GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL

(Climatology)
By
Shabbir A. Bashir

+91 8095551245 www.edukemy.com enquiry@edukemy.com

 Contents
CHAPTER - 1 .......................................................................................................................... 8
atmosphere and its composition............................................................................................ 8
origin of atmosphere......................................................................................................................8
composition of atmosphere .................................................................................................................................8
layering/structure of atmosphere ........................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER – 2 ........................................................................................................................ 11
temperature and pressure belts of the world ....................................................................... 11
distribution of insolation ..............................................................................................................11
latitudinal & seasonal variation of insolation ....................................................................................................12
polar zone ..........................................................................................................................................................12
mid latitude zone ...............................................................................................................................................12
tropical zone.......................................................................................................................................................12
factor affecting the distribution of insolation ....................................................................................................12
isotherms ...........................................................................................................................................................13
temperature inversion .......................................................................................................................................15
significance of temperature inversion ...............................................................................................................18

CHAPTER - 3 ........................................................................................................................ 19
heat budget of the earth...................................................................................................... 19
analysis of heat budget ......................................................................................................................................23

CHAPTER – 4 ........................................................................................................................ 24
atmospheric circulation ....................................................................................................... 24
meaning & types ..........................................................................................................................24
atmospheric circulation .....................................................................................................................................24
general circulation .............................................................................................................................................24
mechanism of general circulation ......................................................................................................................24
pressure patterns on surface with landwater ....................................................................................................27
coriolis force .......................................................................................................................................................29
characteristic features .......................................................................................................................................29

CHAPTER – 5 ........................................................................................................................ 31
planetary and local winds .................................................................................................... 31
wind ............................................................................................................................................31
doldrum..............................................................................................................................................................33
westerlies ...........................................................................................................................................................34
westerlies belt ....................................................................................................................................................34

CHAPTER - 6 ........................................................................................................................ 37
conditions of upper troposphere ......................................................................................... 37
geostrophic winds: .......................................................................................................................37

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 rossby waves: .....................................................................................................................................................38
jet streams: ........................................................................................................................................................38
index cycles of jet stream:..................................................................................................................................39
rossby waves ......................................................................................................................................................42

CHAPTER – 6 ........................................................................................................................ 44
air mass and frontogenesis .................................................................................................. 44
air masses....................................................................................................................................44
introduction .......................................................................................................................................................44
definition of air masses ......................................................................................................................................44
characteristics of air mass ..................................................................................................................................44
source region .....................................................................................................................................................45
thermodynamic classification ............................................................................................................................47
composite classification .....................................................................................................................................47
case study...........................................................................................................................................................48
north america .....................................................................................................................................................49

*modifications of air masses and impact on weather and climate .................................................50

introduction .......................................................................................................................................................50
modifications of air masses and impacts on weather and climate ....................................................................50

*types of fronts & associated weather modifications: ...................................................................53

type of frontal interactions ................................................................................................................................53
case study britain ...............................................................................................................................................55
warm front .........................................................................................................................................................55
occluded fronts ..................................................................................................................................................56

CHAPTER - 7 ........................................................................................................................ 57
humidity ............................................................................................................................. 57
humidity and concept ..................................................................................................................57
types of humidity ...............................................................................................................................................57

CHAPTER – 8 ........................................................................................................................ 59
evaporation and condensation ............................................................................................ 59
clouds and classification ...............................................................................................................59
clouds .................................................................................................................................................................59
classification of clouds .......................................................................................................................................59

classification by wmo ...................................................................................................................60

basis ...................................................................................................................................................................60

forms of condensation .................................................................................................................62

basic definitions .................................................................................................................................................62
condensation process ........................................................................................................................................62
forms of condensation .......................................................................................................................................63

fogs .............................................................................................................................................64
meaning and characteristics ..............................................................................................................................64
case study:..........................................................................................................................................................64
classification of fogs .....................................................................................................................65

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 origin & characteristics features of fogs ........................................................................................66
world distribution of fogs...................................................................................................................................68

CHAPTER - 10 ...................................................................................................................... 71
precipitation: forms & theories ............................................................................................ 71
introduction .......................................................................................................................................................71
process of precipitation .....................................................................................................................................71
processes............................................................................................................................................................71
theories of precipitation ....................................................................................................................................72
types of precipitation (rainfall) ..........................................................................................................................75
global distribution of precipitation ....................................................................................................................78

CHAPTER - 11 ...................................................................................................................... 82
weather & climate ............................................................................................................... 82
“climate is what you expect, weather is what you get”.....................................................................................82
elements of weather: .........................................................................................................................................82
factors that control weather and climate: .........................................................................................................83
classification of climate ................................................................................................................84
approaches to climatic classification .................................................................................................................85
vegetation as basis of classification ..................................................................................................................85

CHAPTER - 12 ...................................................................................................................... 88
climatic classification of the world ....................................................................................... 88
thornthwaite ...............................................................................................................................88
*trewartha ..................................................................................................................................89
*climatic classification schemes....................................................................................................91
CHAPTER - 13 ...................................................................................................................... 97
hydrological cycle ................................................................................................................ 97
mechanism of global hydrological cycle ........................................................................................97
CHAPTER - 14 .................................................................................................................... 100
ocean atmosphere interaction ........................................................................................... 100
el nino, la nina, walker cell ......................................................................................................... 100
normal (enso-neutral) conditions ............................................................................................... 100
el-nino conditions ...................................................................................................................... 101
la nina conditions....................................................................................................................... 102
walker circulation ...................................................................................................................... 103
the southern oscillation index .................................................................................................... 105
el-nino: recent occurences ...............................................................................................................................105
2018-19 el-nino event ......................................................................................................................................105
2014-16 el-nino event ......................................................................................................................................105
1997-98 el-nino event ......................................................................................................................................106
el-nino and indian monsoon ............................................................................................................................106

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CHAPTER - 15 .................................................................................................................... 108
ozone depletion ................................................................................................................ 108
ozone layer ................................................................................................................................ 108
creation of ozone layer ....................................................................................................................................108
ozone layer depletion ......................................................................................................................................109
effects of ozone layer depletion ......................................................................................................................109
ozone depletion: an environmental concern ...................................................................................................109
factors of ozone depletion ...............................................................................................................................110
impact of ozone depletion ...............................................................................................................................110
protection and maintenance of ozone layer ....................................................................................................110

solutions to ozone layer depletion.............................................................................................. 110

the montreal protocol ......................................................................................................................................110
*polar vortex ....................................................................................................................................................111
how it is linked to global warming ...................................................................................................................112

CHAPTER - 16 .................................................................................................................... 113

topic: climate change and global warming ......................................................................... 113
effects and impacts of climate change ........................................................................................ 113
why is 1.5ᵒc important? ...................................................................................................................................113
the enanced green house effect ......................................................................................................................113
the rise of average sea level .............................................................................................................................114
evidences of sea level change ..........................................................................................................................115
marine heat waves (mhs) .................................................................................................................................115

historical aspects of climate change............................................................................................ 116

indicators of climate change ............................................................................................................................117
astronomical theories ................................................................................................................ 119
climate change due to anthropogenic factors ............................................................................. 120
future risks and impacts caused by a changing climate ...................................................................................120

geography optional syllabus for upsc ................................................................................. 121

paper 1: principles of geography ................................................................................................ 121
paper 2: geography of india ........................................................................................................ 122

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 UNIT TOPIC YEAR PYQ'S - PAPER- I PYQ'S - PAPER - II
Temperature
Q1 (b) Differentiate between insolation and
and Pressure
CLIMATOLOGY 2016 temperature and explain anomalous
Belts of the
temperature.
world
Atmospheric Q1 (b) Discuss the salient features of 'sirocco' and
2014
Circulation 'mistral'.
Q4 (c) Explain the meridional circulation of the
2015 atmosphere and its importance in world
climate.
Q2. (a) Discuss the forces which govern the air
2017
movement on the Earth's surface.
Q3. (a) Discuss in detail the tri-cellular model of
2019
atmospheric circulation.
Planetary and Q1. (b) Discuss the salient features of sirocco and
2014
local winds mistral.
Monsoons Q3. (a) Discuss the nature and origin of Indian
and Jet 2014 monsoon and recent techniques of its
streams prediction.
Q1 (b) Give a reasoned
account of the unusual
2017 pattern of distribution
of monsoonal rainfall
in India in 2017.
Q3. (a) Explain the origin, progress and retreat of
2018 the Indian monsoon and discuss its impact
on the Indian economy.
Q1(c) Why is Indian
2019 Monsoon erratic in
nature? Explain.
Q1(b) Climate change
has unsettled the
Q3. (a) Examine how various factors influence the
rhythm of seasons.
2020 origin and development of the Indian
Comment with
Monsoon System.
examples and
emperical evidences.
Air masses
Q1. (b) Discuss; as to how frontogenesis
and front of 2015
contributes to weather instability
genesis
Q1. (c) Discuss the impacts of ocean currents on
2017
air mass behaviour.
Q3. (c) Explain the characteristic features of
2020
Frontogenesis and Frontolysis.
Q1. (b) What are the important factors
2021
responsible for Airmass modifications?
Temperate Q2. (b) Compare the origin and weather
and Tropical 2017 conditions associated with the tropical and
Cyclones temperate cyclones.
Q1. (a) Write a geographical note on Halloween
2020
Storm.
Q6 (a) Examine the
impact of tropical
2021 cyclones and Western
disturbances on the
climate of India.

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 Q3(C) Discuss the
Types and rainfall pattern and
distribution of 2019 corelate it with spatial
precipitation distribution of natural
vegetation in India.
Q3. (a) Examine major influencing factors for
2021 varied patterns of precipitations on the
continents.
Koppen's,
Thornthwaite' Q4. (a) Describe the
s and salient climatological
2014
Trewartha's characteristics of
classification Rayalaseema region.
of climate
Q3. (a) Discuss the basis of Koppen’s climatic
2015 classification. Bring out the salient
characteristics of ‘Cs’ type of climate.
Q2. (b) Critically examine the basis and scheme of
2018 climatic classification proposed by
G.T.Trewartha.
Q1. (b) Explain the techniques to calculate
2021 potential evapotranspiration suggested
by Thornthwaite. 10m
Q2. (b) What is Potential Evapotranspiration?
Hydrological
2015 Explain how it is used in assessing the
Cycle
water balance in an area.
Q1. (b) Explain the role of evaporation in the
2018
hydrologic cycle.
Global
Climate
Change and Q3. (a) Discuss the significance of World Climate
role and Research Programme (WCRP) and its core
2016
response of projects in the understanding of climatic
man in change.
climatic
changes
Q3. (a) "Climate change is a reality." Explain with
2017
suitable examples.
Applied
Q2. (c) Explain the nature of urban climates and
Climatology
2019 their impact on global environmental
and Urban
change
Climate

6
 CHAPTER - 1
ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPOSITION
• The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth from all sides and is
attached to the earth’s surface by gravitational force.
• The height of the atmosphere is estimated between 16 to 29 thousand km from the sea
level.
• It is estimated that 97% of the effective atmosphere is up to the height of 29 km. The
early atmosphere was ANOXYGENIC (without oxygen).

Origin of Atmosphere
• Initially the earth was a hot surface and the original atmosphere escaped into space and
was lost. Today’s atmosphere is the secondary atmosphere/tertiary atmosphere.
• This atmosphere has come out from inside the earth by the process of degassing from
volcanoes.
o Rain fell for millions of years after cloud formation & much of CO2 went into
oceans & N2 dominated.
o O2 was added later after the evolution of green plants.
o Gradually atmosphere has became more habitable.
Composition of Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is composed of three major constituents.
(a) Gases: Two categories of gases-
o Constant/permanent gases-
 Nitrogen, oxygen & organ which constitutes 78%, 20.9% & 0.9% are major permanent
gases by volume of the gaseous composition of the atmosphere.
 Proportion of constant gases remains constant in the lower atmosphere (up to 80 km
from sea level).
o Variable/Minor gases-
 Include water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, hydrogen, helium etc.
(b) Aerosols:
• They are suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the atmosphere including solid particles
of varying sizes and liquid droplets.
• Help in the selective scattering of shortwave electromagnetic solar radiation & acts as
hydroscope nuclei.
• Their presence in the atmosphere causes variations in weather conditions.
(c) Water Vapour:
• Responsible for different types of condensation & precipitation.
• Considered as a primary greenhouse gas
>90% of total atmospheric vapour is found up to the height of 5 km.
Layering/Structure of Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of several gases, hence behaving as a unified
gas and for much height the atmosphere behaves like a single gas.
• But the atmosphere has layers & the layering of gases does not separate according to
molecular weight. The atmosphere has however density layers.

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• The layered structure of the atmosphere has been classified on two major
considerations:
(A) On the basis of temperature:
(i) Troposphere
o This is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere zone and is also called as
turbulent zone because of the dominance of turbulent activities.
o Layer is also known as a convective layer because of the turbulence of eddies.
o Decrease in temperature at 6.50C/km as the atmosphere is heated from below
mainly.
o Density of atmosphere decreases with height & density of GHG also declines.
o Troposphere is most important because of all the weather phenomena that
occur in this layer.
o Contains about 75% of the gaseous mass of the atmosphere, most of the water
vapour, aerosols & pollutants.
o The average height of the troposphere is about 16km over the equator and 6 km
over the poles. But there is seasonal variation in the height the of troposphere.
(height increases during summer & decreases during winter).
o Troposphere forms the limit of all upward convection currents because beyond
Tropopause temperature increases and buoyancy is not found. This is because
the size of air parcel rising increases. This causes its temperature to decrease and
hence limits its buoyancy.

Fig: Stratification of atmosphere according to R.G. Barry & R.J. Chorley

(ii) Stratosphere:
o On an average the upper limit of stratosphere is 50 km, 15-35km called as
ozonosphere.
o Temperature gradually rises upward as it becomes as high as 00C at the height of
50 km, the stratosphere’s upper limit known as stratopause.
o Increase of temperature because of absorption of ultraviolet solar radiation by
ozone and lesser density of air.
o Layer is characterized by the near absence of weather phenomena because of
stable conditions.
o Sometimes cirrus clouds known as the mother of pearl clouds or nacreous clouds
appear in the lower stratosphere.

