerial view of Alignment of highway

(Source: Google earth, Latitude 75˚06’ 13.94” E, Longitude 15˚18’ 10.71” N)

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

The classification of road based on location and function is as follows.
1. National Highway (NH).
2. State Highway (SH).
3. Major District Roads (MDR).
4. Other District Road (ODR) and Village Roads (VR).
1. National Highway (NH): are main highways running through the length and breadth
of India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and large
industrial and tourist centers including roads required for strategic movement for the
defense of India.
2. State Highway (SH): These are arterial roads of a state, connecting with the national
highways of adjacent states, district headquarters and serving as the main arteries for
traffic to and from district roads.
3. Major District Roads (MDR): are important roads within a district serving areas of
production and markets and connecting those with each other or with the main
highways of a district. The MDR has lower speed and geometric design specification
than NH/SH.
4. Other District Roads (ODR): are serving rural areas of production and providing
them with outlet to market centers, Taluk Head Quarters, block development
headquarters, block development headquarters or other main roads. These are of lower
design specification than MDR.
5. Village Roads (VR): are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each
other to the nearest road of a higher category.

1.2.1 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS OF ROAD:
FIg.1.2.1 Cross section of highway
1. Carriage way: The width of pavement way on which vehicles travel is called
carriage way or pavement width.
2. Formation width: It is the top of width of highway embankment.
3. Right of way: It is the area of land acquired for the road. along its excluding the
side drains. alignment. It is the distance between the boundary stones on either
side of the road.
4. Road shoulders: Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as emergency
lane for vehicles. As per IRC, the minimum width of shoulders should be 2.5m.
5. Side slope: The slope of earthwork in filling or in cutting is called side slope. It
imparts stability to the earthwork.
6. Berm: The distance between the road toe and the inner edge of borrow pit is called
berm. It prevents the erosion of embankment soil.
7. Boundary stone: To indicate the boundary of land acquired for road. stones are
driven into the ground at about 30m distance on either side from the centre line of
road. These stones are known as boundary stones.
8. Side drain: For the drainage of rainwater, drains are provided on either side of
road. Normally, side drains are required for the road in cutting. For road in
embankment, side drains are not necessary.
9. Building line: The distance from the centre line of road on either side. within
which construction of buildings are not permitted to construct is called building
line.
10. Control line: At the locations like bank, hospital, factory, theatre, etc., on the road,
where more people gather disturbance to the traffic will be more.

11. Spoil bank: The banks constructed from surplus excavated earth on the side of road
cutting parallel to its alignment, are known as spoil banks. The soil from spoil
bank can be used for the repair of shoulders.
12. Borrow pits: The pits dug along the road alignment for excavated earth in the
construction of embankment, are known as borrow pits. The smaller portion of
earth left undug in a borrow pit to measure depth of excavation is known as dead
man.
13. Kerbs: The boundaries between pavement and shoulders for footpaths are known
as kerbs.
1.2.2 ENGINEERING SURVEYS:
Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the Engineering Survey are to be
cammed out.
The various stages of engineering surveys are.
 Map study (Provisional alignment identification)
 Reconnaissance survey
 Preliminary survey
 Final location and detailed surveys
 Detailed survey
1.2.3 MAP STUDY:

It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map of the area is
available. In India, topographic maps are available from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30-
meter contour intervals.
To determine the most suitable route for a road, it's essential to study the topographic map of
the area. The Survey of India provides detailed topographic maps with contour intervals of 15
or 30 meters, which include important features like water bodies, terrain elevations, and
landforms. By analyzing these maps, you can identify potential alignments by considering
factors such as:
For instance, roads can be planned to circumvent low-lying areas and bodies of water. When
traversing mountainous regions, it's crucial to identify suitable mountain passes for crossing.
Additionally, bridge sites for river crossings should be carefully selected to avoid bends in

the river course. Furthermore, when connecting two stations at different elevations, it's
necessary to consider the design gradient and maximum permissible gradient when selecting
an alternate route.
By studying the topographic map, you can pinpoint potential routes and drop those that are
impractical due to obstacles or unfavorable terrain. The map provides a valuable starting
point for planning road routes, allowing you to:
 Identify feasible routes by avoiding low-lying areas and natural obstacles
 Select suitable mountain passes for crossing hills and mountains
 Determine approximate bridge locations and optimize river crossing sites
 Suggest alternate routes between stations with varying elevations, considering design
and maximum permissible gradients
1.2.4 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY:

The second stage of highway alignment engineering surveys is the reconnaissance survey,
where the engineer visits the site to gather more information about the area before selecting
the most feasible routes for further study.
This on-site inspection involves examining the general characteristics of the terrain and
gathering details that may not be available on the map.
During this stage, a field survey party will typically inspect a broad area along the proposed
routes, using simple survey instruments to quickly collect additional information.
They will also note down any relevant details that are not already available on the map. Some
of the key details to be collected during this stage include:
 Identifying topographical features such as valleys, water bodies, and ridges, as well as
permanent structures and other obstructions along the route.
 Gathering approximate values for gradient lengths, radii of curves, and other
alignment parameters for each alternative route.
 Recording data on cross-drainage structures, flood levels, and groundwater levels

along each route.
 Conducting field tests to identify soil types and observing geological features to
inform decisions about route alignment.

In areas with hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data may be collected on geological
formation, rock types, strata dips, and seepage flow to determine stable and unstable hillside
areas. In cases where the area is vast or difficult to access, a rapid reconnaissance may be
conducted using aerial surveys. The information gathered during this stage may lead to
changes in the proposed alignment or even complete changes to the route.
1.2.5 PRELIMINARY SURVEY:

The primary objectives of the preliminary survey stage are to collect essential physical
information, topographical data, and details on drainage and soil conditions for the various
alternate alignment proposals.
The survey aims to compare these proposals and evaluate them based on the requirements of
a good alignment. Additionally, the survey should estimate the quantity of earthwork
materials and construction costs for each proposal.
To achieve these objectives, two approaches can be used: the conventional method and the
rapid method. The conventional approach involves a thorough field survey using necessary
equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical data, and conducting soil surveys.
On the other hand, the rapid approach uses aerial photography and photogrammetric methods,
along with photo-interpretation techniques, to obtain topographical and other maps, including
details on soil and geology.
In recent years, modern techniques have also been employed in preliminary surveys, utilizing
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. The conventional method of preliminary
survey involves several steps:
 Establishing a primary traverse to define the survey's boundaries.
 Identifying and mapping topographical features, such as valleys, ridges, and

elevations.
 Conducting levelling work to determine elevations and gradients.
 Studying drainage patterns and collecting hydrological data.
 Conducting soil surveys to determine soil types and conditions.
 Carrying out material surveys to estimate quantities of materials needed for

construction.
 Conducting traffic studies to understand traffic flow and volume along the route.

