ECE 4103: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING I

Prerequisites
Soil Mechanics and Engineering Geology

Purpose of the course

To provide students with basic understanding of the importance of earth pressure theory in
designing of earth retention structures. It explains the concept of bearing capacity and how to
estimate the safe bearing capacity for various foundation systems including settlement
consideration.
Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course
Upon successful completion of the unit, the student should be able to:
1. Carry out soil investigation for any civil engineering construction
2. Analyze earth retaining structures for any kind of soil medium
3. Estimate bearing capacity and the settlement of the structures.
4. Design proper foundations for any kind of shallow foundation system

Course content
Stresses in Soil under surface loading: Bossinesq’s and Westergaard’sanalysis for vertical
pressure and its distribution in a soil mass. Vertical stresses due to concentrated loads, Horizontal
and shear stresses due to concentrated loads. Isobar diagram, Vertical stress distribution on a
horizontal plane. Influence diagram. Vertical stresses at point under line load and strip load.
Vertical stresses at a point under circular and rectangular loaded area. Approximate methods of
obtaining vertical pressure due to surface loading. Newmark’s chart, Fensk’s Chart. Pressure bulb
and its significance in Foundation exploration. Contact pressure below foundations.
Site Exploration: Depth of exploration. Number of boreholes. Determining the number of boring.
Determining the depth of boring. Foundation engineering report.
Bearing Capacity of Soils: Introduction, Common types of foundations. Failure modes. Terzaghi
and Meyehoff’s theory. Factor of Safety. Rankine’s method for minimum depth of foundation.
Skempton’s method. Effect of eccentricity and water table on bearing capacity. Plate load and
penetration tests for determining bearing capacity.
Compressibility and Consolidation: Introduction to consolidation, comparison of compaction and
consolidation, Spring Analogy. Terzaghis one dimensional consolidation theory, Degree of
consolidation, consolidation test, Compressibility parameters, co-efficient of consolidation.
Preconsolidation pressure and its determination. Normally, Over and Under consolidated soils.
Methods of computation of Settlement and its rate. Coefficient of consolidation for layered soil.
Total and differential Settlement.
Earth Pressure: Introduction. Rankine’s and Coulomb’s theories. Active earth pressure for
vertical and inclined back retaining walls, horizontal and inclined cohesion less back fill. Pressure
distribution diagram for lateral earth pressures against retaining walls for different conditions in
cohesion less and cohesive soils. Earth pressure on cantilever sheet piles. Stability analysis of
retaining walls.
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Problematic Soils: Shoring, Scaffolding and underpinning. Excavation and bracing. Ground
water; dewatering techniques. Foundation characteristics of tropical and residual soils; properties,
depth, and strength.
Laboratory experiments
i) Plate load test
ii) SPT test
iii) Consolidation test
Laboratory experiments
Precision measurements, simple pendulum, viscosity, heat capacity
Mode of Delivery
Lectures, Case Studies, Seminars, Presentations and Discussions.

Instruction materials and equipment

Whiteboard, Projector, Handouts, Computer, and Internet

Course assessment
2 No. Continuous Assessment Tests 15%
1 No. Assignment 5%
Practical reports 10%
1 No. End of Semester Examination 70%
Total 100%

REFERENCES:
1. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by Dr. K.R. Arora
2. Principles of Foundation Engineering, SI. Seventh Edition by BRAJA M. DAS
3. Geotechnical Engineering Revised 3rd Edition, by C. Venkatramaiah
4. Foundation Engineering Handbook; Design and Construction with the 2009 International
Building Code. 2nd Edition by RobertW. Day Principal Engineer American Geotechnical
San Diego, California
5. Any other relevant text books on Foundation Engineering.

Journal
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. ISSN (print): 1090-0241 | ISSN
(online): 1943-5606

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Foundation engineering is the engineering science that deals with design and construction of
foundations for structures, such as buildings, bridges and dams. It requires knowledge of factors
such as:
1) The load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to the foundation system;
2) The requirements of the local building code;
3) The stress and strain related behaviour of soils that will support the foundation system;
4) The geological conditions of the soil under consideration.
To a foundation engineer, the last two factors are extremely important because they concern soil
mechanics. With the above listed factors the most economical foundation design has to be selected.