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 o The lower part of the stratosphere is significant for life forms because of the
concentration of ozone gas (O3) between the height of 15-35 km.
o The maximum O3 concentration is at the height of 22km, though ozone has been
discovered up to 80 km.
(iii) Mesosphere:
o Extends between 50 km & 80 km. Temperature decreases with increasing height.
o Noctilucent clouds appeared during the summer season over polar areas.
o Lowest temperature is noticed at mesosphere above which temperature
increases with increasing height.
(iv) Thermosphere:
o Beyond mesosphere, wherein temperature increases rapidly with increasing
height but air pressure becomes extremely low due to very low atmospheric
density.
o Thermosphere is divided into two layers –
→ IONOSPHERE:
 Extends from 80 km to 640 km. There are several ionic layers in
this sphere where lower ionosphere has greater ion concentration
& upper ionosphere has a lower concentration of ions.
→ EXOSPHERE:
 Uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond 640 km.
height from the sea level.
 Temperature increases in this layer and the layer has very less
concentration of ions.
 Zone is characterized by Van Allen radiation belts.
B. On the basis of Chemical characteristics
Based on the chemical composition the atmosphere is divided into two broad zones:
(i) Homosphere:
o Lower portion of the atmosphere
& extends up to the height of 90
km from sea level.
o Oxygen (20.9%) & Nitrogen (78%)
are the main constituent gases.
o Zone is called homosphere
because of the homogeneity of
the proportion of variation gases.
o On the basis of thermal
conditions the homosphere has
been divided into three layers. Fig: Stratification of atmosphere
(a) Troposphere
according to A.N. Strahler
(b) Stratosphere
(c) Mesosphere.
(ii) Heterosphere:

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 o Extends from 90 km to 10000 km. Different layers of this sphere vary in their
chemical and physical properties.

CHAPTER – 2
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE BELTS OF THE WORLD
DISTRIBUTION OF INSOLATION
On an average, the amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface decreases from equator
towards the pole, but there is temporal variation of insolation received at different latitude at
different times of the year.

Latitude 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Insolation in received (%) 100 99 95 88 79 68 57 47 43 42

Latitudinal and seasonal variation in the amount of insolation received at the outer surface of

10
the earth’s atmosphere (shown in broken line) and at the earth’s surface (shown by solid line)
Latitudinal & Seasonal variation of Insolation
The insolation become so low at the poles, that
they received about 40 percent of the amount
received at the equator. The tropical zone
extending between tropic of cancer (23.50 N)
and Capricorn (23.5 S) receives maximum
insolation. Not only this, there is very little
variation of insolation during winter and
summer seasons because every place within
tropics experiences overhead sun twice every
year.
The globe is divided into 3 zones on the basic of
the amount of insolation received during the
course of a year.
POLAR ZONE
Every place receives maximum and minimum insolation once during the course of a year but
sometimes insolation become zero due to absence of direct solar rays.
MID LATITUDE ZONE
Insolation is never absent at any time of the year but seasonal variation increases with
increasing latitude.
TROPICAL ZONE
All places experience overhead sun twice during the course of a year due to north ward and
southward march of the sun. The region receives highest amount of insolation of all other
zones and there is little seasonal variation.
FACTOR AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSOLATION
• Angle of the Sun’s Rays
As per rule vertical rays bring more
insolation than oblique rays. As the angle of
sun’s rays decrease poleward, the amount of
insolation received also decreases in that
direction. Oblique rays have to pass through
have to pass through thicker portion of the
atmosphere than the vertical rays.
• Length of Day
Places having longer length of day and
vertical sun’s rays will receive maximum
insolation. Shorter the duration of sunshine
and longer period of night, the lesser
amount of in collation received at the earth’s
surface. The length of day varies at all places

11
 except at the equator due to inclination of earth’s axis.

• Distance between the Earth and the Sun

Earth revolves around sun in elliptical orbit. The average distance between the sun and
the earth is about 93 million miles. At time of perihelion on January 3 the earth is
nearest to the sun and at the time of aphelion on July 4 it is farthest from the sun.

Winter are 7 percent less severe in January in the northern hemisphere but summer is 7
percent more intense in the southern hemisphere at the time of perihelion while
summer is 7 percent less intense in July in northern hemisphere but winter is 7 percent
more intense in southern hemisphere at the time of aphelion.
• SUNSPOTS
Sunspots defined as dark spot within photosphere of the sun and surrounded by
chromospheres, disturbances and explosions. The number of sunspot varies year to
year. The amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface decreases with decrease
in the number of sunspots due to less emission of radiation from the sun.
• Effects of atmosphere
ISOTHERMS
Isotherms are the imaginary lines drawn on the maps joining places of equal temperature
reduced to sea level.
Characteristics of Isotherms
• It is necessary to reduce the actual temperature of all places at sea level before drawing
isotherms.
• They do not represent real temperature of the places through which they pass rather
they show temperature of the sea level
• They run east-west and are generally parallel to latitudes
• They show horizontal distribution of temperature
• They are more irregular in northern hemisphere because of large extent of continents,
but they are more regular in southern hemisphere due to over dominance of oceans.
• They are generally closed spaced in northern hemisphere and widely spaced in southern
hemisphere.
• The closely spaced isotherm denote rapid rate of change of temperature and steep
temperature gradient.
• The widely spaced isotherm denotes slow rate of temperature change and low
temperature gradient.

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• Isotherm on the average trending from land towards the ocean bend equator wards
during summer and poleward during winter.
• On the other hand, isotherm trending from the ocean to the continents bend poleward
during summer and equator ward during winter.
• The isotherm during January and June, are taken as representatives for the study of
horizontal distribution of temperature during winter and summer seasons respectively,
because they represent seasonal extremes.
• If positive anomaly, then shift of isotherm is pole wards, and if negative anomaly, the
shift of isotherm is towards equator wards.

Fig: Isotherm representing horizontal distribution of temperature in January

Fig: Isotherm representing horizontal distribution of temperature in June

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TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Temperature inversion is a deviation in the normally decreasing vertical temperature gradient
in the troposphere, such that air is colder near the Earth surface and overlain by warm air.
Normal Temperature Gradient Temperature Inversion

• Usually, air is warmer near the

• Under certain local weather or
surface of earth and decreases with
topographical conditions, air at higher
altitude
elevations is warmer elevations is
• Reason: Atmosphere (troposphere)
warmer than the air below.
is heated by long wave out
• This usually occurs for a limited height
radiation from earth ( & not the SW
range.
sunlight)
• Also it is usually for few hours, but can
• Air temperature also decreases
extend up to a few days too.
with rise in elevation due to lower
• It suppresses air convection
pressures high above

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 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

Ground Inversion Mechanical Inversion Advection Inversion

Frontal Inversion or
Cyclonic inversion
Subsidence Turbulance
Inversion Inversion
Valley inversion

Surface inversion
1. Ground Inversion
• Also called radiation inversion
• Occurs near the Earth sunface.
• Occurs during long cold winter nights in mid and high
latitudes

CAUSE/MECHANISM
Excessive nocturnal cooling of ground due to rapid
loss of heat from the ground

Air, near the surface in direct contact with cold earth

becomes cold, while the air above does not lose heat
as quickly, making it relatively warmer.

Temperature inversion (cold air below, warm air above)

1. Long, winter nights. FAVOURABLE 2. Cloudless and clear

(to allow sufficient CONDITIONS FOR GROUND sky. (Clouds retard
heat loss) INVERSION heat loss)

3. Presence of Dry Air 4. Slow movement of Air (to 5. Snow covered ground
Near the ground. prevent mixing of colder surface (High albedo)
(moist air absorbs lower layer with warm air
h t)

• Since ground inversion in static atmospheric conditions (very little movement of air), it is
also called static or non- advection inversion.
• In low latitudes, it occurs only in winters heights and disappears with sunrise. Height is
30-40 ft.
• In mid latitudes, it can persist tile noon and extend up to few hundred feet above
surface. Thus, duration and height increase poleward.

15
• It promotes stability in the lower portion of the
atmosphere.
• Causes dense fogs, below dew point.
2. Subsidence Inversion
• Develops when a widespread layer of air descends.
• It is called upper air inversion as it occurs at higher
altitudes.
Mechanism
Descending air layer is compressed: Higher pressure
 This creates adiabatic warming of this air.
 The sinking air gets warm to the point that it is warmer than the air below it.
 This can happens even hundreds of feet above the earth surface.
 Subsidence inversion are common over the northern continents in winter and
over the subtropical oceans
 These regions generally have subsiding air because they are located under large
high pressure centers.
3. Advectional Inversion
o Also dynamic inversion because it is always caused due to horizontal/
vertical movements of air.
o It is of 3 subtypes: (i) Frontal (ii) Valley (iii) surface advection inversion
(i) Frontal Inversion
o Occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a
warm air mass and lift it aloft (at a cold front)
o Alternatively, a similar inversion can be
created when a warm air mass over sides a
colder one along a warm front.
o Frontal inversions has considerable slope,
whereas then inversion are nearly horizontal.
o They are associated with temperate cyclones; in the Northern Hemisphere
convergence of warm Westerlies with cold polar winds.
o Another point of note is that unlike other inversions, air moisture increases
upward in frontal inversion.
(ii) Surface Inversion
o Caused by horizontal movement of
air
o Either warm air invades the area of
cold air or vice versa.
o Warm air being lighter is pushed
upward by the relatively denser cold
air.
o For example along the Californian
coast, cool ocean breeze brings cold air to the coast in summers.

16
(iii) Valley Inversion
o Occurs in valley, basins and hollows
o It is due to radiation and vertical air
movement
o At night, rapid loss of heat causes near
surface air to get cold and dense
o This air descends/drains towards valley
floor.
o Warm air further away from surface is
further pushed higher up.
o Valley inversion creates severe frosts in valley floors; hence human settlements
are avoided.
o Some Brazil and apple orchards in Himalayas avoiding such frost pockets in lower
slopes of valley.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION
• FOG: the most visible consequence of inversion; it affects visibility and mobility.
Inversion in cities can trap pollutants, leading to Smog, London smog (1952).
For example: Advection fogs near Newfoundland due to meeting of cold & warm ocean
currents & accompanying air masses.

• Frost as discussed in valley inversion affects location of human settlements and

plantation.
• Atmospheric stability: upward ascent or descent of air. It discourage rainfall and favours
dry condition. It acts as a lid and expresses convection.

17
 CHAPTER - 3
HEAT BUDGET OF THE EARTH
• The balance between the amount of solar radiation received by the earth’s surface and
its atmosphere and the amount of heat lost by the outgoing terrestrial longwave
radiation from the earth’s surface and loss of heat from the atmosphere is referred to
as heat budget.
• The solar energy received
at the earth’s surface is
converted into heat energy
which heats the outer
surface of the earth. The
radiation from the sun
towards the earth is called
incoming solar radiation
and radiation from the
earth towards the
atmosphere and the space
is called outgoing
longwave terrestrial radiation.
• There is the energy balance of the earth and the atmosphere or global radiation balance
which is referred to the heat budget of the earth and the atmosphere that displays a
statement of receipt of solar radiation by atmosphere and the earth’s surface and the
loss of energy by the earth and the atmosphere also known as terrestrial radiation.
• The total incident of solar radiation (energy) reaching the outer margin of earth’s
atmosphere is taken to be 100 units or 100 per cent for the explanation of heat/energy
budget of the earth and the atmosphere.
Incoming Shortwave Solar Radiation and the Heat Budget of the earth and the Atmosphere:

18
• Most of the radiation energy of earth is received from the sun through shortwave solar
radiation. The solar energy radiated towards the earth’s surface (1/2 billionth part of the
total energy radiated from the outer surface- photosphere-of the sun which is
equivalent to 23 trillion horse power) is taken as 100 per cent or 100 units.
• Out of the total incoming solar radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere 35 per cent is
reflected back to space through scattering by dust particles (6%), reflection from the
clouds (27%) and from the ground surface (2%), 51 per cent is received by the earth’s
surface (received as direct radiation), and 14 per cent is absorbed by the atmospheric
gases (ozone, oxygen etc.) and water vapour in different vertical zones of the
atmosphere.
• Out of the 51 per cent solar energy received by the earth, 34 per cent is received as
direct solar radiation and 17 per cent as diffuse day light. While the heat budget of the
atmosphere comprises 48 per cent of solar radiation wherein 14 per cent is received
through absorption of the shortwave incoming solar radiation and 34 per cent is
received from the outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation.
Outgoing Long-wave Terrestrial Radiation and Heat Balance:
• The energy received from the sun the earth also radiates energy out of its surface into
the atmosphere through long-waves .The terrestrial radiation which is also called
‘effective radiation’ as it helps in heating the bottom section of the atmosphere. 23%
per cent energy (out of 51 % energy which the earth has gained from the sun) is lost
through direct longwave outgoing terrestrial radiation out of which 6 per cent is
absorbed by the atmosphere and 17 per cent goes directly to the space.
• About 9 per cent of the terrestrial energy is exhausted in convection and turbulence and
19 per cent is through evaporation which is further added to the atmosphere as latent
heat of condensation. Thus, the total energy received by the atmosphere from the sun
(14%) and the earth (34%) becomes 48 per cent which is reradiated to the space in one
way or the other.
Energy that is remitted back to the space = 35% + 17% (through radiation from the earth) +
48% (through radiation from the atmosphere) = 100%
• It may be pointed out that the mechanism of solar and terrestrial radiation is not as
simple as mentioned above, rather it is highly complex. For example, not all the energy
received by the atmosphere from the sun and the earth is re-radiated directly to the
space rather a sizeable amount of energy received by the atmosphere is counter-
radiated to the earth’s surface which is again radiated to the space and the atmosphere.
• Our planet maintains an ambient temperature because there is a balance between
influx & outflux of incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• Heat budget is a mathematical statement, an expression to help us understand and
appreciate how this balance is maintained.
I. Heat Budget: (based on G.T. Trewartha)
(i) Incoming shortwave solar radiation & the heat budget of the earth & the atmosphere:
o The earth receives most of its energy from the sun through shortwave solar
radiation.
o The solar energy radiated towards the earth’s surface is taken as 100% or 100
units. While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is