1.2.6 FINAL LOCATION AND DETAILED SURVEY:
The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located
on the field by establishing the centre line. Next detailed survey should carry out for
collecting the information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for
the highway project.
Location:
The location survey involves accurately transferring the finalised road centreline from
drawings to the ground using a transit theodolite and staking. The goal is to match the
centreline with the preliminary survey alignment, with adjustments made as needed.
To do this, surveyors identify major and minor control points on the ground, install centre
pegs, and check them against design requirements for accuracy. Stakes are spaced at 50m
intervals in flat terrain and 20m intervals in hilly terrain, with flexibility for adjustments
during construction.
The process requires a combination of technical expertise and planning, using a transit
theodolite to mark out the centreline with precision and consistency. This ensures that any
necessary adjustments can be made during construction, resulting in a final product that
meets design specifications and engineering requirements.
1.2.7 DETAILED SURVEY:
 Temporary reference points are established at regular intervals of approximately 250

meters along the final centerline, with levelling work being conducted at each staked
point to ensure accurate vertical alignment and subsequent design calculations.
 Accurate levelling is crucial, as it serves as the foundation for determining the vertical
alignment, earthwork quantities, and drainage systems.
 Cross-section levels are taken at intervals of 50-100 meters in flat terrain, 50-75 meters in
rolling terrain, 50 meters in urban areas, and 20 meters in hilly terrain to ensure a
comprehensive understanding of the road's geometry.
 Closer cross-section spacing is necessary at horizontal curves and where there are sudden
changes in cross-slope to accurately capture these features.
 Detailed surveys are conducted along waterways, valleys, and other key features to gather
essential data up to considerable distances on either side.

 Topographical details are recorded using conventional symbols, and hydrological data is
collected and documented to inform design decisions.
 A thorough soil survey is conducted to create a detailed soil profile, with sampling
extending up to 15-30 meters below the ground surface or finished grade level, whichever
is lower.
 In cases of high embankments, the sampling depth may reach up to twice the height of
the finished embankment. The spacing of borehole samples depends on soil type and
variations.
 The CBR value of soils along the alignment is determined to inform pavement design.
 The detailed survey data should be comprehensive and complete to enable the preparation
of detailed plans, designs, and estimates for the project.
 The key map should depict the proposed and existing road network, as well as important
locations to be connected. The map scale should be chosen suitably according to the
length of the road/highway, with a general size not exceeding 22x20 cm
1.3 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN:
The geometric design of highway deals with the dimensions of visible features of the
highway such as alignments, sight distance and inter sections. The geometric design of the
highway should be designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with
maximum safety at reasonable cost and comfort to passengers. The geometric design deals
with the following elements.
i. Horizontal Highway Alignment
ii. Vertical Highway Alignment
Horizontal highway alignment:
This covers the horizontal path of the road either its straight or curved or both. Top view
of road alignment gives horizontal alignment of the road.
Vertical highway Alignment
This deals with the gradients, slopes, and levelling off the ground. Perspective view or
front view or side view of the road alignment makes you understand about Vertical
alignment.

1.3.1 REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:

 The road's trajectory should be optimized to minimize its overall length and reduce
the number of turns, ensuring a direct and straightforward route.
 The alignment should prioritize the minimization of operational, initial, and

maintenance expenses when making decisions.
 The chosen route should be designed for ease of construction and maintenance,
featuring a linear profile with minimal gradients and slopes. A small degree of
flexibility in the alignment is acceptable to achieve this goal.
 The selected alignment should prioritize worker safety during construction,

particularly in areas with steep embankments, sloping terrain, hilly regions, and steep
inclines.
1.3.1 FACTORS CONTROLLING HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:

1. Obligatory Points
 The control points governing highway alignment are called obligatory points. These
points decide where the alignment should pass and where the alignment should not
pass. Alignment Should pass.
 Roads are constructed for the development of the areas. A small deviation in
alignment can be acceptable if highway passes through the towns, villages, cities etc.
If the alignment passes through the mountain, it is recommended to relook the best
alternatives, either to construct the tunnel or go round the hills.
 The selection of the choice depends on factors like topography, site conditions and
construction and operation cost.
 It is always recommended to avoid the alignment on small lakes and ponds and
deviate the alignment up to some extent where required, construction of bridges on
these lakes and ponds requires more funds.
 The alignment should not pass through the places which are developed or having
expensive buildings or high-rise buildings acquisition of land at these places incurs
huge initial cost and demolishing these structures takes more time.
 Therefore slight deviation in alignment is acceptable if above these points are in

alignment The alignment should not pass through the dense forests and agricultural
lands.

2. Horizontal Curve and gradient:

The Horizontal curve must be as flat as possible. The gradient should be kept as flat as
possible to avoid the excessive rise and fall of the highway alignment.
3. The volume of traffic
The volume of traffic and an increase in the traffic volume per year and peak traffic is
analyzed and alignment is finalized by considering all previous data of traffic respectively.
4. Type of Traffic
If the traffic is of vehicular type and for fast-moving vehicles, it is advised to keep the
alignment as straight as possible with fewer curves. Separate lanes for fast-moving vehicles are
recommended.
5. Earthwork and backfilling:
Earthwork and backfilling to level the land constitute huge costs after the land acquisition.
The alignment has deviated wherever required to avoid the excessive cutting of earthwork
and backfilling.
6. Railway Crossing:
Road alignment should cross rail ideally 90 degrees for fast-moving lanes, National
Highways or Expressways, it is advisable to construct the bridge over rail lane to avoid the
traffic jams. lane
7. Radius of the Horizontal Curve:
Large curves on highways are not desirable: To maintain the comfortable and constant speed
on Highways, the radius of the horizontal curve should be less than 230m to achieve this, the
alignment can be changed.
8. Bridges:
Selection of bridge site involves many factors and is finalized where the river path is the
same throughout the year. The road alignment should cut the river at 90Degrees same as
Railway Lane.
9. Sight Distance
The specific values for sight distance requirements depend on various factors, including
design standards, road classification, design speed, geometric features, and the expected
traffic volume and composition. Highway engineers and designers calculate and analyse sight
distances to ensure that drivers have adequate visibility to perceive and respond to potential
hazards, ensuring safe and efficient travel along the roadway.

