CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

- Coined by Francis Crick in 1958

- The process where genetic information from DNA is expressed to RNA then into proteins
- (DNA > RNA > Proteins)
- Genetic material (DNA/RNA) is eventually expressed as life

-
- What is DNA?
- A nucleic acid that generally is double-stranded and helical (double helix)
- Biomolecule containing the genetic information for cell growth, division, and
function
- Found in nucleus (and also in mitochondria [mt DNA])
- Divided into functional units called genes
- Genes provide instructions
- Blueprints for heredity
- Phosphate group – sugar – nitrogenous bases (ATCG)
- Nitrogenous bases
- Follow Chargaff’s Rule (Base pairing rule)
- Adenine = Thymine
- Cytosine = Guanine
- OTPs lmao
- We have differences due to the difference in order of those bases
-
Two hydrogen bonds Three hydrogen bonds

pyrimidines thymine cytosine Single rings

purines adenine guanine Double rings

- DNA replication
- The process by which an organism’s DNA make a copy of itself
- Happens in the synthesis phase of the cell cycle
- DNA is semi-conservative*
- *Composes of old and new strands
- RNA (ribonucleic acid)
- Carries the genetic info from DNA protein to be made
- Adenine = Uracil, no longer thymine <///3
 - Important role in gene expression, acts as an intermediate between genetic
information and proteins
- Single-stranded
- Unlike DNA which is double-stranded
- DNA vs. RNA
-
DNA RNA

sugar deoxyribose ribose

bases Thymine (AT CG) Uracil (AU TA CG)

strands double-stranded single-stranded

Structure (helix) Double helix Single-stranded

- Three kinds of RNA
- 1. mRNA (messenger)
- Carries the genetic information from the DNA through specific base
pairings
- Contains uracil instead of thymine, carries complementary genetic code
- 5% of RNA in the cell
- Happens during transcription
- Contains codons (sequence of 3 nucleotides that codes for a specific
amino acid)
- THE LINE
- 2. rRNA (ribosomal)
- Associates with a set part of proteins to form ribosomes
- Physically move along an mRNA molecule, catalyzes the assembly of
amino acids into protein chains
- Binds tRNAs and various accessory molecules necessary for protein
synthesis
- 80% of RNA in cell
- The one you don’t see weird
- 3. tRNA (transfer)
- The key to deciphering the code words in mRNA
- Each type of amino acid has its own type of mRNA which binds it and
carries it to the growing end of the polypeptide chain if the next code word
on mRNA called for it
- The correct tRNA w its attached amino acid is selected at each step
because each specific tRNA molecule contains a three-base sequence
that can base-pair with its complementary codeword in the mRNA (tRNA
matches the protein w codon)
- THE KEY-LEVER-PENIS THING THAT CLIPS ONTO THE MRNA IN
TRANSLATION TO MAKE THE PROTEINS
- PROCESS
- Replication
- Semi-conservative: consists/combines old and new strands
- Both strands are templates for new DNA synthesis
- Continues genetic information
- *each strand has a 5-3/3-5 prime end

- PROCESS
- Enzyme helicase unzips DNA
- Forms replication fork

- Enzyme primase starts process by making small pieces of RNA,

primer
- DNA polymerase binds to primer
- Creates new strands of DNA
- Adds DNA from 5’ to 3’ direction (bottom)
- In lagging strand: creates DNA in chunks “Okazaki
fragments”
- Cannot be continuous manner because it runs in
opposite directions
- Fills in gaps between RNAs
- Exonuclease removes the RNA primers
- DNA polymerase fills the gap
- DNA ligase seals fragments of DNA to create a continuous strand
- Transcription
- DNA to RNA
- DNA sequence of a gene is copied to create an RNA molecule
- *gene is a continuous string of nucleotides
- Contains a promoter and terminator region
- Promoter: functions as a recognition site for RNA
polymerase to bind (like a start codon)
- Terminator