19
 reflected, scattered and absorption only the remaining part reaches the earth’s
surface.
o Roughly 36 units are reflected to space even before reaching the earth’s surface.
 Reflected from the top of clouds 27 units
 Reflected by the atmosphere 06 units
 Reflected by ice field of earth 02 units
o The remaining 65 units are absorbed as:
 Absorbed by the atmosphere 14 units
 Absorbed by the earth (scattered + direct radiation) 51 units
o Scattering takes place by gas molecules & dust particles. This takes place in all
directions, in overall, earth receives 51 units of radiation which in turn radiates
back in the form of terrestrial radiation.
 Radiated to space directly 17 units
 Radiated to atmosphere 34 units
o Where 34 units of radiation absorbed by atmosphere from terrestrial radiation-
 Absorbed directly 06 units
 Absorbed through convection & turbulence 09 units
 Absorbed through latent heat of condensation 19 units

Fig: Heat budget of the earth & atmosphere

(ii) Outgoing Longwave terrestrial radiation & heat balance-

20
 o Total units absorbed by the atmosphere are 48 (14 units insolation + 34 units
terrestrial radiation). These are radiated back into space. Thus, the total
radiation returning from the earth & the atmosphere respectively are:
 Radiation back by earth 17 units
 Radiated back by atmosphere 48 units
o These returning 65 units balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This
account of incoming & outgoing radiation always maintains the balance of heat
of the surface of the earth. This is termed the heat budget a heat balance of the
earth.
(iii) Latitudinal Heat Budget
o Although the earth as a whole maintains balance between incoming solar
radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation. But this is not true when we observe
at different latitudes.
o There are some places where the receipt of solar energy is more than the energy
lost because the solar energy comes at a faster rate than the terrestrial energy
goes out & vis-à-vis.
o This mechanism results in the development of areas of energy surplus and
energy deficit.
o There is a SURPLUS of net radiation balance between 400 N & S degrees of the
regions near the poles that have a DEFICIT.
o The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards and as a
result, the tropics do not get progressively heated up due to accumulation of
excess heat or the high latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess deficit.
o This transfer of surplus heat from the tropics to the polar region is being
performed by atmospheric and oceanic circulations such as winds & ocean
currents.

Fig: Latitudes Heat Budget

21
ANALYSIS OF HEAT BUDGET
• Balance of earth happens but it’s not instantaneous.
• Redistribution of heat is due to factors like Wind Movement, Ocean Water circulation
and Biological processes.
• Earth’s atmosphere system has a net gain/loss as zero. But balance is not for every
latitude. Low latitudes are energy surplus & high latitudes are energy deficit.
• Heat budget mechanism is delicate process distribution in mechanism & earth’s
component atmosphere system can alter the heat budget. The manifestation of which is
climate change and global warming (global warming is a consequence of the Greenhous
effect.
Sources:
 https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/8-1-earths-heat-budget/
 https://www.geographynotes.com/climatology-2/heat-budget-of-the-earth-and-
itsatmosphere-climatology-geography/2720

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 CHAPTER – 4
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Meaning & Types
• Atmospheric circulation means the movement of air due to pressure gradient from local
to a global level and from daily to seasonal and annual patterns over the Earth’s surface
(including ground and oceanic surfaces) and above the Earth’s surface.
• It is thus apparent that atmospheric circulation has spatial, temporal and altitudinal
components.
Atmospheric Circulation

Primary circulation/ Seasonal Diurnal

Long-term circulation circulation Circulation

• Primary or General circulation includes planetary winds system which is related to global
pressure belts (trade, westerly, polar winds) and variants of general or global
atmospheric circulation (jet stream circulation and Walker circulation & Southern
Oscillatory.
• Secondary Circulation consists of cyclones, Anticyclones and Seasonal circulation like
monsoon and air masses.
• Tertiary circulation which includes local winds like Harmattan, Chinook, Sirocco
Norwester, Buran etc. and diurnal winds like land and sea breezes.
General Circulation
• General circulation: Large-scale motion of the atmosphere in both time and space
involving the whole globe and its atmosphere is called the general circulation of the
atmosphere.
• General circulation transports heat from surplus heat areas to deficit heat areas.
• General circulation is, thus the transfer of energy which attempts to equalize the
distribution of heat energy over the earth’s surface including both ocean and surface.
• General atmospheric circulation also transport moisture from the oceans to continents
thus helps information of clouds and precipitation mechanism. Thus general circulation
also helps in maintaining the hydrological a cycle on a global scale. It also moves
moisture from low to high latitudes.
Mechanism of General Circulation
• The primary cause of atmospheric motion and general circulation is in a spatial
imbalance of heat energy.
• The second controlling factor of the general circulation of the atmosphere is the angular
momentum of Earth and its atmosphere which is gravitationally attached to the Earth
and hence also rotates the Earth.
 On average heat and angular momentum are transported in two ways:
(a) Vertical circulation

23
 (b) Horizontal circulation.
o The following are few important models of the mechanism of the general
circulation of the atmosphere:
 Uni-Cellular model or Thermal circulation
 Tri Cellular Meridional Circulation model
 Wave theory model
 Global Computer Model (GCMS) etc.
A. Thermal Model/Hadley-Halley’s Model/Unicellular Model
o It was given by “Halley” and modified by “Hadley”.
o They assumed the Earth is homogeneous and it is perfectly spherical.
o Halley assumed no rotation and Halley assumed rotation of earth but does not
explains the Coriolis force (but would not apply consequence of Coriolis force)
o They said that entire circulation is a consequence of thermal gradient.]

Fig: Thermal Model

B. Tri - Cellular Meridional Circulation Model
o Given by Ferrel
o He suggested 3 interlocking cells of circulation to explain the wind system of the
whole.
o According to him between the tropical and polar cell there is intermediate mid-
latitude thermally indirect cells was later named Ferrel Cell.
o The first cell is called the Thermally Directed Hadley cell which operates between
30-degree latitudes in both hemispheres.
o The second is thermally indirect Ferrel Cell which operates between 30-degree
and 60-degree latitudes in both hemispheres.
o The third cell that operates between 60 degree and 90 degree (poles) in the
northern and south hemispheres is called as thermally direct cell.
His assumptions were:
 Surface is flat and homogeneous
 Earth is perfectly spherical
 He also considered the role of rotation as well as Coriolis force.
Note: Coriolis force: Capable of deflection of the free moving body.
In North Hemisphere: the body moves right, South hemisphere: the body moves left.

24
 Fig: Tri Cellular Model
According to Ferrel, the wind rising at the equator, sinks at the subtropical latitude at 30-35
degree North and South, this is the consequence of Coriolis deflection that forces sinking,
hence high pressure at the subtropics is dynamically induced. The air from subtropics moving
along the surface meets the cold air coming from the poles and the air is forced to rise at
subpolar latitude (around 60-65 degree N & S). Sub-polar low pressure are also dynamically
included. Three cells per hemisphere so called as Tricellular model.
Evaluation:
• Model is the improvement of Hadley model.
• It is not a difficult model; easy to understand.
• It can explain global planetary winds.
• It can explain broad latitudinal patterns of climate.
• Model cannot explain local winds monsoon.
• One big limitation of this model is it assumes that there are vertical cells which operate
right up to the upper troposphere and does not discuss nature of upper tropospheric
circulation.
C. Wave theory Model of Atmospheric circulation or Modern Dynamic Model
o The wave theory model is based on the concept of transfer of heat energy and
angular momentum.
o This model emphasizes horizontal transfer of energy and angular momentum
rather than meridional transfer in vertical plain.
o This is achieved only when air progressively increases its, speeds toward
poleward and this requires pole wards transfer of angular momentum.
o Under this model,
 Shallow circulation is like the Ferrel’s model more less within 5-6 km of
height.
 The upper air circulation is different system
 Upper tropospheric winds are westerlies at all latitudes.
 In the higher latitudes upper tropospheric westerlies have sharp north-
south meandering paths called Rossby Waves.

25
D. Global Computer Model
o Global computer models GCMs are tools for weather forecasting on based on
real weather phenomena and involving laws of physics and mathematical
principle such as laws of motion, principle of thermodynamics basic equation
related to atmospheric motion and airflow and hydrostatic equation.
o The GCMs are sets of computer-generated maps of weather conditions of an
oval atmosphere and these are used to predict future another conditions.
o It may be mentioned that ample data of temperature, pressure and humidity at
numerous centres of the earth’s surface and up in the atmosphere with short
distances are required for weather forecasting and predicting atmospheric
circulation but GCMs use sample data of sample points whether at the earth’s
surface at different altitudes in the atmosphere, mainly in the troposphere, and
hence result may not be accurate.
PRESSURE PATTERNS ON SURFACE WITH LANDWATER
• Differential/Cellular Patterns of Pressure
o Pressure patterns on globe are not continuous belts everywhere. It depends on
unicellular model, Tri-cellular model and actual pattern based on water
differential.
o The real earth has disruption in the zonal pattern caused by large land masses.
These disruptions break up pressure zones into semi - permanent cells.

Continuous Belts Discontinuous Belts

Polar High (N and S) Sub-tropical High
Sub Polar Low (S) (N and S)
Equatorial Low Sub-polar low (N)

26
PERMANENT CELLS
o Sub Tropical High (N. Hemisphere) – 2 Permanent Cells
 Azores high (Atlantic Ocean)
 Hawaiin High (Pacific Ocean)
o Sub Tropical High (S. Hemisphere) – 3 Permanent Cells
 Pacific Cells
No specific Name
 Atlantic Cells
 Indian Ocean Cell – Mascarene High
o Sub Polar (N. Hemisphere) – 2 Permanent Cells
 Icelandic low – Atlantic Ocean
 Aleutian low – Pacific Ocean

Fig 2: Permanent Cells

• SEASONAL CELLS ON THE CONTINENTS

o Siberian and Candian High in winters. In summers high pressure disappears
o Colorado Low – North America
 Tibetan Low – Asia
 Saharan Low – Africa
o Sub tropical latitudes of Southern Hemisphere, there is strong Australian low
pressure, but not significant low pressure in South America or Africa.
o Above patterns of pressure cells are still very simplistic because the effect of
Altitudes, local winds and upper tropospheric winds is not incorporated into
model.

27
 Fig 3: Semi Permanent System-January

Fig 4: Semi permanent System-July

CORIOLIS FORCE
• The direction of surface winds is usually controlled by the pressure gradient and
rotation of the earth. Because of the rotation of earth along its axis the winds are
deflected. The force which deflects the directions of winds is called deflection
force/coriolis force [named after famous scientist G.G. Coriolis 1792-1843)]
• Because of Coriolis force all the winds are deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere while they are deflected to the left in the Southern Hemisphere with
respect to the rotating earth.
• It may be mentioned that Coriolis force is not in itself a force in real sense rather it is an
effect of the rotational movement of the earth and hence is also called as Coriolis Effect.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
• Coriolis force is not in itself a force rather is an effect of rotational movement of the
earth.
• Coriolis force becomes effective on any object which is in motion (i.e. wind, flying birds,
aircrafts, ballistic missiles, long range artillery fire, etc)

28
• Coriolis force affects wind direction and not the wind speed as it deflects the wind (and
other moving objects) direction from expected path.
• The magnitude of Coriolis force is determined by wind speed the higher the wind speed,
the greater is the deflection of wind direction due to resultant greater deflective
(Coriolis force).
• It becomes maximum at the poles due to minimum rotational speed of the earth while it
becomes zero at the equator.
• It always acts at right angles to the horizontally moving air and other moving objects.
The net effect is that the horizontal winds are deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
• The magnitude of deflection (Coriolis effect) is directly proportional to
 The some of the latitude (sin00 = 0, sun 900=1)
 the mass of the moving body
 Horizontal velocity of the wind
• Coriolis force can only change direction and not velocity of moving body but
deflection depends on speed of body. This force is perpendicular to moving
wind.
Wind Direction and Related laws
FERREL’S LAW BUYS BALLOT’S LAW
It one stands with one’s back In the Northern Hemisphere
towards the direction from if you stand with your back to
where winds are coming they the wind these will be low
are deflected to the right in pressure to your left and high
the northern hemisphere and pressure to your right. In the
to the left in the southern southern hemisphere the
hemisphere coriolis deflection is to the
left and the situation is
reversed.