10. Proper Drainage:

It is important to note that drainage requirements may vary depending on local regulations,
climate conditions, and specific site characteristics. Roadway design professionals and civil
engineers consider these factors to ensure proper drainage and minimize the risk of water-
related damage to the road.
11. Stability of Slopes:
Special care is to be taken for road alignment in hilly areas, the problem with the hilly areas is
landslides.The road should be aligned to the side of the hill which is stable Excessive earthwork
cutting and backfilling affect stability.
12. Monotony:
Straight and even road alignment is possible for flat terrain but it monotonous for driving
which may lead to accidents for a sudden curve. It is recommended to keep the slight bend, for
every few miles to alert the driver.
13. Economy:
The initial cost, operating cost and maintenance cost should be minimum for the finalized
alignment. Avoid High embankments and deep cutting to reduce the cost of construction. The
road should be aligned to the side of the hill which is stable excessive earthwork cutting and
backfilling affect stability.
14. Monotony:
Straight and even road alignment is possible for flat terrain but it monotonous for driving
which may lead to accidents for a sudden curve. It is recommended to keep the slight bend, for
every few miles to alert the driver.
15. Formation bed
The alignment should go through the good soil having enough strength, to achieve this a
slight change in alignment is acceptable.
1.3.2 CAMBER:
Camber refers to the transverse slope or curvature of the road surface, measured
perpendicular to the direction of travel. It is used to facilitate the drainage of water and
improve the safety and comfort of vehicles on the road.
In the drawing above, the road surface is higher in the middle and slopes downward towards
the edges. This is known as positive camber, where the center of the road is elevated above
the edges.

 Preventing water from seeping into the subgrade soil is crucial to maintain the
stability and longevity of the pavement structure.
 To prevent water from penetrating the bituminous surface and stripping away
aggregate particles, it's essential to ensure proper drainage.
 By removing water from the pavement surface, skid resistance can be improved,
enhancing road safety and driver comfort.
1.3.4 SHAPES OF CROSS SLOPE:
 The camber's shape can be parabolic, elliptical, or linear, with a flat midsection and
steeper edges, which benefits high-speed vehicles.
 A gentle, curved camber is preferred for fast-moving vehicles, ensuring a smooth ride
and optimal performance.
 The cross-slope of the shoulder should be slightly steeper than that of the adjacent
pavement, with a minimum of 0.3% and a maximum of 5% for natural shoulders.
Fig. 1.2.1 Types of camber

According to the standards,
As per IRC cross slope for flexible pavements 1.7 % (1 in 60) for light rainfall area
where the alignment is plotted. In the field the center portion of the road alignment is
elevated by 1.7% of total width of the road formation
Table No: 1.1 Range of camber
SL. Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
NO Type of road surface

Heavy Light
Cement concrete and

1 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
bituminous surface
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%)

1.3.5 CARRIAGE WAY WIDTH:

The width of a highway's formation is the aggregate of its pavement or carriage way width,
inclusive of any median dividers, plus the shoulder widths, extending from the top of the
embankment or the base of the cutting, excluding side drains.
The total width of a highway formation comprises the combined width of its pavement or
carriage way, including any intervening separators, and the shoulder widths, measured from
the crest of the embankment or the base of the cutting, minus side drainage channels.
The formation width of a highway is equal to the sum of its pavement or carriage way width,
including any median strips or dividers, and shoulder widths, starting from the top of the
embankment or the bottom of the cutting, excluding any side drains or waterways.
The pavement width depends on the width of the traffic lanes and the number of lanes it also
depends on the average width of vehicles, number of vehicles and minimum side clearance
which is provided for safety.
A width of 3.75m is considered desirable for a road having a single lane for vehicle of a
maximum width of 2.44m. for 2 or more lanes width of 3.5m per lane is recommended.
As per the requirement the width of the carriage way is considered as 14m. Therefore, the
lane width as 3.5m and 4 number of lanes are provided.
Table No: 1.2 Carriageway Width

Sl.no Class of road Width of carriage way
1 Single lane 3.75 m
2 Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0 m
3 Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5 m
Intermediate carriage way

4 5.5 m
(except on important roads)
5 Multilane pavements 3.5 m per lane

1.3.6 WIDTH OF FORMATION:

Width of formation is the sum of pavements including separator if any and the shoulder
formation width is the top width of highway embankment or the bottom width of highway
cutting excluding the side drain. The width of roadway standardized by IRC are given below:
Fig. 1.2.3: Width of formation
Table No: 1. 3 Roadway width of different classes of roads
Roadway width
Plane and rolling Mountainous and steep
Sl.no Road classification
terrain terrain
NH & SH
a) Single lane 12 m 6.25 m

1
b) Two lanes 12 m 6.25 m
MDR
a) Single lane 9m 4.75 m

2
b) Two lanes 9m 4.75 m
ODR
a) Single lane 7.5 m 4.75 m

3
b) Two lanes 9m 4.75 m
Village roads-single
4 7.5 m 4.00 m
lane

1.3.7 SHOULDERS:
Shoulders are constructed along the road's edge to serve as a safety buffer for vehicles that
need to temporarily exit the main lane, providing a sufficient width to accommodate
stationary vehicles at a safe distance from the adjacent lane.
Adequate shoulder width is crucial to ensure that vehicles can safely stop or pull over, with a
recommended minimum width of 4.6 meters to provide a clearance of 1.85 meters from the
pavement edge, allowing trucks to park alongside the shoulders without compromising safety.
Road shoulders are designed to provide a secure area for vehicles to pull over in emergency
situations, with a minimum recommended width of 4.6 meters to ensure a safe distance of
1.85 meters between the shoulder edge and the pavement, allowing trucks and other vehicles
to park safely and out of harm's way.
1.3.8 DESIGN SPEED:
The design speed of a roadway is the maximum safe velocity at which a vehicle can travel
under optimal conditions, taking into account factors such as road geometry, curvature,
elevation, visibility, and other design elements, and is used as a guide for determining the
necessary road characteristics during construction or improvement projects.
The optimal design speed of a highway is the highest speed at which vehicles can travel
safely on a specific section of the road, considering factors like desired service level, safety
considerations, and expected driver behavior, and influences key geometric design features
such as sight distance, curve radius, superelevation, and more.
The target design speed of a roadway is the maximum safe velocity that can be sustained
over a particular stretch of highway, determined by a combination of factors including
desired service level, safety concerns, and anticipated driver behavior, and plays a crucial
role in shaping design elements such as sight distances, curve radii, superelevation rates, and
more.
Table no. 1.4 Design speed for various roads
Roadway type Design Speed (Km/h)
National Highways 80 -100