- PROCESS
 - RNA polymerase binds to promoter region
- DNA double helix unwinds and opens inside
- During elongation, slides along DNA strand
- Complementary bases pairs up
- RNA polymerase leaves in 3’ ends of the growing RNA molecule
- When polymerase reaches the terminator region, the mRNA
transcript is complete
- Transcript disassociates from DNA
- mRNA strand contains exons and introns
- Exons = coding section
- Introns = non-coding section
- Intron splicing occurs to remove non-coding introns
- Performed by spliceosome
- Mature mRNA strand is formed, leaving nucleus and entering
cytoplasm for translation
- Translation
- Initiated by the formation of 30S ribosomal subunit, formyl methionyl
tRNA, and mRNA
- PROCESS
- 30s ribosomal subunit, formyl-methionyl tRNA (starting codon),
and mRNA bind together
- 50s ribosomal subunit joins the complex protein
- *composes of 3 sites: P site (center, peptidyl), A site (right,
acceptor), E site (left, exit)

- Initiating tRNA binds into the P-site

- A site recognizes the next codon and carries the next amino acid
- Amino acid moves to the A site
- The methionine in the initial tRNA joins the amino acid in the tRNA
that just joined the A site
- They become a chain
- The initial tRNA is released to the exit site/E site and leaves
- Second tRNA moves to p site and third RNA enters the A site
- Amino acids join
- Second tRNA leaves, cycle continues
- Elongation of polypeptide stops when a stop codon moves to the
A site
- Everything disassociates from each other, protein chain is formed

- Mutation
 - Change in the nucleotide sequence as a result of a failure of the system to revert
the change
- Copying mistakes during cell division
- Occurs during DNA replication
- Can be categorized as germline or somatic
- Germline: occurs in the gametes (sex cells) can be passed onto offspring
- Somatic: occurs in body cells, can’t be passed on
- 2 major parts of mutation
- Point mutation
- Single based mutation
- Change in 1 nucleotide in the sequence
- I.e. sickle cell anemia
- TYPES
- a. Missense mutation
- Change in one DNA base pair that leads to an incorrect
amino acid to be placed
- I.e. from AUG to AUC so it changes protein
- b. Silent mutation
- Change in DNA bases that have no effect on the amino
acids
- They code for the same protein
- c. Nonsense mutation
- The altered DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to
stop building the protein
- Frameshift mutation
- Genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion which alters how the
DNA is read
- Adds or deletes a nucleotide
- TYPES
- a. Insertion
- Changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by ADDING
a piece of DNA
- An extra nucleotide is added into the sequence
- I.e. beta-thalassemia (haha what about alpha and omega)
- b. Deletion
- Removes a piece of DNA
- I.e. cystic fibrosis
GENETICS
- The study of heredity and variation of inherited characters
- Mechanisms and processes involved in heredity
- Affects the traits expressed on a person
- Heredity – passing of traits to offspring
- Traits – distinguishing quality of a person, subset of character
- Character – feature that is described
- *main factor of genetic variation: mutation
- Gregor Medel: Father of modern genetics
- Pioneer of modern genetics
- An Austrian monk
- Used Garden Peas and bred them … hahaha bred
- Discovered the basic principles of genetics
- Why garden peas?
- Easy to grow, hybridize
- Short lifespan, grows quickly
- Produces lots of offspring
- Lots of contrasting traits
- Mendel’s findings were now known as Mendelism or mendelian laws of
inheritance
- Gene
- A specific sequence of DNA containing the information codes of a protein
- I.e. a chromosome contains hundreds of thousands of genes
- A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait
- Stores information, alternate form: alleles
- But not all genes are the same/code for the same trait
- Allele (allelomorphs)
- Any one of two or more genes that may occur alternately at a given site (locus)
on a chromosome
- Exists as DOMINANT and RECESSIVE
- Bb bb BB
- Dominant and Recessive Allele
Dominant Recessive