Fig: Deflective Force and Wind Direction

29
 CHAPTER – 5
PLANETARY AND LOCAL WINDS
WIND
• Wind in climatology is the movement of air, relative to the surface of the earth, caused
by the uneven heating of the earth by the sun.
• Winds are horizontal motions of air
• The initial factor is pressure, it can be because of dynamic and thermal pressure.
• Winds move from low to high pressure, the force is called Barametric slope/force.
• The wind plays an important role in determining and controlling climate and weather.
• Generating factor: PGF (Pressure Gradient Force)
• Modifying Factor:
o Friction
o Topography
o Coriolis force

GLOBAL WIND/PERMANENT/PLANETARY/PRIMARY WINDS

• Tropical Regions: Easterly Trade Winds
• Mid Latitudes Regions: Westerlies/Temperate Westerly Winds
• Polar Regions: Polar Easterlies

30
 Fig 6: Generalised Global Pattern of Planetary winds
A. TRADE WINDS
o Pressure variant is not much in tropics as wind’s speed is almost constant.
Tropical trade winds has no variation.
o Trade winds are amongst most constant winds in terms of velocity and direction
and they favour sea trade.
o They are onshore along eastern coast and cause rains.
o They are offshore along western coast and reason for western sub tropical
deserts For Example: Namib, Sahara, Australian Desert.
o N.E. and S.E. Trade winds do not mix, but rises upwards, this narrow belt is called
Doldrums have erratic weather in general, warm, calm conditions, clear sky but
it can have intermittent thunderstorm and heavy rainfall.
B. WESTELIES/TEMPERATE WESTERLY WINDS
o They are not as persistent and not as consistent winds but in ocean on absence
of land and friction these winds can become very fast.
o They are stronger in Southern Hemisphere and make sounds according to
varying degree of latitude:
 Roaring forties
 Shrinking sixties
 Screaming seventies
o Onshore winds are on western coast at mid latitudes causing rainfall on western
side.
o In mid latitudes, western slopes of Rockies Mountains along coast of British
Columbia, Washington, Oregon have heavy rainfall. No other place has this type
of temperate forest (unique forests at mid latitudes)

31
 o Although eastern side is offshore conditions but unlike trade winds, where
offshore conductions create deserts, offshore coast of westerly wind belt doesn’t
have deserts, there are other modifications, that cause rainfall in mid latitude
eastern coast.
C. POLAR EASTERLIES
o The polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from north-east to
south west direction in Northern Hemisphere and south-east to north-west in
Southern Hemisphere.
o They blow from the polar high - pressure areas of the sub polar lows.
DOLDRUM
• It is a belt of low pressure, popularly known as equatorial through of low pressure. It
extend along the equator within a zone of 5 degree North and 5 degree South latitudes.
• Between the trade wind zone, the narrow belt is called belt of calm or Doldrum because
of light and variable winds.
• Inside Doldrum there is no rise of air & hence calm condition but winds rise up smoothly
along the margin of Doldrum.

• It is zone of calm, cloudless skies, erratic wind interspersed with thunderstorm. This belt
is subjected to seasonal and spatial variation due to northward and southward
movement of sun. The belt of doldrum shifts northward during summer solstice and
comes back to its normal position at the time of winter solstice.
• According to Fohn it extend up to 200 longitude in discontinues manner.

32
 • Due to intense solar heating near the equator, the warm moist air is forced up into the
atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools, causing persistent bands of shower & storms
around the earth’s midsection. This rising air mass finally subsides in what is known as
horse latitudes, where air moves downward toward Earth’s surface.
Note: Some describes winds in doldrum belt as equatorial westerly winds, which is not best
reference. In contemporary discussions the equatorial westerlies are actually monsoonal
winds.
WESTERLIES
• They are not consistent winds. These are mid-latitude winds. But in ocean because of
the absence of land & friction these winds can become very fast winds.
Onshore winds are on western coast at mid latitudes causing rainfall on western side. The best
example of such rain along west coast is seen along the western slopes of Rocky’s in North
America in the state of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia.
Westerlies Belt
1. Temperate Rain Forest
• Permanent westerlies (beyond 40-450N) in North America, Western slope of Rockies.
• These types of forests are not found elsewhere in other continents because either there
is no land at those latitudes or no high Mountains in N-S direction.
• Vegetation is compared primarily of cone-bearing needle leaved or scale-leaved
evergreen trees.
• Found in northern circumpolar forested regions characterized by long winters &
moderate to high annual precipitation.
2. Laurentian Climate
• Offshore westerlies are on eastern coast of continents and do not result in desert
because there are local modifications responsible for rainfall.
• The maritime influence: The meeting of the warm Gulf Stream & the cold Labrador
Current on coastal waters off Newfoundland produces dense mist & fog and gives rise to
much precipitation. Similarly in Japan, warm Kuroshio has played as important part is
making the climate less extreme. In meeting the cold Oyashio from the north, it also
produces fog and mist making north Japan a “Second Newfoundland”.

33
3. Mediterranean type of Climate
o It is like a transition belt with onshore westerlies in winters and offshore trade
winds in summer.
o It is a climate of western part of continents only.
o There are semi-arid but cooler climates
o Mediterranean forests are also called sclerophyll forests
o Vegetation: Olive trees, grapes, oranges
o Location: Mediterranean Coast, Central California, Central Chile, Cape town of
South Africa, Perth and Adelaide of Australia, Auckland Peninsula & Auckland
City of New Zealand, Georgia, some parts of Ukraine, Rostov of Russia because of
Black Sea.
Note: Westerlies of southern hemisphere are strongest as there is not much land for friction
(roaring 40’s, Furious 50’s, Shrinking 60’s, Screaming 70’s)

4. Semi Arid Regions

o In the interior of the continents, it’s a westerly wind belt. But as these regions
are far off from the coastal land the annual precipitation received is not much.
Hence these areas become desert and semi arid regions or grasslands.
o There are continental deserts found only in Eurasia.
o These are not cold deserts

34
 o Location: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Western China, Afghanistan, Kyrgystan, Gobi
desert of Mongolia

Fig: Distribution of semi arid climate

5. Temperate Monsoon
o This type of climate found on eastern margin of continents in warm temperate
latitude (30-40 degree North and South)
o It is also called as China type of climate & sometimes referred as Gulf type of
Climate.
o In southern hemisphere it is not well developed except in the natal of Africa,
hence called as Natal type of climate.
o It’s relatively cooler & hence will not have good reversals leading to indistinct dry
seasons and hence differ to tropical monsoon.
o Location: region of Gulf of Mexico, In Asia, South China, South Japanese Island,
Paraguay-Uruguay basin.

35
 CHAPTER - 6
Conditions of Upper Troposphere
• Unlike Ferrel’s model, which assumes vertical circulation cells to exist till tropopause. In
reality, vertical cells are far more shallow, restricted within 5.8 km. Upper troposphere
has different pressure conditions and winds.
• Convectional upliftment at equator, coupled with strong polar high pressure at poles,
induce a pressure gradient aloft. It has high pressure in upper troposphere at equator &
relative low pressure at upper troposphere at poles. This creates, strong pressure
gradient force, directed from equator towards poles in upper atmosphere.
• Above the friction layer, winds are very fast and deflection because of Coriolis force is
proportionately very high. Eventually, winds orient themselves at 90 degree to Pressure
Gradient Force (PGF), with Coriolis force balancing PGF. This condition is called as
Geostrophic Condition.

GEOSTROPHIC WINDS:
• An air parcel initially at rest will move from high pressure to low pressure because of the
pressure gradient force (PGF), generally between the altitudes of 500-1000 meters.
• However, as that air parcel begins to move, it is deflected by the Coriolis force to the
right in the northern hemisphere (to the left on the southern hemisphere).
• As the wind gains speed, the deflection increases until the Coriolis force equals the
pressure gradient force. At this point, the wind will be blowing parallel to the isobars
and at the right angle to the pressure gradient. When this happens, the wind is referred
to as Geostrophic Wind.
• Geostrophic winds of upper troposphere are always parallel to isobars and are
westerlies.
• These concepts and winds are not explained in Ferrel’s model.

Fig: Friction and geostrophic layers and friction layer winds and geostrophic winds

36
ROSSBY WAVES:
• ROSSBY WAVES are meandering loops of flow patterns of upper air westerlies and are
embedded with jet streams.
• They are formed because earth is spherical and radial distance of earth’s surface from
vertical axis, reduces from equator towards poles.
• For angular momentum conservation, reduction in radial distance is compensated by
increasing velocity. This is possible, when westerly winds take a progressively
meandering path towards poles.
• Beyond 55 degree latitudes, meandering paths are very sharp, wave like patterns called
Rossby Waves are formed.
• Upper tropospheric winds (UTW) include Rossby waves of high mid-latitudes.
• Rossby waves because of sharp meandering paths, will go through cycle of oscillation,
where paths change from near straight west to east latitudinal orientation to nearly
north-south and south-north meridional path.
Pressure patterns and weather associated on surface as a consequence of Rossby Waves
oscillations:
• Meandering loops of Rossby waves, during index cycle oscillations, induce dynamic
pressure cells aloft (pressure patterns can be identified on basis of buy ballot’s low)
• The aloft pressure patterns can induce surface pressure cells too, which can start off
local vertical circulations. These conditions are typical of high mid latitudes, weather
phenomenon and rainfall of British type of climate and rainfall of taiga climates.
JET STREAMS:
• Jet streams are strong and rapidly moving circumpolar upper westerly air circulation in a
narrow belt of a few hundred kilometres width in the upper limit of troposphere.
• The circulation of jet stream is confined between poles and 20 degree latitudes in both
the hemispheres at the height of 7.5-14 km.
• The winds blow from west to east in jet stream but the flow often shifts to the North and
South.
• The wind speed often exceeds 90 km/hr and speeds up to 400 km/h have been
measured.
• They are also geostrophic winds and adopts meandering paths.
• They form where large temperature differences exist in the atmosphere.
• There is seasonal change in wind velocity in Jet streams they are faster in winter when
temperature difference between tropical, temperate, polar air currents are greater.
• At margin of vertical meridional cells, there is an additional thermal gradient, that
strengthens upper tropospheric pressure gradient force. This additional gradient is
better understood under the concept of thermal winds.
• Height of Jet Stream vary in general height declines from equator towards poles as
height of Tropopause declines.
o Example: Tropical easterly Jet stream 15 km
Subtropical westerly Jet stream 12 km
Polar front Jet stream 9-12 km.
o Maximum velocity of jet stream is found in core jet stream.

37
 o They follow curved and meandering path such a curved path result from
interaction of Coriolis impact with the tendency of large scale circulation system
to conserve their angular momentum.
INDEX CYCLES OF JET STREAM:
Jet streams tend to follow a curved & meandering path & their curvature tends to increase with
time. Although these changes in path are highly complex, still a generalised order can be
achieved where Jet stream pass from a straight path to increasingly meandering path through
four stages. This is called Index Cycle of Jet Stream:
• STAGE I: High Zonal Index Stage
o The position of Jet streams is near the poles and is separated by polar cold air
mass in the north and warm westerlies in the south (Northern Hemisphere).
o The circulation of jet streams is almost in straight path from west to east
because Rossby wave is not developed by this time.
o At this stage North-South pressure gradient is relatively steeper. However due to
high Coriolis force most of atmospheric circulation is zonal in nature. Thus
airmass exchange between tropical & temperate region is minimum.

Fig: High zonal Index Stage of Jet stream (Stage-I)

• Stage-II
o In this stage straight path of Jet stream is transformed into wave path with time.
o This process initiates the beginning of the development of Rossby waves with
the march of time the amplitude of jet streams increases gradually they extend
towards the equator.
o The pressure gradient is north-south.

Fig: Stage II

38
• Stage-III
o Characterized by fully developed meandering course of jet stream with the result
they are positioned near the equator (20 degree latitude)
o Pressure gradient in this stage becomes east-west.
o There is displacement of polar cells air masses towards equator and of tropical
warm air masses towards the poles. Thus at this stage exchange between
tropical and polar air masses takes place on a much larger scale.

• Stage-IV
o Characterized by cutting off meanders of jet stream from main path due to their
more & more meridional circulation (from North to South) resulting into their
circulation in independent circular pattern in the form of cyclonic & anticyclonic
circulation.
o Thus, there develop several cellular circulation patterns which follow cyclonic
pattern to the south & anti-cyclonic pattern in the north.
o Such cut off low (cyclonic) or cut off high (anticyclonic) air circulation patterns
obstruct west to east flow of jet stream.

Types of Jet streams

Two types of Jet Stream
A) Permanent Jet Stream
B) Temporary Jet Stream

39
A. Permanent Jet Stream
(i) Subtropical Jet Stream
o More in the upper troposphere to the north of subtropical surface high pressure
(at poleward limit of Hadley cell in both the hemisphere) i.e. above 30-35 degree
latitudes.
o Here a sharp temperature & pressure gradient exist between warm tropical air &
cool temperate air on account of permanency of Hadley cell, it remains inter
throughout year. Although with shifting of pressure belts, its path shifts North-
South.
o Unlike the polar front Jet Stream, it travels in lower latitudes & at slightly higher
elevations, owing to the increase in height of the troposphere at lower latitudes.
o Plays an important role in distribution of precipitation in sub-tropical latitudes. It
carries western disturbances from west-east. In India, it provides crucial winter
rainfall in North and North-West adjoining Indo-Gangetic plains.
(ii) Polar Jet Stream
• They move in sub polar latitudes (60-65 degree latitudes) inside the Rossby
waves.
• They too have index cycles of oscillations, creates dynamic high pressure (H.P.) &
low pressure (L.P.) cells that impact weather of high mid latitudes.
• They play an important role in temperate cyclones and weather unpredictability
of high mid latitudes.

Fig: Polar & sub-tropical Jet Stream

B. Temporary Jet Streams
They are formed because of local factors & are not very well understood subdivided into:

40
(i) Polar Night Jet Stream
• Also known as STRATOSPHERIC SUBPOLAR JET STREAM. They develop in winter
season due to steep temperature gradient in the stratosphere around the poles
at the height of 30 km.
• Become very strong westerly circulation with high wind velocity during winter
but their velocity decreases during summer and the direction becomes easterly.
(ii) Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (TEJS)
 Develop in the upper troposphere above surface easterly trade winds over South Asia
during summer season due to intense heating of Tibetan plateau which leads to
convergence & low pressure on surface while divergence & high pressure in upper
troposphere.
 Part of southward diverging air comes under coriolis impact & is forced to deflect
from East-West leading to formation of TEJS.
 Velocity of STWJ & TEJS is high due to higher height (lower friction and higher
gradient)
 TEJS steer low pressure depressions found over Bay of Bengal into Indian sub-
continent. Thus, much of the rainfall received in Indo-Gangetic plain & Central
Asia owes its origin to this Jet Stream.
(iii) Somali Jet Stream/Fiendlater Jet Stream
 Develop only in summers & formed due to unequal heating of continent of Africa
originates in northern Madagascar then enters into African & reappears on
Somali coast.
 It is a low level Jet Stream located at 3.4 km.
 It also crosses equator & becomes south westerly in direction. Because of this
these are also called Cross-Equatorial Low Level Jet Stream.
 They help in intensification of south-west monsoon in Indian Continent.