Expressways 100 - 120
State Highways 60 - 80

Major district roads 40 - 60

Other district roads 30 – 40
Village roads 20 – 30
Table no.1.5 Design speed for national highway in various locations
Road classification Plain Hilly Mountainous
National Highway (NH) in kmph 80 – 100 40 – 60 30 – 50
It is important to note that design speed is different from posted speed limits, which are
regulatory speed limits set by local authorities for specific road segments. Design speed
serves as a guideline for engineers and designers to create roadways that accommodate the
anticipated speed and behavior of vehicles.
In our case natural slope of the ground level is 25 % therefore it is the rolling terrain, we are
designing the road as National highway (NH) so the Design speed is considered as 100
kmph.
1.4 FRICTION (f)

The coefficient of friction between a vehicle's tires and the road surface is a vital factor in
highway design and safety, as it determines the resistance experienced by the vehicle as it
moves, affecting its acceleration, braking, and overall maneuverability.
The surface traction between a vehicle's tires and the roadway is a critical consideration in
highway design, as it directly impacts the vehicle's ability to speed up, slow down, and
maintain control during turns or other complex maneuvers.
The adhesive force between a vehicle's tires and the road surface plays a pivotal role in
highway design and safety, as it influences the vehicle's capacity to accelerate, decelerate,
and maintain traction during various driving scenarios, thereby affecting overall safety.
Coefficient of Friction (f): The frictional coefficient is a quantitative measure of the

interface between two surfaces in contact, specifically calculated as the ratio of the frictional
force between tires and road surface to the weight exerted by the tires.The frictional
characteristic of a road surface is influenced by various factors, including its texture,
condition, and the type of tires used, which ultimately affects the overall frictional
performance of the surface.

The coefficient of friction is a measure of the stickiness between two surfaces in contact,
which depends on factors like road surface roughness, wear and tear, and tire type, and is
typically recommended to be around 0.15 for lateral movement and between 0.3 to 0.4 for
longitudinal movement.
1.4.1 SUPER ELEVATION (e)
When a vehicle takes a turn, it experiences a centrifugal force that tends to pull it away
from the curve. Super elevation helps in reducing this sideways force, allowing the
vehicle to maintain better traction and stability. It is achieved by raising the outer edge of
the road surface relative to the inner edge.
The amount of super elevation required depends on factors such as the design speed of the
road, the radius of the curve, and the friction between the tires and the road surface. The
super elevation is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio. The formula to calculate
the super elevation is:
Super Elevation (e) = 2
gXR
were,
V is the design speed of the road (in m/s) Fig. 1.3 Super elevation
g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s²) R is the radius of the curve
(in meters)
��
�+�=
��
f is the coefficient of lateral friction. R is the radius of curvature

The recommended maximum super elevation varies based on road classifications and
design standards. In India, the Indian Road Congress (IRC) provides guidelines for super
elevation values based on road types and design speeds.
 National Highways and Expressways: Up to 7%
 State Highways: Up to 6%
 Major District Roads: Up to 5%
 Other District Roads and Village Roads: Up to 4%
1.4.2 MAXIMUM SUPER ELEVATION:

According to the Indian Road Congress, the degree of banked curve increases with rising
speeds and decreasing radii, and for vehicles with elevated centers of gravity, excessive
superelevation can lead to rollover; therefore, a maximum value of 7% is recommended to
ensure safety.
The IRC guidelines stipulate that the amount of cambering on a road curve increases as speed
increases and radius decreases, and for vehicles with high centers of gravity, excessive
cambering can cause rollover; accordingly, the maximum recommended value is 7%.
The maximum degree of banking on a highway curve should be limited to 7%, as dictated by
the Indian Road Congress, to prevent rollover of vehicles with high centers of gravity when
traveling at higher speeds or navigating tighter curves.
1.4.3 MINIMUM SUPER ELEVATION:

Adequate superelevation is essential to facilitate water drainage on roads; if the calculated
value of superelevation is lower than the road's camber, it is recommended to provide
superelevation equal to the road's camber; conversely, in flat curves with large radii, where
centrifugal forces are minimal, normal camber is sufficient.
To ensure proper water drainage, a minimum amount of superelevation is necessary; if the

calculated value is less than the road's natural camber, it is recommended to adopt the camber
value as the superelevation; however, in flat curves with large radii, where centrifugal forces
are relatively low, standard camber is sufficient.
Superelevation plays a crucial role in draining surface water from roads; if the calculated
superelevation is lower than the road's inherent camber, it is advised to match the two values;
alternatively, in flat curves with large radii, where centrifugal forces are minimal, normal
camber can be used instead.
Method of Obtaining Super-elevation

Introducing super-elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important feature in

construction. The full super-elevation is attained by the end of transition curve or at the
beginning of the circular curve. The attainment of super-elevation may be split up into two
parts:
i). Elimination of crown of the cambered section.
ii). Rotation of pavement to attain full super-elevation.
Design of super elevation

e = 0.07
Fig. 1.3.1 camber details outer edge Fig. 1.3.2 super elevation details
f = 0.15
v = 100 kmph
R = 360 m
��
e=
��
��
e=
��
e = 0.123
As the value is equal to 0.123, the design is safe with super elevation of 0.07
e=ExB ; B=7m
�
E=
�
�.��
E=
�
E = 0.01 m
Check for coefficient of lateral friction developed for full speed:

��
f= −�
�� × �
��
f= − �. ��, f = 0.14 < 0.15
�� × ��
As the value is less then 0.15, Hence the design is safe with a super elevation of 0.07.
1.4.5 HORIZONTAL CURVES:

A curve in the horizontal plane is provided to guide the central line of the pavement,
facilitating a gradual change in the direction of the road's alignment. This type of curve is
essential for highway design, allowing vehicles to transition smoothly between two straight
sections rather than making a sharp turn.
In highway design, horizontal curves are strategically placed to gradually redirect the central
line of the pavement, providing a smooth transition between two straight sections of roadway.
This curvature allows vehicles to negotiate turns at a gradual rate, rather than being abruptly
forced to change direction, and is an essential component of overall highway geometry.
Generally, the following types of horizontal curves are used in highway system.
1. Simple curve
2. Compound curve
3. Reverse curve
4. Transition curve
1.4.6 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVE 1