- Expressed - Not expressed unless both alleles

- Symbolized by capital letters are recessive
- overshadows - Symbolized by small letters
- overshadowed
- Homozygous
- When two similar alleles are present in a pair
- BB bb
- Heterozygous
- Two different alleles are paired
- Bb
- Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype Phenotype

- Genetic makeup of an organism - The physical appearance/features

- Represented by symbols of an organism, observable
- The physical manifestation
- Generations
- P1 - original parents
- F1 - first generation
- F2 - second generation
- Punnett Square
- Gives probability of the genotype/phenotype of a person
- Graphical representation of the possible genotypes of an offspring arising from a
particular cross or breeding event
- Created by Reginald C. Punnett
- Two types of test crosses:
- 1. Monohybrid cross
- Involving a single trait or character factor \
- Bb BB
- 2. Dihybrid cross
- Involving two traits
- BBGg Bbgg
- Blending hypothesis
- First accepted ideas about genetics
- Characteristics are a mix from parents
- Uniform population will come from this (daw)
- Was contradicted, failed to explain some parts of inheritance i.e. skipping of a
generation
- MENDELIAN LAW OF INHERITANCE
- 1. Law of Dominance and Recessiveness
- One factor in a pair may mask the expression of the other
- Allele of trait expressed dominant, masked allele is recessive
- But recessive allele can still be transmitted to offspring
- 2. Law of segregation
- Two alleles for a heritable character segregate during gamete formation
and end up in different gametes
- A gene pair carries two separate characteristics
- Mendel postulated that the egg cell and sperm cell carry the heredity
factors that the offspring receives one factor from each parent
- When we separate letters in the Punnett square…?
- 3. Independent assortment
- During gamete formation the gene pair assort independently
- The inheritance of the trait is not affected by the inheritance of another
- The allele for one gene does not affect the allele for another
 - I.e. blue eyes vs. curly hair, don’t affect each other
- NON-MENDELIAN LAW OF INHERITANCE
- 1. Codominance
- Both alleles are dominant (two tops hahaha)
- Both alleles are expressed resulting in a third phenotype
- I.e. brown cow x white cow = brown and white cow, MN blood antigen
- 2. Incomplete dominance
- The pattern of inheritance where an intermediate phenotype other than
the two parental phenotypes is observed (no top…)
- Traits combine
- None of the traits is fully dominant
- I.e. red x white = pink
- 3. Lethal genes
- A condition when a certain combination of alleles will result to death of the
character
- My hoohaa must have this because R I P that pussy AYEE
- Causes death in a homozygous condition (carries two dominant copies)
- Prevents full-term development of the embryo
- Heterozygotes become genetic disorders
- I.e. Huntington’s disease
- 4. Multiple alleles
- Three or more alleles may exist in a gene of a given population
- I.e. A, B, O, AB blood type, different colored cats meow
- Not just two contrasting traits
- 5. Polygenic inheritance
- Involves multiple genes
- Traits caused by the presence of more than one gene
- Each allele in the polygenes have additive effect on the expression of the
trait
- Controlled by multiple genes
- Multiple strands of DNA
- 6. Sex-linked inheritance
- The inheritance of genes located in the sex chromosomes
- 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 autosomes, 1 sex chromosome)
- Female chromosome XX, male chromosome XY
- Influenced by genes in the X chromosome
- Because women have 2 X chromosomes, mutations can be masked.
That’s why more sex-linked mutations happen in men
- Deserved
- 7. Sex-influenced inheritance
- Autosomal traits whose expression of dominance is affected by the sex of
the individual
- A trait is either recessive or dominant depending on sex
- I.e. baldness is dominant in men but recessive in women
 - 8. Pleithropy
- A condition when one gene causes several effects (multiple traits) in
various organs in the body
- I.e. albinism, schizophrenia, autism
- Pedigree charts
- Made to chart family history and see how traits are passed
- Male square
- Female circle
- Male first in chart because sexism
- Recessive skips a generation
- Autosomal = equal between women and men
- Sex-linked = more of men affected