ROSSBY WAVES
• The atmosphere while moving with the earth’s spin does
not shear and behaves in a way to conserve angular
momentum.
• Earth being spherical, the linear distance between
meridian decreases from the equator towards pole.
• The atmosphere maintains angular momentum by taking
the curved path to catch up with the speed.
• Free moving bodies and Geotropic wind
adopt curved paths as they move from west
towards east. The curved path becomes
sharper and meanders between 50-55
degree latitude. Such tropospheric winds in
the high latitudes with curved meander paths called Rossby Waves.

41
• The Rossby waves and their meandering path is not maintained all time. When meander
becomes sharp north-south the winds jump coarse because of inertia and adopt a
straight latitudinal path, but it violates angular momentum and winds again start
meandering and so this is like an oscillation cycle.
• But the winds oscillate between war straight north-south path and near east-west path.
This is called Rossby waves in ten cycle and can be 10-15 days cycle.

42
 CHAPTER – 6
AIR MASS AND FRONTOGENESIS
AIR MASSES
Introduction
• Air masses owe its inception to V. Bjerknes and later on the concept was developed on
the basis of meteorological data obtained during military operations in the decade of
1940s.
Objective: to understand weather conditions of mid and High latitude.
• The further development of Air Masses concept lead to its close relationship with
Synoptic Climatology.
• (Definition: Study of climates in relation to atmospheric circulations, weather types and
climatic region differences)
Definition of Air Masses
• It is an almost homogenous mass of air of great lateral extent (generally hundreds or
thousands of km) with marked horizontal temperature and humidity uniformity
acquired form prolonged contact in its place of origin or source region.
• It is separated from an adjacent air mass by well-defined Fronts which move as air mass
travels long distances, thereby modifying its original characteristics to a greater or lesser
degree.
NOTE: horizontal & vertical homogeneity should be taken in general sense. It is because
horizontal homogeneity of an air mass may not be practically possible because the nature and
degree of uniformity of air mass properties depend upon
• The topographic characteristics
• The properties of the source area and direction of its movement
• Changes introduced in the air mass during its journey away from the source area
• The age of air mass
Characteristics of Air Mass
It may be noted that the nature of vertical distribution of
temperature in air mass denotes the stability & instability
of air mass, while the content of moisture determines the
nature and degree of condensation which in turn
determines. Whether the weather would be moist, semi-
moist or
dry.

43
Source Region
Definition: The extensive areas over which air masses originate or form are called source
regions. Their nature & properties largely determine the temperature and moisture
characteristics of air masses.

Characteristics of Source regions:

• There must be Extensive & Homogeneous earth’s surface so that it may pressure
uniform temperature & moisture conditions.
• There should not be convergence of air so that air may stay over the region for longer
period of time.
• Stable Atmospheric Conditions. So air may attain the characteristics of the surface.
Categories of Source Regions
(1) Primary Source Regions
They are extensive regions where air mass lies for fairly long period.
Such source regions are tropical warm sea surface and hot desert land surfaces & Arctic
cold region.
(2) Secondary Source Regions: Air masses do not stay has for long. Here, air masses are
transformed (modified) & attain unique characteristic features.

44
6 Major Source Regions
1. Polar Oceanic Areas
North Atlantic Ocean between Canada and Northern Europe
North Pacific between Siberia and Canada during Winter season
2. Polar and Arctic Continental Areas
Snow covered areas of Eurasia and North-America
Arctic region during winter.
3. Tropical Oceanic Areas
Anti-cyclonic areas throughout the year
4. Tropical Continental Areas
North Africa-Sahara, Asia
Mississippi Valley zone of the USA most developed in Summer.
5. Equatorial Regions
Zone located between trade winds active throughout the year.
6. Monsoon land of SE Asia.
Classification of Air Masses

But in reality certain types of air masses do not form or are inconsequential
∴Practical Air Masses : cA ; cAA ; mP ; cP ; mT
But since we don’t live here ∴don’t impact weather

Fig: Principle World AIR MASSES

45
Simplified Classification of Air Masses
Type Code Source Regions Source Region Properties
Antarctica
Very cold
Arctic Ocean and
Arctic/Antarctic A/AA Very dry
Fringes
Very stable
& Greenland
High latitude plains of Eurasia Cold, dry
Continental Polar cP
& North America Very stable
Oceans in vicinity of 50-600 Cold, moist, relative
Maritime Polar mP
Latitude unstable
Tropical and subtropical Warm, moist of variable
Continental Tropical cT
Oceans stability
Warm, very moist,
Equatorial E Oceans near the equator
unstable
The geographical classification of air masses is based on the characteristic features of the
source regions: e.g.:
(1) Warm air mass
(2) Cold air mass based on temperature of the source regions.
Trewartha has classified air masses on the basis of their geographical locations into two broad
categories viz
(1) Polar Air Masses (P), which originates in polar areas. Arctic masses are also included in it.
(2) Tropical Air Mas (T), which originates in tropical areas. Equatorial air masses are also
included in this category.
These two air masses have been further divided into two types on the basis of the nature of the
surface of the source regions (whether continental or oceanic areas). For Example
(a) Continental Air Masses (c)
(b) Maritime Air masses (m)
Based on above facts air masses are classified into the following four principal types according
to their geographical locations.
(1) Continental Polar air mass (cP)
(2) Maritime Polar air mass (mP)
(3) Continental tropical air mass (cT)
(4) Maritime tropical air mass (mT)
Thermodynamic classification
Based on thermodynamic and mechanical (dynamic) modifications air masses are divided into,
(1) Cold Air Masses, originate in the polar & arctic regions
(2) Warm Air Masses, is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature of
the areas over which it moves such air mass is cooled from below and thus. Its lower
layer becomes stable due to which its vertical movement stops.
Composite Classification
Based on thermodynamic and mechanical (dynamic) modification & some other considerations
air masses are divided into 16 types. Some of them are as follows:

46
1. CONTINENTAL POLAR AIR MASSES (cP)
• Continental polar cold stable Air mass (cPKs)
• Continental polar cold unstable air mass (cPku)
2. MARITIME POLAR AIR MASSES (Mp)
• Maritime polar warm stable air mass (mPWs)
• Maritime polar warm unstable air mass (mPWu)
3. CONTINENTAL TROPICAL AIR MASSES (cT)
• Continental tropical cold stable air mass (cTKs)
• Continental tropical warm unstable air mass (cTWu)
4. MARITIME TROPICAL AIR MASSES (Mt)
• Maritime tropical unstable air mass (mTKu)
• Maritime Tropical warm stable air mass (mTWs)
CASE STUDY
Air masses affecting the British Isles

47
NORTH AMERICA

Details of Air masses in North America

A. WINTERTIME AIR MASSES
Continental Polar Air Mass (cP)
ORIGIN: Central Canada & Alaska
• Extensive land surface with topographic homogeneity + slow anticyclonic circulation
provide most ideal conditions for ORIGIN
• Heavy snow in North America = LAKE – EFFECT SNOW
It may be pointed out that so long as the cold continental Polar Air Mass moves over the snow
covered source, it is least modified but as it crosses middle and enters the snow free surface it
is warmed from below and thus the cold air mass is modified to warm continental polar Air
mass (cPw) & the stability of the air mass decreases.
cPW while moving through east-central USA meets (mT) and polar front is formed which
induces cyclonic conditions and winter precipitation occurs to the east of the Rocky mountains.
The cPW air masses are modified in the SE USA due to:
(i) mechanical turbulence produced by corrugated terrain of the southern Appalachians.
(ii) subsidence of air from above and resultant stability
(iii) instability in the lower layer of the air masses caused due to addition of heat and
moisture.
• Maritime Polar Pacific Air Masses (mP)
→ Cold
→ Unstable
ORIGIN: North Pacific, mainly near Aleutian Islands.
o This mPKu air mass picks up moisture throughout its journey south-eastward to
the west coast of North America.

48
 o This moist air mass gives sufficient precipitation while rising along the western
slopes of the coast ranges.
o During summer season polar pacific air mass becomes stable.
o When polar pacific air mass reaches’ the Great Plains of the USA while crossing
over the coastal ranges & the Rocky mountains, it undergoes the process of
thermodynamic modifications and thus is transformed into Cold, Stable and dry
continental polar air mass (cPWs) which induces anticyclonic conditions in the
central states of the US with the result sky becomes clear & air circulation
becomes slow and temperature returns to normal.
• MARITIME POLAR NORTH ATLANTIC AIR MASS (mP)
ORIGIN: near North Atlantic Ocean mainly in the region between Greenland,
Newfoundland, and Labrador.
→ has little influence on North America.
o Sometimes cyclonic winds draw maritime polar North Atlantic air mass in the
North Eastern parts of the USA mainly to the east of the Appalachians. This air
mass is dry and stable in the upper layers while it is moist and unstable in the
lower parts.
o This air mass brings in bad weather which is locally. Known as ‘North Eastern’
characterized by strong NE cold winds, exceedingly low temperature well below
freezing point, high moisture content in the air and possible precipitation mainly
in solid forms such as snowfall, sleet and hailstorms.
• Tropical Maritime Pacific Air masses - dry + cold + stable
ORIGIN: Over subtropical positions of the East Pacific West of USA and Mexico.
The air mass becomes stable because of subsidence of air from above due to
anticyclonic circulation.
o Whenever this air mass is associated with cyclonic circulation it becomes
unstable & brings rains. This air mass seldom crosses the Rockies.

*MODIFICATIONS OF AIR MASSES AND IMPACT ON WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Introduction
• Air masses move, driven for prevailing winds. During the time it takes for an air mass to
pass, the weather remains more or less unchanged except for local phenomena such as
showers and thunderstorms.
• As air mass travels the characteristics of it (For example: Lapse Rate of temperature,
mean temperature moisture content in the air, wind velocity, etc.) are modified by its
contact with the surface beneath it leading to secondary air masses.
• The convergence of Air Streams and Orographic lifting also modify the characteristics of
air.
Modifications of Air masses and impacts on weather and climate
1. As air mass moves, there can be lower air mass turbulence, because of friction with
surface (since no surface is perfectly smooth & flat) and low level mixing.
2. Thermodynamic Modifications.

49
• Air masses when move into areas with contrasting properties goes through heating or
cooling from below, and also evaporation of water into intermediate layer by
precipitation from moist air aloft.
• The modifications of air masses based on thermodynamics depends on following
factors.
• Initial characteristics of air mass in terms of temperature and moisture content.
• Nature of land or water surface over which a particular air mass moves.
• Path followed by the air mass from the source region to the affected area.
• Time taken by the air mass to reach a particular destination.
EXAMPLE
Note: An air mass moving over a relatively warmer surface is classified as cold (K-German word
for Kalt & vice versa)
(a) Arctic Air Mass (cA) moves over Norwegian sea and converts in cAKu and forms Arctic
smoke (because low level air starts rising)
(b) Lake Effect

• In North America the Canadian while moving across the great lakes becomes unstable &
when forced to rise on western slopes of Appalachians result in heavy snowfall.
• An air mass while moving over the surface whose temperature is greater than the lower
layers of the moving air mass, is heated from below and becomes unstable due to
resultant steepened lapse rate and upward movement of air. This mechanism causes
condensation, cloud formation and precipitation if the moving air contains sufficient
amount of moisture content.
• In the other hand if the moving air is warmer than the surface over which it travels, it is
cooled from below resulting in atmospheric stability which restricts upward
condensation, cloud formation and precipitation. It is, thus obvious that cold polar air
masses’ while moving from their source regions to relatively warmer surfaces become
unstable because they are warmed from below.
• While, warm tropical air masses, when move out of their source areas and reach colder
surfaces are coiled from below causing atmospheric stability and dry weather.

50
• Thermodynamic modifications also occur due to addition of moisture (surface
evaporation, evaporation of precipitation falling from higher level) loss of moisture
(condensation, precipitation); Radiative heating /cooling (slow compared to surface heat
exchange).
• Modifications & Weather conditions of air masses impacting British isles
cT cP
Long Sea Short sea mA
Summer Winter
Track track
Very warm or Cold (Colder
Temperature Average Cold Very cold
hot than mP)
Rather Moist in Fairy moist
Humidity Relatively dry Very dry
moist largest areas (<mP)
Change of Cooled Heated from Little Heated from
Little
Lapse Rate from below below change below
Generally
Stability Stable Unstable Stable Unstable
stable
Clear,
Rain or Showers
Occasional
Weather Clear snow Clear (mainly
thunder
showers coastal)
showers
Moderate or Moderate Moderate
Visibility Good Very good
Poor Poor or Poor

mT Returning Polar
mP
Exposed Sheltered maritime (rmp)
Warm (warmer
Temperature Near Sea Temp Warm Rather cold
than mP
Fairly moist
Humidity Very moist Moist Moist
(<mP)
Change in Warmed in Heated from Heated from
Cooled from below
Lapse Rate summer below below
Stability Stable Stable aloft Unstable Unstable

Broken cloud, Variable cloud, Showers (mainly

Weather Low cloud, drizzle
dry showers coastal)

Often poor with

Visibility Moderate Good Very good
coastal frog

3. MECHANICAL MODIFICATION/FRONTS & AIR MASSES INTERACTIONS

When air masses move out of source regions, they interact with other air masses along, a
relatively narrow and almost planar surfaces that extend for the entire height & the width of
the air masses.