As per IRC 38 Table no 2, The Design speed of National Highway for Plane terrain is
100 kmph
Design speed = V = 100 kmph
Minimum rate of super elevation = e = 0.07
Co- efficient of lateral friction f = 0.15
As per IRC 38 table no 3, For 100 kmph Design speed the minimum radius of curvature
is taken as 360 m.
Fig. 1.4 Details and Notations

Radius of horizontal curve = R = 360 m
Intersection angle = θ = 99ᵒ
Deflection angle = ∆ = 180- θ
180-99
∆ =81ᵒ
Length of the curve

L =(π × R × ∆)\180
L =(π × 360 × 81)\180
L =508.938 m
Tangent length
T = R × tan(∆⁄2)
T = 360 × tan(81⁄2)
T = 307.469 m
Length of chord
Lc = 2R × sin(∆⁄2)
Lc = (2 × 360 × sin(81⁄2)
Lc = 467.602 m
1.4.7 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVE 2.

Co- efficient of lateral friction = f =0.15
Intersection angle = θ = 125˚

Deflection angle = ∆ = 180- θ
= 180-170
∆ = 10˚
Length of the curve
(π×R×Δ)
L= 180
(22⁄7)×360×10
L =
180
L = 63.821 m
Tangent length
T = � × tan(∆⁄2)
T = 360 × tan(10⁄2)
T = 31.495 m
Length of chord
Lc = 2R × sin(∆⁄2)
Lc = (2 × 360 × sin(10⁄2)
Lc = 62.752 m
1.4.8 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVE 3
As per IRC 38 Table no 2, The Design speed of National Highway for Plane terrain is
100 kmph

Co- efficient of lateral friction f = 0.15
As per IRC 38 table no 3, For 100 kmph Design speed the minimum radius of curvature
is taken as 360 m.
Intersection angle = θ = 100°
Deflection angle = ∆ = 180-θ
180-100
=80°
Length of the curve
L =(π × R × ∆)\180
(22⁄ 7)×360×80\180
L = 502.654 m
Tangent length
T = R × tan(∆⁄2)
T = 360 × tan(80 ⁄2)
T = 302.075 m
Length of chord
Lc = 2R × sin(∆⁄2)
Lc = (2 × 360 × sin(80 ⁄2)
Lc = 462.807 m

1.4.9 TRANSITION CURVE:

A transition curve is a horizontal curve having a variable radius i.e., an infinite radius at the
tangential point to the selected radius of the primary horizontal curve. A horizontal curve
provides a transition between two tangent strips of roads and transition curves help make
the transition smoother.
There are three types of transition curves based on their shape as listed below.
1. Spiral/Clothoid
2. Bernoulli's Lemniscate
3. Cubic parabola
Table no.1.5.1 Empirical Formulas for calculating length of transition curve
Design speed
(V)=100kmph
Radius (R) = 360m
Width of road (including extra widening) = 8.15m
Super elevation rate = 1:150
C=(80/75+�)
C = (80/75+100)
C = 0.45 m/sec2
As the value of C is in b/w 0.5 to 0.8 hence above value is

accepted.
e = (V^2/225R)

e = (100^2/225*360)
e=0.12
Above value is greater than standard value 0.07, hence check safety against skidding
finding co-efficient of for design speed of 100kmph
��
�� = �� − �
fd = [100^2/(127*360)]-0.07
fd = 0.14
Hence super elevation rate of 0.07 is safe for s peed of 100 kmph.
E/2=Eb/2
E/2=0.07*8.15/2
E/2=0.285m
Ls=EN/2
Ls=0.285*150
Ls=42m
Length of curve as per IRC
L=2.7V^2/R
L=2.7(100)^2/360
Fig. 1.4.1 transition curve
L=75m
Hence length of transition curve is 75m
1.5 VERTICAL CURVES:

To mitigate the sudden change in elevation caused by a change in grade, vertical curves are
introduced at the intersection of two gradients to create a more gradual vertical profile,
thereby easing the transition for high-speed vehicles.

When a highway's vertical alignment changes from one grade to another, vertical curves are
essential to soften the impact of this shift, resulting in a smoother ride for fast-moving
vehicles.
At the point where two gradients meet, vertical curves are implemented to smoothen out the
vertical profile, thereby reducing the jarring effect of the grade change and providing a more
comfortable experience for drivers of high-speed vehicles.
The vertical curves used in highways may be classified into two categories:
1. Valley curve
2. Summit curve
1.5.1 EXTRA WIDENING:
Extra widening on the curves of the road refers to the additional width of the
carriageway that is required on a curved section of the road over and above the width
required on the straight section.
The widening of two lanes or wider rads is done to include the following two components:
1. Mechanical widening: mechanical widening is provided to compensate for the extra

width occupied by the vehicle on the curve due to tracking of the rear wheels.
2. Psychological widening: psychological widening is provided to permit the easy
1.5.2 Design of extra widening:

Fig. 1.5 Extra widening of road
Here No. of Lanes n = 2

length of wheelbase (assume) l = 6.1 m
Width of the Pavement W = 7.5 m

Extra widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening

�2
��
6.12
��
=0.65
Provide an extra wide of 0.658m and hence the total width of the pavement.
B = W + We
B = 7.5 + 0.65
B = 8.15 m
1.5.3 SIGHT DISTANCE:
The minimum sight distance available on highway at horizontal & vertical curves and at
intersection should be of sufficient length to stop vehicles collision.
Three sight distances situations are considered in this design.
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
2. Intermediate sight distance. (ISD)
3. Overtaking sight distance. (OSD)
1.5.4 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE:

The absolute minimum sight distance is equal to the stopping sight distance, which is also
sometimes called non passing sight distance.
S.S.D = Lag distance / Braking distance
2
S.S.D (m) = 0.278 × �� +
254��
V = speed in kmph.
f = longitudinal coefficient of friction

Table No: 1.6 SSD for various vehicle speed
Design speed
20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100
kmph
Safe
stopping
sight 20 25 30 45 60 80 120 180
distance (m)
Fig. 1.5.1 stopping sight distance.
1.5.4.1 Design of Stopping sight distance (SSD):
Here t = Total Reaction time of the Driver
t = 2.5 sec
f = longitudinal co-efficient of friction
IRC Recommended values for longitudinal coefficient of friction:
f = 0.35
SSD = 0.278 × Vt + (V2/254 ×0.35)
SSD = (0.278 × 100 ×2.5)+ (1002/254 ×0.35)
SSD = 181.72 m ⁓ 180m ≤ 180m
1.5.5 INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE:
Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is another important concept in highway design that
pertains to the distance required for a driver to detect and respond to a specific object or
condition on the roadway.