Types of foundations
The foundation is the part of the structure that transmits the weight of the structure onto the natural
ground. If a stratum of soil suitable for sustaining a structure is located at relatively shallow depth,
the structure may be supported directly on it by a spread foundation or shallow foundation.
However, if the upper strata are too weak, the loads are transmitted to more suitable material at
greater depth by means of a deep foundation.
The depth of foundation D is the vertical distance between the base of the foundation and the
ground surface, unless the base is located beneath a basement or, if the structure is a bridge, beneath
the surface of the water. In these instances the depth of foundation is referred to the level of the
basement floor or to that of the river bed.
The principal difference between deep and spread foundations lies in the value of the ratio D/B,
where B is the width of the base. For spread foundations D/B commonly ranges between 0.25 and
1, whereas for deep foundations it is usually greater than 5 and may be as great as 20. One should
try to avoid the term shallow foundation since it may lead to confusion. Shallow foundations of
large width B may be constructed at considerable depth D, and as long as D/B is small enough the
definition applies. However, in absolute terms the foundation may be situated at large depth. For
that reason, the term spread foundation is preferred.

Types of shallow foundations

1. Strip Footing
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided for a row of
columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other.
In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread
footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

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2. Spread or Isolated Footing
A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual column. A spread
footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or
haunched to spread the load over a large area.

3. Combined Footing
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to each
other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the
property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is
evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

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4. Strap or Cantilever footing
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap
or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is
designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action
passes through the resultant of the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a combined
footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns
is large.

5. Mat or Raft Foundations

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the entire
structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low
or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch
each other. Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-
homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.

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ASSIGNMENT ONE: Write short notes on the different types of deep foundations giving
reasons/conditions that require such foundations and where they are mainly used/applicable.

SITE INVESTIGATIONS
Site investigations or subsurface explorations are done for obtaining the information about
subsurface conditions at the site of proposed construction. Site investigations in one form or the
other is generally required for every big engineering project. Information about the surface and
sub-surface features is essential for the, design of structures and for planning construction
techniques.
Site investigations consist of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the site, taking
the soil samples and determining the engineering properties of the soils. It also includes in-situ
testing of the soils. Site investigations are generally done to obtain the information that is useful
for one or more of the following purposes.
1) To select the type and depth of foundation for a given, structure.
2) To determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
3) To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements.
4) To establish the ground water level and to determine the properties of water.
5) To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments.
6) To select, suitable construction techniques.
7) To predict and to solve potential foundation problems.
8) To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material.
9) To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest the remedial measures.
The relevant information is obtained by drilling holes, taking the soil samples and determining the
index and engineering properties of the soil. In-situ tests are also conducted to determine the
properties of the soils in natural conditions.

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General requirements
A site investigation in one form or another is always required for any engineering or building
structure. The extent of work depends on the importance and foundation arrangement of the
structure, the complexity of the soil conditions, and the information which may be available on the
behaviour of existing foundations on similar soils.
The draft Eurocode 7, Geotechnical Design places structures and earth works into three
geotechnical categories.
Category 1
 Light structures with column loads up to 250 kN, or walls loaded to 100 kN/m, low
retaining walls, single or two-storey houses.
 Ground conditions and design requirements have to be known from previous experience
and ground is not sloping to any significant degree.
 The qualitative investigations can be limited to verifying the design assumptions at the
latest during supervision of construction of the works.
 Verification is deemed to consist of visual inspection of the site, sometimes with inspection
of shallow trial pits, or sampling from auger borings.