51
Such mechanical modification are introduced due to cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions and
also
(1) Turbulent mixing caused by eddies or convection
(2) divergence and convergence of air masses and their effects on lapse rate of
temperature
(3) Subsidence of air and lateral expansion on the ground surface (anticyclonic conditions)
(4) lifting of air and convergence of air at the ground surface (cyclonic conditions)
(5) ADVECTION
o The overall concept of air masses works very well for practical purposes of
explanation in mid latitude zones, but it is more difficult to apply in equatorial
regions, where air mass contrasts are less well mashed.
o The main distinguishing characteristics that do develop in low latitudes are
better related to features of vertical motion in adjacent subtropical cells, rather
than to mass horizontal migration of air.
o In short, mechanical or dynamic modification of air mass involves VERTICAL
(upward-uplift & downward subsidence) and advection movement of air and
resultant changes in the air mass.
o An air mass is termed stable air mass when air descends while on air mass
becomes unstable when upwards movement of air is operations.

*TYPES OF FRONTS & ASSOCIATED WEATHER MODIFICATIONS:

TYPE OF FRONTAL INTERACTIONS
Introduction
• Fronts are broad mixing zones in the atmosphere where horizontal gradients of
pressure, temperature & other properties of air masses become steepened.
• The favored locations for the development of fronts include the margins of oceans and
continents and the snow & ice margins of high latitudes.
Frontogenesis
• The process of creation of new fronts o regeneration of old and decaying fronts already
in existence.
• The process of destruction or dying of fronts: FRONTLYSIS

52
Conditions for Frontogenesis

Note: In-spite of convergence of two air masses at equator no front is formed due to uniform
temperature
Types of Fronts:
• When two contrasting air masses converge in deformation circulation, they spread
horizontally along the axis of outflow or dialation.
(1) STATIONARY FRONTS: These are largely hypothetical and formed for very small time.
Such fronts develop when air dilates/spreads along the axis of the front.
CALM – no weather instability

(2) Cold Front: It is the transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold, dry
stable air mass displaces a warm, moist unstable subtropical air mass.

53
Precipitation is normally found just behind the front where frontal lifting has caused the
development of towering cumulus and cumulonimbus Clouds.
Weather conditions associated with a cold front: TABLE
Weather Prior to the Passing of Contact with After passing of
Phenomenon the Front the front the front
Cold and getting
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly
colder
Atmospheric Levelling off then
Decreasing steadily Increasing steadily
Pressure increasing
Winds South to South East Variable and gusty West to north west
Heavy rain, or snow,
Precipitation Showers Showers then cleaning
or hail sometimes
Cirrus & cirrostratus
Cumulus &
Clouds Changing to cumulus and Cumulus
Cumulonimbus
cumulonimbus
Note: The degree of activity both fronts determined largely by vertical motion
Ana fronts: It the air is unstable and rising rapidly, the front is very active.
Kata Fronts: When the general sinking of warm at the front suppresses weather activity.
Case Study Britain
• Cold fronts over Britain tend to be more variable than warm fronts.
• The frontal slope is 2-3 degree times greater. This means that the belt of cloud & rain
passes over much quickly.
• The Kata old front has rather different characteristics:
• Many of the warm air masses at cold fronts in Britain are fairly stable and have
descending air motion near the front.
• Thus, in the Kata warm front, the cloud development is limited, and dominated by thick
stratus clouds.
WARM FRONT
It is the transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing warm subtropical moist air mass
replaces a retreating cold, dry polar air mass.
• They have relatively more horizontal coverage.
• Relatively lower vertical slope
• Relatively less violent than cold fronts.
• Precipitation associated with a warm front is typically steady and light to moderate in
intensity.
• Due to slow speed of these fronts the rain case last several hours or even several days.

54
 Fig: Warm Front
→ Frontal fog may form in the cold air mass near the frontal zone in the warm air mass
usually comes from stratocumulus clouds in the form of drizzle, gradually dying out and
being replaced by unsettled weather.
TABLE: Weather conditions associated with a warm front
Weather Prior to the passing of Contact with the After the passing of the
Phenomenon the front front front
Temperature Cool Warming suddenly Warmer than levelling off
Atmospheric Decreasing steadily Levelling off Slight rise followed by a
Pressure decrease
Winds South to SE Variable South to South west
Precipitation Shower, snow, sleet or Light drizzle None
drizzle
Clouds Cirrus, cirro stratus Stratus, Sometimes Clearing with Scattered
alto stratus Cumulonimbus Stratus, Sometimes
nimbostratus stratus Scattered Cumulunimbus

Occluded Fronts
They are produced when a fast moving cold front catches
overtakes a slower moving warm front and warm air is completely
displaced from the ground surface. It has erratic weather pattern.
They are of two types:
(1) warm front occlusion
(2) cold front occlusion
The cold front occlusion occurs when the cold air behind the cold
front is colder than the advancing cold air & vice versa.
Abercromby’s model explain weather patterns.

55
 CHAPTER - 7
HUMIDITY
Humidity and Concept
• Atmospheric humidity refers to the content of water in gaseous form in a parcel of air
having a definite volume & temperature at a particular time and place.
• Atmospheric humidity is obtained through various processes of evaporation from the
land and water surfaces of the earth.
• Humidity/vapour content ranges between 0 to 5% by volume.
• Humidity depends on temperature and it decreases from the Equator to Poleward in
response to decreasing temperature from the equator towards the poles.
• Humidity also decreases upward >90% of the total atmospheric vapour (humidity) is
found up to the altitude of 5 km.
• Maximum evaporation from land is between 100N and 100S while the same for water is
100-200N and S weather phenomena.
• The moisture content in the atmosphere creates several forms of condensation and
precipitation – dew, fog, cloud, rainfall frost etc.
• Climatically humidity is a very important constituent of the atmosphere.
Types of Humidity
On the basis of the way of measurement:
(i) Absolute Humidity:
o The total weight of moisture content (water vapour) per volume of air at a definite
temperature is called absolute humidity. Generally, does not change with an
increase or decrease of temperature, if no additional vapour is added through
additional evaporation, but changes with contraction or expansion of air.
o The absolute humidity decreases from the equator towards the poles and from
oceans to the continents. The possibility of precipitation largely depends on
absolute humidity.
(ii) Specific Humidity:
o It is a ratio of water vapour to the weight of moist air. Seldom affected by
changes in air pressure or air temperature and is directly proportional to vapour
pressure and inversely proportional to air pressure.
o Specific humidity decreases from the Equator to Pole wards.
o It is a measure of the quantity of water that can be extracted from the
atmosphere as precipitation.
(iii) Relative Humidity:
o It is defined as a ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the air having
definite volume and temperature (i.e. absolute humidity) to the maximum
amount the air can hold. (i.e. humidity capacity). It is generally expressed as a
percentage.

56
 The actual amount of moisture contained in air at a particular
temperature
The potential amount of moisture at a particular temperature.
o There is an inverse relationship between air temperature and relative humidity.
o Relative humidity changes in two ways :
 If the absolute humidity increases due to additional evaporation or
 If the temperature of the air decreases, humidity capacity also decreases.
• Importance of Relative humidity
o It has a great climatic significance because the possibility of precipitation
depends on it.
o High & low relative humidity is indicative of the possibility of wet and dry
conditions respectively. The amount of evaporation also depends on relative
humidity.
o It is directly related to human health and comfort, very high (>60%) and very low
humidity is injurious to human health.
o It also affects the stability of different objects – buildings, electrical appliances,
radio etc.
• Distribution of Relative Humidity
o The horizontal distribution of relative humidity on the earth’s surface is zonal in
character.
o Equatorial regions are characterized by the highest relative humidity.
o It gradually decreases towards subtropical high-pressure belts where it becomes
minimum (between 250-350 latitudes). It further increases polewards.
o Maximum R.H. – during summer between 300N and 300S latitudes while high
latitudes record relative humidity more than coverage value during winters.
o There is the maximum relative humidity in the morning lowest value is recorded
in the evening.

57
 CHAPTER – 8
EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
CLOUDS AND CLASSIFICATION
CLOUDS
• They are defined or aggregator of innumerable tiny water droplets, ice particles or
mixture of both in the air generally above the ground surface.
• They are formed due to condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei
caused by cooling due to lifting of air: adiabatic cooling.
• Meteorologically clouds are very significant because all form of precipitation occurs from
them.
Note: All clouds may not yield precipitation but no precipitation is possible without cloud.
• Clouds play major role in the heat budget of the earth and the atmosphere as they
reflect, absorb and diffuse some part of outgoing longwave terrestrial radiation and
then re-radiate it back to the earth’s surface.
Classification of Clouds
• Luke Harward, an English pharmacist and naturalist is given full credit to present a
sound scheme of classification of clouds into main & secondary types in 1803.
• The INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL COMMITTEE presented a system for naming
and identifying different cloud types in the year 1895.
• The first international cloud atlas was presented in the following year i.e. in 1896. The
world meteorological organisation (wmo) now publishes International cloud Atlas.
LUKE HOWARD’S CLASSIFICATION
Table: Classification as per Luke Howard
Name Diagram Description
Dense, low lying fog like clouds of dark grey
colour
Stratus clouds Seldom close to the ground surface
(latin: layer) Composition several uniform layers when
associated with rain= nimbostratus clouds

Dense widespread, shape-Cauliflower

Dome shaped + have flat bases
White wool like cloud masses
Cumulus Weather = fair + sometimes thunder clouds
clouds
(latin: PILE)

58
Cirus clouds High latitude detached clouds having fibrous (hair
(latin: hair) like) or silky appearances.
Composition: tiny ice crystals
Transparent + white colour but brilliant Colour at
sunset and sunrise indicate dry weather.
@ altitudE- 3-5 km over poles 5-13 km in
temperate regions 5-18km in tropical regions.

CLASSIFICATION BY WMO
Basis
• Their genesis & characteristic features
• Altitude of their occurrences
Table: Classification by WMO
A. high cloud (height-poles (3-8km); temperate (5-13kkm); tropics (5-18 km)
o cirrus clouds – discussed
Name Diagram Description
(2) cirrocumulus clouds • white coloured having
latin, cirro = high clouds cirriform layer or patches of
small white flakes or small
cumulus = detached clouds globules which are arranged
in distinct groups or wave like
form.
• generally appear as ripples
similar to sand ripples in the
desert
• not common
(3) cirro-stratus clouds • generally white in colour 4
spread in the sky line milky
latin: stratus thin sheets
stratified clouds • thin white veil of cirrus cloud
• composed of tiny ice crystals
which refract the lights of the
sun and moon
• halos formed around them.
• they are so transparent that
the sun and moon are visible
through them.

59
B. Middle clouds (height-poles) (2-4 km), temperate (2-7 km), Tropics (2-8 km)
(1)alto-cumulus clouds • Wavy layers of globular
forms
Alto: latin: middle clouds • Forms fairly regular
patterns of lines, groups
or waves.
• Individual masses of
clouds which are fitted
closely together in
geometrical patterns.
• High globular groups or
wool pack clouds

(2) alto-stratus clouds • Thin sheets of grey or

blue colour having fibrous
or uniform appearances
• When they become thick
sheets the sun and the
moon are obscured
• Appear as bright spots
behind the cloud
• They cover the sky partly
or totally or are smoothly
distributed over the entire
sky
• They yield widespread
continued precipitation
either inform of drizzle or
snow
(3) nimbo-stratus clouds • Low clouds of dark colour
Nimbo: latin: rain clouds very close to the ground
surface.
• So compact –thick that
there is complete
darkness & there is copius
precipitation.
• They are associated with
rain, snow and sleet but
are not accompanied by
lightning thunder or
hailstorm

60
C. Low Cloud (height, ground surface to 25 kms)
(1) strato-cumulus clouds • Grey and whitish colour
• Composed of globular
masses or rolls which are
generally arranged in
lines, wates of groups
• Generally associated with
fair or dear weather but
occasional rain or snow is
not ruled out.
(2) stratus clouds
(3) cumulous clouds
(4) cumulo-nimbus clouds • Thunderstorm clouds
• Show great vertical
(ground level to upto 50000 development and
feets produce heavy rains,
snow o hailstorm
accompanied by
lightening, thunder &
gusty winds
• Appear like mountains or
huge towers and assume
the shape of anvil or vast
plume
• Sometimes precipitation
occurring from cumulus
clouds in summer is
evaporated before
reaching the ground
surface = virga

FORMS OF CONDENSATION
Basic Definitions
• Condensation: The transformation of gaseous form of water (water vapour) into solid
form, when the dew point is above freezing point (i.e. >00C)
• Saturated air: The air having cent percent relative humidity.
• Dew Point: The temperatures at which an air becomes saturated and condensation
begins. I.e. temperature at which absolute humidity gets, equal to humidity capacity.
Condensation Process
The process and mechanism of condensation depends on the percentage of relative humidity of
the air.

61
An air may become saturated in two ways e.g.
• The absolute humidity of a given volume of air at a given temperature is raised to equal
the humidity retaining capacity of that air.
• The temperature of that air is reduced to such an extent that the humidity capacity
becomes equal to the absolute humidity.
* the condensation will begin only when the air is supersaturated i.e. if the relative humidity
exceeds 100% and this can be achieved only when the air is further coded by adiabatic rate of
cooling.
Forms of Condensation
If the dew point is above freezing point, condensation will occur in liquid form. For Example
• DEW: It refers to the deposition of water vapour without hygroscopic nuclei on the
surfaces of objects (eg. Vegetation) after condensation of moist air caused by radiation
& contact cooling of air lying above ground surface.
 High relative humidity
 Almost calm air
 Suitable radiating surface
 Clear skies (so that terrestrial outgoing longwave radiations during night is not
retarded.
• FOG: It is special type of thin cloud consisting of microscopically small water droplets
which are kept in suspension in the air near the ground surface and reduces horizontal
visibility.
 Result of contact cooling and advective cooling.
• RAINFALL: Most common form of precipitation above freezing point- But if the dew
point is below freezing point (<00C), condensation occurs in solid form.
• FROST: It is defined as the transformation of gaseous form of water directly into solid
form (process = sublimation) at the ground surface, in the soils and in the air layer just
lying over the ground surface.
 ground frost: hoar frost, black ice
 air frost: freezing drizzle
• SNOW: It is solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals, pellets or flakes.
• HAIL: They are sounded or irregular pellets or lumps of ice produced in cumulonimbus
clouds as a result of active turbulence and vertical air currents.