Unlike stopping sight distance, ISD is concerned with situations where the driver does not
need to come to a complete stop but may need to take evasive actions or adjust their speed.
ISD is crucial for ensuring safe overtaking, lane changing, and merging makeovers on
highways. It allows drivers to assess the availability of gaps in traffic and make informed
decisions based on the distance needed to safely complete their makeover.
1.5.5.1 Design of ISD:
According to IRC (ISD) will be two times of the (SSD)
�� = 2 x (��)
= 2 × 181.72
= 363.452 m
1.5.6 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE:

The minimum distance on a highway required by a vehicle/driver to overtake a slow-moving
vehicle ahead i.e. traveling in the same direction safely against approaching traffic in the
opposite direction is known as overtaking sight distance (OSD).
Fig. 1.5.2 Over-Taking of a vehicle.
Analysis of OSD:
 d1 is the distance (m) traveled by overtaking vehicle “A” during the reaction time t
(secs) of the driver from position A1 to A2 before starting to overtake the slow
vehicle B.

 d2 is the distance (m) traveled by the vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the actual
overtaking operation, in time T (sec)
 d3 is the distance traveled by no-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during the

overtaking operation of A, i, e T (sec)
 The overtaking vehicle ‘A’ is forced to reduce its speed from design speed (v) in
m/s to V (m/s) of the slow vehicle B and move behind it, allowing a space s (m),
till there is an opportunity for safe overtaking operation.
 When driver of vehicle A finds sufficient clear gap ahead, decides within a
reaction time t (sec) to accelerate and overtake the vehicle B, during which the
vehicle A moves at speed Vb (m/sec) through a distance d1, from position A1 to
A2.
 The vehicle A accelerates and overtakes the slow vehicle B within a distance d2
during the overtaking time. T(sec) between the position A2 to A3.
 The distance d2 is split up into three parts.
 Spacing s (m) between A2 to B1
 Distance b (m) travelled by the slow vehicles B between B1 to B2 during

overtaking operation of A. Spacing s (m) between B2 to A3
 During overtaking time T (sec), the vehicle C coming from opposite direction
travels through a distance d3 from position C1 to C2.
Over taking sight distance = d1 + d2+ d3
d1 = Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t sec of the driver
from position A1 to A2.
d2 = Distance travelled by the vehicle from A2 to A3 during the actual overtaking operation
in time T sec.
d3 = Distance travelled by no-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during the overtaking
operation of A i.e., T sec.
Total reaction time of the driver, t = 2 sec Acceleration, A = 1.92 kmph / sec2
a = 0.53 m/sec2
S = spacing between vehicles

Table no. 1.6.1 Acceleration due to gravity for various design speeds
Speed Maximum overtaking acceleration
V, kmph V, m/sec A, kmph/sec2 a, m/sec2
25 6.93 5.00 1.41
30 8.34 4.8 1.30
40 11.10 4.45 1.24
50 13.85 4.00 1.11
65 18.00 3.28 0.92
80 22.20 2.56 0.72
100 27.80 1.92 0.53
1.5.6.1 Design of OSD
Overtaken vehicle speed,
vb = v – 16 v = 100 kmph
�� = 100 − 16 vb , ⸫ �� = 84 kmph
� = (0.2 × vb) + 6
� = (0.2 × 84) + 6
� = 22.8 m.
��.�×�
Now, � = �
14.4×22.8
� = √[ 1.92
� = 13.076 sec
d1 = 0.278×vb×t
d1 = 0.278×84×2.5
d1 = 58.38 m.
d1 = (0.278×Vb×T) + (2S)
= (0.278 × 84 × 13.076) + (2 × 22.8)
�� = 350.950 m

�� = (0.278 × � × �)
= (0.278 × 100 × 13.076)
= 363.51 m
= + +
= 58.38 + 350.950 + 363.51
= 772.845 m
hence, the OSD is taken as = 765 m.
Fig. 1.5.3 Overtaking zone
Therefore, the minimum overtaking sight distance is = 3 x 775
= 3 x 775= 2325 m
The desired overtaking sight distance is = 5 x OSD = 5 x 775 = 3875 m.
1.6 EARTH WORK:

Earthwork for road construction refers to the process of excavating, moving, and compacting
soil and other materials to create the desired road profile. This is a crucial phase in road
construction and involves various activities to prepare the foundation and subgrade for the
road surface.
Considerations in developing an ideal Earthwork plan for a highway:
1. Survey and Alignment: Conduct a comprehensive topographic survey of the highway

corridor to determine the optimal alignment, incorporating parameters such as curve radii,
gradient profiles, and vertical alignments. The survey should take into account critical

factors including terrain features, existing infrastructure, potential environmental impacts,

and measures to minimize disruption to the natural landscape and surrounding ecosystem.
2. Soil Investigation: Conduct thorough in-situ soil investigations along the highway route
to gather data on the soil's type, classification, and properties. This information will
inform decisions regarding the suitability of the soil for construction, including its
bearing capacity, compressibility, and potential for settlement, allowing for the
development of effective construction strategies and mitigation measures.
3. Cut and Fill Analysis: Utilize the results of the survey and soil investigation to conduct a
thorough cut and fill analysis, determining the precise volumes of excavation and
embankment required along the highway corridor. This analysis aims to achieve a
balanced earthwork strategy, minimizing excessive cuts or fills, which can result in
increased construction costs, environmental impacts, and potential risks.
4. Earthwork Design: Develop a comprehensive earthwork design plan that leverages the
results of the cut and fill analysis to optimize the sections of the highway corridor. This
will involve strategically adjusting the highway alignment, introducing embankments or
retaining structures where necessary, and optimizing slope ratios to ensure stability,
minimize erosion, and prevent landslides or other geotechnical hazards.
5. Quality Control and Assurance: Establish and enforce a robust quality control and
assurance program throughout the construction process to ensure that the earthwork is
constructed in accordance with the design specifications, relevant codes, and industry
standards.
This will involve regular, rigorous inspections, comprehensive material testing, and strict
adherence to construction standards and protocols, as well as continuous monitoring of
site conditions to prevent defects or deviations from the approved design.
6. Monitoring and Maintenance Program: Develop and implement a comprehensive

monitoring and maintenance program to ensure the long-term stability, functionality, and
performance of the earthwork structures. This will involve regular inspections,
surveillance, and maintenance activities to detect and address any issues, defects, or
distress that may arise over time.
The program will also include contingency planning and response strategies to mitigate
the impact of potential risks or failures, thereby ensuring the overall integrity and
serviceability of the highway infrastructure.