Category 2
 Conventional substructures such as shallow spread footings, rafts and piles. Also retaining
walls, bridge piers and abutments, excavations and excavation supports, and embankments.
 No abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions.
 Quantitative geotechnical information is required, but routine procedures for field and
laboratory testing and for analysis and design are deemed to be satisfactory.
Category 3
 Very large or unusual structures or those involving abnormal risks, or unusual or
exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions.
 Structures in highly seismic areas.
 Same investigations as those for category 2, together with any necessary additional
specialized studies.
 Thorough investigations are necessary for buildings and engineering structures founded in
deep excavations.
Information required from a site investigation
For geotechnical categories 2 and 3 the following information should be obtained in the course of
a site investigation for foundation engineering purposes:
1) The general topography of the site as it affects foundation design and construction, e.g.
surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence of watercourses, ponds, hedges,
trees, rock outcrops, etc., and the available access for construction vehicles and plant.
2) The location of buried services such as electric power, television and telephone cables,
water mains and sewers.

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 3) The general geology of the area, especially the main geological formations underlying the
site and the possibility of subsidence from mineral extraction or other causes.
4) The previous history and use of the site including information on any defects or failures of
existing or former buildings that may attribute to foundation conditions, and the possibility
of contamination of the site by toxic waste material.
5) Any special features as the possibility of earthquakes or climatic factors such as flooding,
seasonal swelling and shrinkage, or soil erosion.
6) The availability and quality of local construction materials such as concrete aggregates,
building and road stone, and water for constructional purposes.
7) For maritime or river structures information on normal spring and neap tide ranges,
extreme high and low tidal ranges and river levels, seasonal river levels and discharges,
velocity of tidal and river currents, wave action, and other hydrographical and
meteorological data.
8) A detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions within the zones
affected by foundation bearing pressures and construction operations.
9) Results of field and laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular
foundation design or constructional problems.
10) Results of chemical analysis on soil, fill materials and ground water to determine possible
deleterious effects on foundation structures.
11) Results of chemical and bacteriological analysis on contaminated soils, fill materials, and
gas emissions to determine health hazard risks.
Items 1) - 7) above can be obtained from a general walk over survey, and from a study of geological
memoirs and maps and other published records.
Items 8), 9) and 10) of the list are obtained from boreholes or other methods of subsurface
exploration, together with field and laboratory testing of soils or rocks. The type and consistency
of soils should be described in the standard manner laid down in standard codes of practice (for
example BS 5930: Site investigations).

Site inspection
Points of attention when carrying out the site inspection may be:
 Evaluation of general soil conditions: Looking for sinkholes, i.e. general depressions
occurring for example in chalk or lime stone formations; Looking for soil creep on a
hillside slope, indicated by wrinkling of surface or leaning trees;
 Evaluation of ground water conditions: Looking for presence of springs, wells or high
water tables in low grounds; marshy grounds with reeds are often an indication of high
water tables with poor drainage and the possibility of peat;
 Aerial photography: On extensive sites aerial photography is a valuable aid in site
investigations; skilled interpretations of aerial photographs can reveal much of the
geomorphology and topography of a site;

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Studying published records
Points of attention when studying published records may be:
 Studying old maps and up-to-date publications: These may show previous use of the
terrain, especially for backfilled areas they may be important;
 Museums and libraries in the locality often provide much information in the form of maps,
memoirs and pictures or photographs of the site in past times;
 Local authorities should be consulted for details on buried services and other available
information.
Classification of rocks
Rocks should be similarly classified. BS 5930 requires rocks to be described in the following
sequence:
 Colour;
 Grain size (the grain size of the mineral or rock fragments comprising the rock);
 Texture (e.g. crystalline, amorphous, etc);
 Structure (a description of discontinuities, e.g. laminated, foliated, etc.);
 State of weathering;
 ROCK NAME;
 Strength (based on the uniaxial compression test);
 Other characteristics and properties.
The four properties of particular relevance to foundation engineering are:
a) The structure
b) State of weathering;
c) Discontinuity spacing;
d) Uniaxial compression strength.
The discontinuity spacing is defined in two ways:
 The rock quality designation (RQD), which is the percentage of rock covered as sound
lengths which are 100 mm or more in length;
 The Fracture Index, which is the number of natural fractures present over an arbitrary
length (usually 1 m).
In stating the description of rock strength in borehole records the classification adopted in BS 5930
should be followed as shown in the table below:

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 The state of weathering, discontinuity spacing, and uniaxial compression strength can be
correlated with the deformation characteristics of the rock mass and also with the skin friction and
end-bearing capacity of piles.