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• The various forms of condensation near the ground surface include dew, frost, rime,
mist and fog, clouds, snowfall, sleet, hail, drizzles, rainfall etc.
• solid precipitation falling from cumuliform clouds often produce striking cloud features
such as fallstreaks.
• where they reach the surface they are called precipitation and where they don’t they
are referred to as virga.

Fogs
Meaning and characteristics
• Fog is special type of thin cloud consisting of microscopically small water droplets which
are kept in suspension in the air near the ground surface and reduces horizontal
visibility.
• According to byers fog is defined as almost microscopically small water drops suspended
in the atmosphere and reducing the horizontal visibility to less than one kilometer.
• It may be pointed out that clouds are formed due to ascent, expansion and cooling of air
while fogs are formed due to radiation, conduction and mixing of warm and cold air
masses near the earth’s surface.
• Condition: relative humidity > 97%
• Temperature > 00c (freezing point)
• Invisibility increases as the fog becomes dense and there is darkness when the fog
becomes extremely dense.
• A light fog called as mist, is that when visibility is restricted to 2 kilometers.
• Fog is generally associated with inversion of temperature and occurs in the morning
hours but sometimes also continues till noon.
Smog or urban smog: smoky fog over the cities and industrial areas. Smog is generally formed
when fog is mixed with smoke. When smog is mixed with air pollution such as sulphur dioxide
(so2), oxides of nitrogen (nox) and ozone (o3), it becomes poisons and deadly health hazard to
human beings.
Case study:
→ Dec 1930: deadly urban smog in meuse valley of belgium
→ 1952: london smog
→ Every year around diwali: delhi smog
→ Dec 1930, smog of meuse valley was caused due to:
o Trapping of huge volume of so2 emitted from coke over steed mills, blast
furnaces, zinc smelters and sulphuric acid plants into a stagnant cold air layer.
o Result of inversion of temperature
→ A thick polluted fog, urban smog, was formed in dec 1952 over london which claimed
4000 human lives mostly through respiratory disease.

63
 Classification of fogs
• On the basis of visibility

• Classification by different scholars

CRITCHFIELD’S GEORGE’S
CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION

• Prefrontal fog or
Fog resulting from warm front fog
evaporation
• Post frontal fog or
→ Steam fog cold front fog
→ Frontal fog • Advection fog
Fog resulting from cooling • Radiation fog
→ Ground or radiation fog • Radiation advection
→ Advection fog fog
→ Upslope fog
→ Mixing fog
→ Barometric fog

H.C. WILLET’S H.R. BYER’S G. T. TREWARTHA’S

CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION
• Airmass A. Airmass fogs i)Radiation types
fog Advective types o Ground fogs
Land & sea (a) fogs due to o High inversion
Breeze fog transport of warm air fogs
Sea fogs over a cold surface
Tropical fogs ii)Advection radiation
B. FRONTAL FOGS fogs
Arctic sea 1. Prefrontal fog or iii)Upslope fogs
Smoke warm frontal fog
Or steam fog 2. Post frontal fog or
cold frontal fog
3. front passage fog

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• G.t. trewartha’s classification
It is modified & simplified scheme of willett.
Table: classification of g.t. trewartha’s
A. Intra airmass fogs

• Ground radiation fog: due to simple radiation and

conduction cooling of relatively moist air lying over a
chilled land surface
1. Radiation fogs
• High inversion fog: due to inversion of
temperature at the height of 400-2000 feet above
mean sea level
• Sea fog: when warm moist air moves over the colder
surfaces of land during winters
Advection radiation
• Land fog: when moist warm air moves over the colder
fogs (due to transport
surfaces of land during winters
of warm moisture air
2. • Wland fog: when warm moist air moves over colder
over cold surface but
surfaces of inland water bodies
the loss of heat due
• Moist tropical air mass fog: when warm moist
to radiation
tropical air mass is transported poleward over a cooler
surface mainly in middle latitudes.
B. Frontal fogs
(1) warm frontal Due to forced ascent of warm moist air caused by convergence of
fogs two contrasting airmasses warm & cold
(2) cold frontal fogs Due to saturation of cold surface layer of air by rainfall from the
overrunning warm air aloft.

Origin & characteristics features of fogs

1. Radiation fogs

Fig: condition + formation of radiation fogs

65
Radiation fog is formed when warm and moist air lies cold ground surface. Due to this situation
overlying warm and moist air cools and thus dew point is reached with the result condensation
of vapour around hygroscopic nuclei forms numerous tiny water droplets & thus fog is
originated.
more common in large cities & surrounding areas

Urban smog
Sometimes fog also occur at higher elevation due upper air in inversion of temperature = high
inversion fog.
this is called radiation fog because the cooling of air is accomplished through loss of heat by
radiation from the ground surface.
2. Advection radiation fog
→ Necessary conditions
• Horizontal movement of air
• Greater contrast between air
temperature & the temperature of
ground surface
• Moist air or high humidity in the air
• Stable stratification in the atmosphere
• dense advectional fogs are also
formed where cold & warm ocean currents converge. Fig: Advection Fog
Eg.: year newfoundland due to convergence of cool labrador and warm gulf stream.
Near japanese coast due to convergence of cool kurlie and warm kuroshio currents.
3. Steam fog = advectional fogs @ cold air moves from land over oceanic surface
+
• Evaporation of large quantity of
moisture from water surface to
saturated the overlying cold air
• Also called evaporation fogs.
• dense and extensive steam fogs
produced in the arctic region during
winter season = arctic sea smoke
4. Upslope fog Fig : Steam Fog Formation Process

• formed due to adiabatic expansion

• Common hill slopes in temperate regions
in any season.
• The south-eastern wyoming state the usa
upslope fogs are called cheyenne fog

66
5. Frontal fogs
• Formed in middle latitude temperate
regions
• Such fogs become extensive and more
persistent.
Types
• Pre-frontal or warm font fogs.
• Post-frontal or cold front fogs.
World distribution of fogs
General idea: the eastern portions of oceans and western continents margins are characterized
by frequent fogs because these areas are influenced by cool ocean currents.
(eg.; california current, western australian current, peru current, benguela current, canary
current etc).
• Frontal fogs are produced in middle and high latitude areas due to convergence of polar
air mass and warm westerlies mainly over the eastern north atlantic ocean and western
coasts of nw europe and over the eastern north atlantic ocean & western coasts of nw
europe.
North amrica

67
Europe

Asia

68
South america

Effect of fogs
• Fogs effectively hinder navigation, land and air transport system. Dense fog cause
severe accidents on high speed highways.
• When fogs are polluted through sulphur coming out of the chimneys of the mills, they
become poisons and health hazards.
• Sometimes, fogs are also economically beneficial to human society fog eg, they protect
tea and coffee plants from scorching sunlight on the hillslopes.
• Eg.; mocha coffee on the yemen hills (arabia) is highly benefitted from fogs.
• Long-continued dense fogs become very injurious to plants as the foliage is several
damaged.

69
 Chapter - 10
Precipitation: forms & theories
Introduction
• Precipitation refers to fall of atmospheric moisture either in liquid form (such as water
through rainfall) or in sold form (such as snowfall) after cooling and condensation of
ascending moist air after dew point is reached.
Causes
• Mechanical lifting or
• Dynamic lifting
Forms of precipitation
→ Depends upon:
• Temperature of dew point at which the air is saturated and condensation begins.
• Altitude & types of clouds
• Atmospheric conditions through which the cloud droplets pass through, mainly in terms
of temperature
• Adiabatic cooling.
→ Forms:
• Rain, fog (@ dew point >00c)
• At temperature <00c - snow, snowflakes, snow grains, ice pellets, hail, sleet etc.
Process of precipitation
• The presence of warm, moist and unstable air and sufficient number of hygroscopic
nuclei are pre-requisite conditions for precipitation to occur i.e. droplets to become
large enough to rain.
• The process of condensation begins only when the relative humidity of ascending air
become 100% and air is further cooled through dry adiabatic lapse rate, but first
condensation occurs around larger hygroscopic nuclei only.
• Such droplets are called cloud droplets.
• Precipitation does not occur unless these clouds droplets become so large due to
coalescence by collision due to gravitation attraction that the air becomes unable to
hold them. This is why, sometimes the sky is overcast by thick clouds but there is no
rainfall.
Processes
There are two possible processes of change of cloud droplets into raindrops.
• Ice crystal growth process:
o If warm and moist air ascends to such a height that condensation begins below
freezing point, then both water droplets & ice droplets are formed.
o The water droplets are evaporated because of difference of vapour pressure
between them and ice droplets and there is condensation of evaporated water
around ice crystals which go on increasing in size.

70
 o If they become sufficiently large in size, they cannot be held in suspension by the
air and consequently they begin to fall down. If the temperature above the
ground is high they fall in the form of raindrops.
• The suspended cloud droplets in the clouds are of different sizes. These cloud droplets
collide among themselves at varying rates due to difference in their sizes and thus form
large droplets. In the process several cloud droplets are coalesced to form raindrops.
When they become so large in size that ascending air becomes unable to hold them,
they fall down as rainfall.
The colloidal stability and instability of different clouds also control & determine precipitation.
• Colloidal stability
There are certain clouds wherein the water droplets do not coalesce rather remain
independent & hence they are suspended in the clouds and are held by them. It does not allow
precipitation to occur.
• Colloidal instability
Wherever water droplets are attracted and collide against each other, they ultimately coalesce
and are aggregated and hence grow in size such, large water droplets, referred to as raindrops,
cannot be held up within the clouds.
Theories of precipitation
• Idea- 1
raindrops = differently electrically charged

coalesced bye electrical attraction

grow in large size

Opposition: distances between raindrops too large + charge too small

coalescence not possible

• idea- 2
• But observations have revealed that there is regular pattern in the

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• Idea-3
Varying Variation in saturation Atmospheric
vapour pressure

UNDERSATURATION Relative Brings warm + cold

not surface of warm + SUPERSATURATION cloud droplets in close
cloud droplets of air consjuction
Wrt surface of cold
cloud droplets

cold droplets grow at expense of warm droplets

Opposition: the difference of temperature of cloud droplets is not so great that this differential
mechanism may operate.
• Idea-4
Raindrops grow around very large condensation (hygroscopic) nuclei but it is argued that no
doubt the process of condensation around exceptionally large hygroscopic nuclei is very rapid.
• Conclusion from ideas
o Precipitation depends on the size and weight of water droplets.
o Depends or speed of fall of water droplets (basically terminal velocity)
o Rate of condensation
The theories of precipitation & rainfall are grouped in two main categories on the basis of
processes of formation and growth of raindrops, namely rapid growth of raindrops due to
growth of ice crystals at the cost of water droplets.
1. Cloud instability theory of bergeron (ice crystal theory of bergeron) [cover fig 1 &2]

Fig 1: illustration of bergeron findeisen process of precipitation or ice crystal

Theory of bergeron findeisen

72
Core: based on the concept of mechanism of the growth of raindrops.
• According to him, water droplets and ice crystals are found together in unstable clouds
when temperature is below freezing point. The theory is based on commonly accepted
fact that “the relative humidity of air is greater with respect to water surface.”
• It can only operate where clouds extend well above the freezing level, but this does
include most clouds even at the equator. During vertical convection a cumulus cloud
billows upwards producing a good cauliflower based with fairly sharp.

Fig 2: illustration of bergeron findeisen process of precipitation

73
• Even when the cloud extends above the freezing layer its droplets are still liquid
(supercooled droplets)
• Eventually when the temperature falls below –350c some of the particles do freeze and
these grow faster than needles. When clouds are dominated by ice needles they have a
fibrous appearances and lack distinct sharp edge. This is the case with cirrus clouds and
the tops of cumulonimbus clouds.
• As the ice needles begin to fall they grow as crystals and collide with others forming
snow flakes. If the surface temperature is near or below freezing they will land as snow
but otherwise they melt to give rain.
• The bergeron process can operate equally well at fronts where slant convection occurs
or at mountain ranges where air is forced to rise by the relief.
2. Collision-coalescence theory
this theory claims that in
clouds there are some
tiny particles (solid or
liquid) which attract
condensation more than
other particles. There
are described as super
condensation nuclei, eq.
Particles of sea salt or
sulphuric acid from
volcanic eruption or
industry, and they grow
larger than other
condensation nuclei
around them and starts
collision & wake capture.
It is perhaps the most
common generator of
rain and drizzle from low
stratiform clods that do
not extend above the
freezing layer, and
perhaps in relatively
small cumulus clouds in tropical regions.
Types of precipitation (rainfall)
Precipitation & rainfall are classified on the basis of conditions and mechanism of upward lifting
of moist air.
There are two main mechanism of upward movement
(1) mechanical uplifting (forced uplifting)
(2) dynamic uplifting, which is further subcategorized into
(a) convectional uplifting
(b) frontal uplifting of air. (forced uplifting)

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 Table: types of rainfall
1. Convectional rainfall
Diagram Characteristics
Thermal convection caused by heating of
ground surface through insolation.
Condition
1. Abundance supply of moisture through
evaporation to the air (relative humidity
increase)
2. Intense heating of ground surface
through incoming shortwave
electromagnetic solar radiation.
Process:
• As the earth is heated by the sun, bubbles of hot air (called thermals) rise upward from
warm surface. A thermal cools as it rises and becomes diluted as it mixes with the
surrounding air, losing some of its buoyancy (ability to rise)
• If cool air is present aloft with warm air at lower levels, thermals can rise to great
heights.
• Successive thermals following the same path usually rise higher than previous one’s & if
a thermal is able to rise high enough to cool to its saturation point, the moisture within
condenses and becomes visible as a cloud.
• When a deep stable layer exists just above the cloud base, continental vertical growth is
restricted and only fair weather cumulus are able to form. However if a deep unstable
layer (cold air aloft) is present, continued vertical growth is likely), leading to the
development of a cumulonimbus cloud, which contains raindrops.
• Once the supply of thermals is cut off, the cloud begins to dissipate and eventually
disappears’. Convective clouds are typically much more vertically developed than those
clouds generalized by convergence lifting.
→ Locations: mainly equatorial regions of low latitudes.
 In temperate regions (not in form of the heavy shower)
 In hot deserts is not regular but is irregular & sudden.
2. Orographic rainfall
the lifted air mass cools,
according to dry adiabatic lapse
rate; which increases the relative
humidity of the air. The
mountain barriers produce triger
effect for the moist air to
ascend, cool & become unstable.