The development of an ideal Earthwork plan for a highway project requires a tailored
approach that takes into account the project's unique characteristics, local regulations,
and environmental considerations. To achieve this, it is essential to collaborate with a
multidisciplinary team of experts, including civil engineers, geotechnical specialists, and
environmental consultants. This collaboration will enable the development of a
comprehensive and site-specific Earthwork plan that addresses the specific needs of the
project, ensures compliance with relevant regulations, and minimizes environmental
impacts.
Table No: 1.7 Earthwork estimation


1.7 PAVEMENT
A highway pavement is a complex structure comprising multiple layers of processed

materials placed atop the natural soil subgrade. The primary objective of this design is to
efficiently distribute the loads imposed by vehicles to the subgrade, ensuring a smooth and
safe riding experience. To achieve this, the pavement structure must provide an acceptable
riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light-reflecting characteristics, and
minimal noise pollution. The goal is to reduce the stresses transmitted by wheel loads to a
level that does not exceed the bearing capacity of the subgrade.
Two primary types of pavements are commonly recognized as effective in achieving this
goal: flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This chapter provides an overview of the
different types of pavements, their layers, and functions, as well as common pavement
failures that can result from improper design.
Effective pavement design is critical to constructing durable and functional road or pavement
surfaces. The design process involves selecting suitable materials and designing structural
elements to create a safe, smooth, and reliable surface that can withstand traffic loads and
environmental conditions.
1.7.1 Considerations in pavement design:

 Traffic Analysis: The initial step in the pavement design process is the comprehensive
traffic analysis, which involves examining the characteristics and volume of anticipated
traffic. This includes an assessment of the following factors:
 Type of vehicles, including their classification and frequency
 Axle loads and their distribution
 Traffic patterns, including peak hour traffic volumes and speed distributions.
 Subgrade Evaluation: A crucial aspect of pavement design is the evaluation of the

subgrade, which refers to the natural soil or aggregate layer beneath the pavement. It is
essential to assess the subgrade's properties, including its strength, drainage
characteristics, and frost susceptibility, to guarantee that it can provide adequate support
to the pavement structure. This evaluation is necessary to ensure that the subgrade can
withstand the stresses imposed by the pavement and traffic loads, and to prevent potential
problems such as settlement, erosion, and damage caused by freeze-thaw cycles.

 Materials Selection: The selection of pavement materials is a critical component of the

design process, as it directly impacts the overall performance and longevity of the
pavement. The typical materials used in pavement construction include aggregates,
asphalt, and concrete, as well as various additives. The choice of materials is influenced
by a range of factors, including:
 Traffic volume and intensity.
 Climate conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and freeze-thaw cycles.
 Availability and accessibility of materials.
 Cost considerations.
 Pavement Thickness Design: The determination of pavement thickness is a critical step

in the design process, as it directly affects the overall performance and longevity of the
pavement. The required thickness is calculated based on the anticipated traffic loads and
the supporting strength of the underlying layers, including the subgrade and subbase.
 Structural Design: The pavement structure is a critical component of the design process,
comprising multiple layers that work in concert to provide a durable and functional
surface. The typical layers include the subgrade, subbase, base, and surface courses,
each with a specific function and requirement. The structural design process involves a
careful analysis and determination of the optimal thickness and composition of each
layer to ensure sufficient strength, load-bearing capacity, and overall performance.
 Environmental Considerations: In addition to structural and functional requirements,

pavement design must also consider environmental factors that can impact its
performance and longevity. These environmental factors include temperature variations,
freeze-thaw cycles, chemical exposure, and other external conditions that can affect the
pavement's durability and integrity.
 Construction and Maintenance: The pavement design should not only consider the
technical requirements but also the practical aspects of construction and maintenance.
The design should be feasible and adaptable to the construction techniques and
equipment available, ensuring that the pavement can be built in accordance with the
design specifications.

1.7.2 Requirements of a pavement

Pavement Requirements: An optimal pavement design should meet the following key
requirements to ensure safe, efficient, and sustainable performance:
1. Load-Carrying Capacity: The pavement should have sufficient thickness to distribute

the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the subgrade soil, preventing excessive
deformation and potential damage.
2. Structural Integrity: The pavement structure should be designed to withstand various

types of stresses, including traffic loads, thermal expansions, and environmental factors, to
maintain its integrity over its design life.
3. Frictional Resistance: The pavement surface should provide an adequate coefficient of

friction to prevent skidding of vehicles, ensuring traction and control during braking and
cornering.
4. Surface Smoothness: The pavement surface should be designed to provide a smooth

ride for road users, even at high speeds, minimizing vibrations and discomfort.
5. Noise Reduction: The pavement design should incorporate features that minimize noise
generation from moving vehicles, contributing to a more peaceful environment and
reduced noise pollution.
6. Dust Suppression: The pavement surface should be designed to prevent dust generation
and reduce visibility impairment, ensuring traffic safety is not compromised by reduced
visibility.
7. Subgrade Protection: The pavement surface should be impermeable to prevent water

infiltration and erosion of the subgrade soil, protecting the underlying layers from
degradation and maintaining the overall structural integrity of the pavement.
8. Long-Term Durability and Low Maintenance: The pavement design should be

designed with a long lifespan in mind, requiring minimal maintenance costs and
interventions over its service life.