Exploration in soils
Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of subsurface soils are as
follows:
a) Trial pits
b) Hand auger borings
c) Mechanical auger borings
d) Light cable percussion borings
e) Rotary open hole drilling
f) Wash borings
g) Wash probings
Detailed descriptions can be found in BS 5930 site investigations.

Exploration in rock
Investigations into rock formations for foundation engineering purposes are concerned with:
 Allowable bearing pressures for spread foundations or working loads on piles;
 Conditions to be met if excavations have to be taken into rock strata for deep foundations.
The engineer must have information on:
i). The depth of any weathering of rock;
ii). The pressure of any shattered zones or faults susceptible to movement
iii). The possibility of the occurrence of depth drift-filled clefts swallow holes, or concealed
cavities;
iv). The quantity of water likely to be pumped from excavations.
Much of this information can be obtained in a general way by advice from a geologist, from
personal knowledge of local conditions and the study of the published maps and memoirs.
Nevertheless subsurface exploration is required to get a detailed picture of the spacing thickness,
and orientation of joints in the rock mass, together with a study of the composition and consistency
of any weathered rock or other material infilling the joints.
There are three methods in general use for subsurface exploration in rocks. These are:
a) Test pits;
b) Drilled shafts;
c) Rotary core drilling.

Geophysical methods of site investigation

It is possible to determine stratification of soils and rocks by geophysical methods, which measure
changes in certain physical characteristics of these materials, for example magnetism, density,
electrical resistively, elasticity, or a combination of these properties. However, such methods are

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of limited value in foundation engineering since they only record changes in stratification where
the layers have appreciably different geophysical properties; and the only useful information they
give is the level of the interfaces between the various strata. Vital information on ground-water
conditions is usually lacking. Geophysical methods in their present state of development do not
give direct quantitative data on shear strength, compressibility, or particle-size distribution, but
measurements of seismic velocity can be helpful in assessing the effect of weathering and
discontinuities on the compressibility of rock masses.
Generally, geophysical methods are best suited to deep investigations in rock strata, for example
for dams or tunnels where information on stratification of rocks at depth is required, and for
investigations in soils containing many cobbles or boulders where probings or cone tests are
impracticable. BS 5930 describes the suitability for engineering purposes of the following
techniques:
1) Electrical resistivity;
2) Gravimetric;
3) Magnetic;
4) Seismic refraction and deflection;
5) Side scan sonars;
6) Borehole logging;
7) Ground radar.

The foundation engineering report

The engineering report on a foundation investigation is a consideration of all available data from
boreholes, trial pits, site observations, geological and historical records, and laboratory tests.
Eurocode 7 requires the preparation of a geotechnical report and its submission to the owner/client
to be part of the foundation design process. Most reports follow a fairly stereotyped pattern under
the following headings.
1) Introduction
This should tell the reader for whom the investigation was undertaken, the reason for the
investigation, how (briefly) the work was carried out, and the time of year the job was done. It
should state the terms of reference (TOR), for example whether the investigation was merely to
obtain a limited amount of factual data for assessment by the design engineer, or whether a full
investigation was required with boring, laboratory tests, and an analysis of the results to consider
possible methods of foundation design and construction and to calculate the allowable bearing
pressures.
2) General description of the site
This part of the report should describe the general configuration and surface features of the site.
3) General geology of the area
Notes should be given on the geology of the site, comparing published information on maps,
memoirs, etc., with conditions found in the boreholes. Attention should be drawn to any known