1.7.3 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS:
Pavements can be categorized into two primary structural types: flexible and rigid
pavements. Flexible pavements transfer wheel loads through grain-to-grain contact
between aggregate particles within the granular structure, behaving like a flexible sheet
(e.g., bituminous roads). With lower flexural strength, these pavements are designed to
deform under load, dissipating energy and reducing stress concentrations. In contrast,
rigid pavements transfer loads to the subgrade soil via their flexural strength, behaving
like a rigid plate (e.g., cement concrete roads). This rigid behavior allows for a more
uniform stress distribution, but can result in higher stress concentrations at joints and
cracks. Composite pavements also exist, combining elements of both flexible and rigid
pavements. A thin layer of flexible pavement overlaid on a rigid pavement offers an ideal
combination of desirable characteristics, including high strength, durability, and low
maintenance requirements. Although this configuration is ideal, it is rarely used in new
construction due to the high cost and complexity of analysis required for design and
construction.
1.7.4 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS:

Flexible pavements transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers through grain-to-grain
contact at the points of contact in the granular structure. This stress distribution characteristic,
where the stress decreases with depth, is leveraged in flexible pavement design. As a result,
flexible pavements typically consist of multiple layers.
The design of flexible pavements is based on the layered system concept, where the top layer
must be of high quality to withstand maximum compressive stress and wear and tear. The
lower layers, which experience lower stress magnitudes, can use lower-quality materials.
Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials, which can take the form of
surface treatments or asphalt concrete surface courses. Bituminous surface treatments are
commonly used on low-volume roads, while asphalt concrete surface courses are typically
used on high-volume roads like national highways. In flexible pavements, the deformation of
lower layers is reflected onto the surface layer. For example, if there is undulation in the
subgrade, it will be transferred to the surface layer.
In designing flexible pavements, the focus is on overall performance, and stresses should be
kept below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer to ensure durability and reliability.

1.7.5 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT THICKNESS:

The thickness of the pavement is the determination of overall thickness of the road and the
thickness of the individual layers. This is of course dependent on the type of material
choosing for the road. Design of pavement thickness is done below.
Data:
CBR (California bearing test) of subgrade = 8% Traffic, A= 4000 CVPD (commercial

vehicles per day) Design life (n) = 15 years
No. of year construction after traffic survey(x) = 2
Traffic growth rate = 7.5% = 0.075
VDF (vehicle damage factor), F = 2.5, D = 75% = 0.75
Calculation:
(�� × �+� � −� )
�= �
×A×D×F
A= P (1+r)x
A= 4000CVPD
(�� × �+�.�� −� )
�= �.��
×4000×0.75×2.5
�� ×�.��
�= �.��
×7500
N = 100 msa.
1.7.6 PAVEMENT THICKNESS DETAILS:
Total thickness of pavement = 640 mm

Wearing coarse (BC) = 50 mm
Dense bituminous macadam (DBM) = 140 mm
Granular base (GB) = 250 mm
Granular sub base (GSB) = 200 mm

Fig. 1.6 Cross section of Pavement
Table No: 1.7 Earthwork estimation
PAVEMENT DESIGN CATALOGUE
PLATE 2 – RECOMMENDED DESIGNS FOR TRAFFIC RANGE 10-150 msa
CBR 8%
Total PAVEMENT COMPOSITION
Pavement Bituminous Surfacing Granular base
Cumulative
Thickness and sub-base
Traffic (msa) BC (mm) DBM (mm)
(mm) (mm)
10 550 40 60
20 575 40 85
30 590 40 100 Base = 250
50 610 40 120
100 640 50 140 Sub-base = 200
150 660 50 160
Reference: Using CBR design chart, CBR-8% from IRC:37-2001 Page no 35.

Fig. 1.7 CBR chart for pavement design

1.8 CONCLUSION:
Based on a study conducted on the campus, the following findings were observed:
1. The formation levels for various alignments were determined by considering existing
topography and adhering to IRC guidelines for gradients, ensuring minimal earthwork.
2. The road alignment was selected based on its efficiency for design purposes, taking
into account the length of the road and its coverage area, to serve a larger number of
people.
3. Geometric design elements such as super elevation, horizontal curve radius, transition
curve, sight distance, and extra widening were considered for the proposed road.
4. Earthwork quantity was calculated to ensure economy and adherence to proper

geometric standards.
5. A flexible pavement design was carried out using the CBR method, considering a
cumulative standard axle load, for a CBR value of 8% and MSA value of 50. The
resulting total pavement thickness was 575mm, consisting of a granular subbase layer
(200mm), granular base course layer (250mm), dense bituminous macadam layer
(85mm), and binder course layer (40mm).
6. A new highway alignment is being proposed near Timmasagar to connect Anchatgeri,

as there is currently no proper road serving the area. This new alignment is being
designed as a National Highway (NH). Various alternatives were explored for the
centerline alignment, and the best option was selected that provides a balanced section.

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Extensive Survey Project Report New Highway Project

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 1

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:

Fig. 1.1 Aerial view of Alignment of highway

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 2

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

1. National Highway (NH).

2. State Highway (SH).

3. Major District Roads (MDR).

4. Other District Road (ODR) and Village Roads (VR).

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 3

1.2.1 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS OF ROAD:

FIg.1.2.1 Cross section of highway

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 4

1.2.2 ENGINEERING SURVEYS:

 Map study (Provisional alignment identification)

 Final location and detailed surveys

1.2.3 MAP STUDY:

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 5

 Identify feasible routes by avoiding low-lying areas and natural obstacles

 Select suitable mountain passes for crossing hills and mountains

 Determine approximate bridge locations and optimize river crossing sites

1.2.4 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY:

 Recording data on cross-drainage structures, flood levels, and groundwater levels

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 6

1.2.5 PRELIMINARY SURVEY:

 Establishing a primary traverse to define the survey's boundaries.

 Identifying and mapping topographical features, such as valleys, ridges, and

 Conducting levelling work to determine elevations and gradients.

 Studying drainage patterns and collecting hydrological data.

 Conducting soil surveys to determine soil types and conditions.

 Carrying out material surveys to estimate quantities of materials needed for

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 7

1.2.6 FINAL LOCATION AND DETAILED SURVEY:

1.2.7 DETAILED SURVEY:

 Temporary reference points are established at regular intervals of approximately 250

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 8

1.3 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN:

i. Horizontal Highway Alignment

ii. Vertical Highway Alignment

Horizontal highway alignment:

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 9

1.3.1 REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:

 The alignment should prioritize the minimization of operational, initial, and

 The selected alignment should prioritize worker safety during construction,

1.3.1 FACTORS CONTROLLING HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT:

 Therefore slight deviation in alignment is acceptable if above these points are in

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 10

2. Horizontal Curve and gradient:

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 11

10. Proper Drainage:

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 12

1.3.4 SHAPES OF CROSS SLOPE:

Fig. 1.2.1 Types of camber

Table No: 1.1 Range of camber

SL. Range of camber in areas of rainfall range

NO Type of road surface

Cement concrete and

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 13

1.3.5 CARRIAGE WAY WIDTH:

Table No: 1.2 Carriageway Width

3 Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5 m

Intermediate carriage way

Department of Civil Engineering, KLEIT, HUBBALLI Page 14