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faults, quarries, springs, swallow holes, mines or shafts, or other features such as the regional
seismicity, which will have a bearing on the foundation works.
4) Description of soil conditions found in boreholes (and trial pits)
This is a general description of the soil conditions with reference to the configuration of the ground
and variations in level of the various strata and the ground water table. A detailed description is
not required. The written matter should not be a mere catalogue of the borehole records, for the
reader of the report can get a much cleaner picture of these by personal study of the records. If a
number of boreholes have been sunk on a site it is a good plan to draw one or more sections through
the site to show the variations and level of particular strata, which may be of significance in the
engineering problem. A single drawing is better than pages of written matter. However, there can
be risks in including a diagram of this type in a site investigation. It is no practicable to include
detailed information on the profile such as the presence locally of obstructions or boulders, the
variations in ground water levels in successive soil strata and the extent and variability of
weathering in rock formations. Costly mistakes can then be made if the lazy design engineer, or a
contractor’s estimator pressed for time, bases engineering judgment only on the diagram without
a proper study of the borehole records.
5) Laboratory tests results
A long description of the test results should not be given. The descriptive matter should be limited
to a brief mention of the various types of tests which were made and attention drawn to any results
which are unusual or of particular significance. For details of the results the reader should be
referred to a table of results with charts and diagrams of such tests as particle size analysis, triaxial
compression (Mohr’s circles of stress), and consolidation tests (pressure-void ratio curves). The
test procedure should be described only in the case of non-standard tests specially devised for the
investigation as required by Eurocode 7.
6) Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and construction
This is the heart of the report and the writer should endeavour to discuss the problem clearly and
concisely without ‘ifs’ and ‘buts’. For readability, this section of the report should be broken down
into a number of subheadings. First under ‘general’ a description is given of the main structures
and the related loadings which are to be considered, together with a general assessment of the
ground conditions and the types of foundations which could be adopted, e.g. strip foundations,
rafts, or piles. The remainder of the subheadings can refer either to particular structures or they
can refer to possible types of foundation design for any individual structure or structures.
The writer should come straight to the point. The reader’s time should not be wasted in learning
about obviously unsuitable foundation arrangements. In the case of strip foundation, the required
foundation depth should be stated, then the allowable bearing pressures, and then the settlements
to be expected with these pressures. The advantage by going deeper, so enabling higher bearing
pressures to be used or settlement to be reduced should be considered.
In the case of piled foundations the write should give the bearing stratum to piles should be driven,
the required or likely penetration of piles into this stratum, the working loads to be adopted per
pile or per group of piles, and the settlements likely to occur in the individual pile or pile groups.

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Possible difficulties in driving or boring should be noted and any possible detrimental effects on
adjacent structures should be pointed out.
In writing this section of the report care should be taken to avoid wishful thinking. For example,
test results which appear to be low should not be lightly discarded because they do not fit in with
preconceived ideas on bearing pressure. The reason why the results are low should be studied.
Only if it can be established that they are due, say, to sample disturbance or are too few in number
to have any practical significance to the problem as a whole can low results be neglected. Similarly,
with borehole data which appear to be too low and upsetting a tidy arrangement of the foundations,
the reasons for the discrepancy should be investigated. In cases of doubt, a confirmatory boring or
borings or check tests should be made. If it is demonstrated that the peculiar soil condition do in
fact exist, the foundation design should take them into account.
It is desirable that the engineer in charge of the site investigation and the writer of the report should
work in close liaison with the designer of the project at all stages of the work. The effects of total
and differential foundation settlements on the structure can be assessed and the appropriate
measures recommended in the report.
EC7 requires the report to include recommendations for monitoring behaviour during and after
construction, and for post-construction maintenance.
7) Conclusion
If the preceding ‘discussion’ section of the report is lengthy or involved, it may be convenient to
summarize the main findings in itemized form. This is of help to the busy engineer who may not
have time to read through pages of discussion. Alternatively, the report may commence with a
brief summary of the investigation procedure and the main conclusions which have been drawn
from it.
The last stages are the final typing and checking of the report, printing the drawings, and
assembling and binding the whole. A neatly printed and bound report free of typing and draughting
errors reflects the care with which the whole investigation has been done, but bulky report covers
and over-elaborate presentation are not required.

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 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Soil mechanics reviewed the fundamental properties of soils and their behavior under stress and
strain in idealized conditions. In practice, natural soil deposits are not homogeneous, elastic, or
isotropic. In some places, the stratification of soil deposits even may change greatly within a
horizontal distance of 15 to 30 m. For foundation design and construction work, one must know
the actual soil stratification at a given site, the laboratory test results of the soil samples obtained
from various depths, and the observations made during the construction of other structures built
under similar conditions. For most major structures, adequate subsoil exploration at the
construction site must be conducted.
Definition
The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that will underlie a proposed structure
and their physical properties is generally referred to as subsurface exploration.
Subsurface Exploration Program
A soil exploration program for a given structure can be divided broadly into three phases:
1) Collection of Preliminary Information
This step includes obtaining information regarding the type of structure to be built and its general
use. The following are examples explain the needed information about different types of structures:
 For the construction of building:
 The approximate column loads and their spacing.
 Local building-codes.
 Basement requirement.
 For the construction of bridge:
 The length of their spans.
 The loading on piers and abutments.
2) Reconnaissance
The engineer should always make a visual inspection (field trip) of the site to obtain information
about:
 The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches, and other
materials present at the site.
 Evidence of creep of slopes and deep, wide shrinkage cracks at regularly spaced intervals
may be indicative of expansive soil.
 Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for the construction of nearby
highways and railroads.
 The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil.
 Groundwater levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.
 The type of construction nearby and the existence of any cracks in walls (indication for
settlement) or other problems.
 The nature of the stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby also can be
obtained from any available soil-exploration reports on existing structures.
3) Site Investigation

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This phase consists of:
 Planning (adopting steps for site investigation, and future vision for the site)
 Making test boreholes.
 Collecting soil samples at desired intervals for visual observation and laboratory tests.
Determining the number of boring
There is no hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number of borings are to be advanced.
For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and one at the center should provide a
start. Spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the condition of the subsoil. If various
soil strata are more or less uniform and predictable, fewer boreholes are needed than in
nonhomogeneous soil strata.
The following table gives some guidelines for borehole spacing between for different types of
structures:
Approximate Spacing of Boreholes
Type of project Spacing (m)
Multistory building 10–30
One-story industrial plants 20–60
Highways 250–500
Residential subdivision 250–500
Dams and dikes 40–80

Determining the depth of boring

The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be predetermined. The
estimated depths can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on the subsoil
encountered (e.g., Rock).
To determine the approximate required minimum depth of boring, engineers may use the rules
established by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE 1972):
1. Determine the net increase in effective stress (Δσ′) under a foundation with depth as
shown in the Figure below.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress (σo ′) with depth.
3. Determine the depth (D = D1) at which the effective stress increase (Δ𝛔′) is equal to
(1/10) q (q = estimated net stress on the foundation).
4. Determine the depth (D = D2) at which (Δ𝛔′/𝛔𝐨′) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓.
5. Determine the depth (D = D3) which is the distance from the lower face of the
foundation to bedrock (if encountered).
6. Choose the smaller of the three depths, (D1, D2, and D3), just determined is the
approximate required minimum depth of boring.

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After determining the value of (D) as explained above the final depth of boring (from the ground
surface to the calculated depth) is: Dboring = Df + D
Because the drilling will starts from the ground surface.

Determining the value of vertical effective stress (𝛔𝐨′):

The value of (σo′) always calculated from the ground surface to the required depth.

Determining the increase in vertical effective stress (Δ𝛔′):

The value of (Δσ′) always calculated from the lower face of the foundation. An alternative
approximate method can be used. This method is easier and faster than the other methods used in
soil mechanics. This method called (2:1 Method). The value of (Δσ′) can be determined using (2:1
method) as following:

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According to this method, the value of (Δσ′) at depth (D) is:

P = the load applied on the foundation (KN).

A = the area of the stress distribution at 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡 (𝐃).
NB: The above equation is based on the assumption that the stress from the foundation spreads
out with a vertical-to-horizontal slope of 2:1. Now, the values of (D1 and D2) can be calculated
easily as will be seen later.
NB: If the foundation is circular the value of (Δσ′) at depth (D) can be determined as following:

P = the load applied on the foundation (KN).

B = diameter of the foundation (m).

In practice: The number of boreholes and the depth of each borehole will be identified according
to the type of project and the subsoil on site.
The following is example for a 5 story residential building with dimensions of (40 x 70) m:
 The required number of boreholes = 5 boreholes (one at each corner and one at the center)
as mentioned previously.
 The depth of each borehole for this project is (8-10) m up to a depth of water table.
The following figure shows the distribution of boreholes on the land:

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