75
Necessary conditions
• should be mountain barrier across the wind
direction, so that the moist air is forced on
obstruction to move upward. It the mountain
barrier are parallel to the wind direction, the
air is not obstructed and no rainfall occur.
• Mountains very close and parallel to the sea
coasts become very effective barriers.
eg.; western ghats – india
coast range mountains – north america
• Height of the mountain
if the mountain are very close to the sea
coast, even low height can be effective barrier and can yield sufficient rainfall because
the moist air becomes saturated at very low height.
but the inland mountains should be of higher height because the air after covering long
distances losses much of its moisture content.
• There should be sufficient amount of moisture content in the air.
Characteristic features
• There is maximum rainfall near the mountain slopes & it decreases away from the
foothills.
• If the mountains are of moderate height, the maximum rainfall doesnot occur at their
tops rather it occurs on the other side.
• The windward slopes of the mountains at the time of rainfall are characterized by
cumulus clouds, while leeward slopes have stratus clouds.
• Inversion of rainfall: the amount of rainfall increases with increasing highest along the
windward slopes of the mountain upto a certain height beyond which the amount of
rainfall decreases with increasing height because of marked decrease in the moisture
content of the air.
• It may occur in any season. Unlike other types of rainfall it is more widespread and of
long duration.
• In addition to mountain barriers it may also be induced due to mountain barrier but
convective & cyclonic mechanism.
3. Cyclonic or frontal rainfall
Process: adiabatic cooling of ascending moist air
• The mechanism of cyclonic precipitation is of two types on the basis of 2 types of
cyclone
1. Temperate cyclones
2. Tropical cyclones

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1. Temperate cyclones
rainfall occurs when two extensive air masses of
different physical properties (warm & cold masses)
converge @ warm front: lifting along of warm air is
slow and gradual & hence the process of condensation
is also slow and gradual with the result precipitation
occurs in the form of drizzles but continues for longer
duration.
@ cold front: precipitation is always in the form of
thunder showers but is of short duration.
2. Tropical cyclonic precipitation
here two extensive air masses of similar physical properties converge to form tropical
cyclone wherein lifting of air is almost vertical & is very of ten associated with
convection.
• Tropical cyclones regionally called as typhoons, hurricanes, tornadoes etc., yield
heavy downpour in china, japan, se asia, bangladesh, india etc.
Global distribution of precipitation

Fig: average annual rainfall distribution across cyclone

77
Casual factors
• Moisture content of the air
• The convergent and divergent air circulation
• Topographical conditions
• Distance from source of moisture

Zonal distribution of rainfall

78
Wind circulation
Rainfall regime (seasonal distribution)

Man-induced precipitation or cloud seeding

Fig.: cloud seeding process

79
Cloud seeding is man induced precipitation where artificial nucleation of ice crystals is done in
super cooled clouds through introduction of dry ice silver iodide, finally ground salt, solid co2
etc to augment condensation process to yield precipitation.
Purposes:
• Hailstorm suppression
• Dissipation of fog
• Reduction of velocity and force of tropical cyclones
• Augmentation of precipitation
Ideal conditions
• Presence of supercooled clouds with great thickness
• Moist weather
note: cloud seeding may sanction increase or also decrease precipitation. E.g. if cumulus
clouds in maritime environment are seeded with cloud seeding materials, additional
nuclei are formed which lead to crowding of nuclei & increase in tiny droplets.
this causes reduction because tiny droplets cannot fall down unless they are aggregated
& become too large to be held by the air.
the orographic clouds are considered the most productive seedable clouds to yield
precipitation
Problems
• The assessment of productiveness of cloud seeding to stimulate rainfall is not without
error.
• The expenditure involved in the artificial cloud seeding is very high while the results is
not so encouraging
• The effectiveness of cloud seeding has not been properly demonstrated by practical
experience.
• The environmentalist, raise objections to such anthropogenic weather modification
programmes as these may interface with natural atmospheric and environmental
processes etc.

80
 Chapter - 11
Weather & climate
“climate is what you expect, weather is what you get”
• As a basic definition goes, weather refers to the total of the atmospheric conditions in a
specific area specific time which includes attributes like temperature, atmospheric
pressure, wind, moisture, precipitation, etc.
• To be precise, it can be referred to as a short-term variation of the atmospheric
conditions which is highly variable or the way the atmosphere is behaving. Weather
systems are simply the movement of warm and cold air across the globe. These
movements are known as low-pressure systems and high-pressure systems.
• Climate on the other hand can be defined as the aggregate weather conditions of any
region in a long perspective. It is often said that for a climate to develop the weather
condition of at least 30years have to be monitored. It is simply the average of weather
over time and space.
Elements of weather:
• Atmospheric temperature: it is a function of the modification of solar radiant energy by
air, clouds, land, sea and other water surfaces.
• Atmospheric pressure: it is equivalent to the weight of air above a given area on earth’s
surface or within its atmosphere. Typically it is an indicator of weather. When a low-
pressure system moves into a space, it leads to cloudiness, wind, and precipitation.

• Precipitation: it is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that

falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include
drizzling, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a
portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor (reaching 100% relative
humidity), so that the water condenses and "precipitates" or falls.

81
• humidity: it measures the dampness of
the atmosphere which varies from place
at different times of the day.
• Wind: due to differences in temperature
and atmospheric pressure between
nearby regions. Winds tend to blow from
areas of high pressure, where it’s colder,
to areas of low pressure, where it’s
warmer.
• Cloud: the patterns of cloud indicate the
presence of weather systems, which
produce most of the weather conditions:
rain, heat waves, cold snaps, humidity,
and cloudiness.

• Sunshine: the amount of sunshine received by a place depends upon the seasons, a
factor that is determined by latitude and earth’s position, which again determines the
amount of daylight available.
Factors that control weather and climate:
The weather conditions changes frequently, due to the variations in the quantity, intensity and
distribution of the elements of weather and climate. It so happens with climate also. The
factors controlling the variations of the elements of weather and climate from one place to the
other place and from one season to other are called controls of weather and climate. These
include:
 Latitude
 Altitude
 Unequal distribution of land and water
 Ocean currents
 Air pressure and wind

82
 Nature of ground surface
 Mountain barriers
 Anthropogenic factors- industrialisation, urbanisation, change in land use pattern,
concretisation, increase emission of green house gases.
The concern of today is to create a sustainable weather and climate as the climate change is
making adverse changes in the natural phenomenon- sea level changes, submergence of island
nations, flooding od coastal towns, glacial melting, change in atmospheric dynamics, imbalance
in ecological productivity, etc.
Sources:
 Https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaa-n/climate/climate_weather.html
 Https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/atmospheric-temperature
 Https://www.britannica.com/science/climate-meteorology/atmospheric-pressure-and-
wind
 Https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/weather/
 Https://foxriverkayakingcompany.com/what-is-atmospheric-pressure/
 Https://www.fondriest.com/news/precipitation.htm
 Https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/628-observing-clouds-and-weather

Classification of climate
• The climate classification involves the grouping of identical weather and climatic
characteristics in terms of:

influences on vegetation, soil and fauna of different regions of the world.

• Based on spatial scale of areal unit, m.m. yoshino has divided the world climates into 4
principal types:

The study of weather and climatic elements in an area having uniform conditions of these
elements is called regional climatology, wherein the size of a real unit from crop field to
continents, is included.

83
Approaches to climatic classification
• The two basic parameters of became the basis of climatic classification:
(a) temperature
(b) precipitation
• There are three approaches to the classification of world climates, namely

• The classification of world climate based on observed effects of climate is called

empirical classification and the approach is called empirical approach.
• The classification of world climate on the basis of causes of climatic variations and their
explanation is called genetic classification and method adopted is called genetic
approach.
• The classification of world climates involves the inclusion and analysis of numerical
meteorological data obtained through modern techniques of weather satellites and
radars. Such classification is called numerical classification.
Vegetation as basis of classification
• To appreciate and classify climate on the basis of weather elements and causal factors
(effects of altitude, maritime effect) is rather challenging because not only elements are
difficult to record and measure. It is difficult to appreciate, how they combine and relate
to one another.
• Koppen, used the innovation of classifying climate on the basis of observable
consequences like vegetation. This type of reverse engineering where climate can be
inferred from consequences. As vegetation adopt well to the climate condition.
Koppen
He used vegetation classification, and the following five major vegetation zones of the world as
identified by candolle in 1874.
1. Megathermal zone: high temperature and humidity (rainfall) throughout the year.
2. Xerophytic zone: hat and arid conditions evaporation exceeds precipitation.
3. Mesothermal zone: moderate temperature and precipitation.
4. Microthermal zone: area of cool and sub-humid condition.
5. Hekistothermal zone: almost permanently ice covered arctic and polar areas.
(a) megatherms: thermal based
(b) xerophytes: water based
(c) mesotherms
(d) microtherms thermal based
(e) hekistotherms

84
Using letters and alphabets to depict, climatic conditions was an important koppen’s innovation
where symbolically, he could describe and detail climate.
• A, d, c, e were based on thermal regime at primary level and on seasonal rainfall at
secondary level.
• B was based on rainfall and precipitation aspect as primary consideration.
At secondary level,
• A, c, d were classified on the basis of seasonality of rains.
• ‘f’ as rainfall throughout the year
• ‘s’ as summer dry condition
• ‘w’ as winter dry condition
• In his later modification, he also added ‘m’ as monsoon type with atleast one month of
dry condition and rainfall less than 6 cm in driest month.
Though, trewartha, redefined it.
• At third level, for c, d type of climate, koppen further subdivided them, on the basis of
relative warm or cool condition.

o B type of climate
• In relating vegetation with climate, koppen appreciated that vegetation is not
function of precipitation alone vegetation can use what remains after
evaporation losses. He coined a phrase, precipitation effectiveness.
• Although, koppen gave the concept, but it was thornthwaite who improvised
and gave more refined concepts of:
(a) precipitation efficiency index
(b) concept of potential (evaporation transpiration) evapotranspiration
• ‘b’ as area where net losses are higher precipitation is less than evaporation.

• Scheme has empirical approach, not focused on causal factors. Koppen’s scheme
cannot differentiate mid latitude continental desert from patagonia desert which
is consequence of leeward effect of andes mountain.

85
 o B type of climate represent dry climate where evaporation exceeds precipitation
and thee is constant water deficit throughout the year.
Evaluation:
• Koppen’s scheme was based on empirical approach and not causal factors.
• It was based on candolle’s map
• It seems to be biased in favour of temperature parameter of classifying climates.
• Later included monsoon type, trewartha redefined it.
• Thornthwaite improvised and refined his concepts on precipitation efficiency index and
potential evapotranspiration.

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 Chapter - 12
Climatic classification of the world
Thornthwaite
o The scheme of climatic classification of thornthwaite is vegetation based and empirically
approached.
o 1933- he presented his full scheme thornthwaite continued to develop an empirical
classification based on vegetation in his 1933 scheme, he used two new indices:
(a) precipitation efficiency index
(b) thermal efficiency index
a) Precipitation efficiency index (pei) is the ratio, which is total monthly precipitation by
total monthly evaporation. Based on the pei, he identified 5 humidity provinces:
a wet rainforest
b humid forest
c sub humid grassland with tree
d semi arid rare grassland
e arid desert
B) thermal efficiency index (tei) - calculated by empirical basis.
T 12  t − 32 
tei = = ∑ 
E 1 4 
T = monthly average temperature.
o Based on tei, he identified 6 thermal provinces,
a’ megatherm
b’ mesotherm
c’ microtherm
d’ tiaga
e’ tundra
f’ permafrost
o Based on seasonal rainfall,
r = rainfall throughout the year
s = summer dry
w = winter dry
d = dry throughout the year
→ Combining the three indices, we can have a range of climates. Theoretically,
(5×6×4) 120 climates are possible but some combinations are abused.
→ 1948: he presented detailed scheme and tried to include all indices.
→ The following concepts were included:
o Concept of expressing aridity on the basis of potential evapotranspiration
process and not actual losses. The idea was aridity is better established, if losses
are calculated for conditions for field saturation.
o For more comprehensive sense of aridity, he included transpiration losses along
with evaporative losses.

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 ( )
pei = 1.6 10t I a

i = ∑ ( t 5)
1.5
12 4

a = complex function
t = temperature

→ He developed a composite index there he combines seasonality of rain and pei into one
index, known as moisture index (mi/im)
100S − 60D
=
PEI
s = monthly surplus of moisture
d = monthly deficit of moisture
based on mi, he identified 9 types of climate

a wet
b 4
b 3 humid Moisture
b 2 surplus
b 1
mi = 0 c1 moist, sub humid
mi = -33 c1 dry, sub humid
Moisture
d semi arid
deficit
e arid

• The 48 schemes are very detailed and rigorous scheme has applied significance,
which can used for agriculture and crop planning. In india, it has been used for
identification of drought region.
• As, it was too detailed, it is impossible to draw a world map on 1948 scheme.
• Trewartha argued in support of koppen’s scheme which was less rigorous and
offered a better general appreciation which was considered appropriate for
geography.
Evaluation:
• Thornthwaite’s scheme was vegetation based and empirically based.
• His scheme was applied in nature.
• He included precipitation index in scheme; also aspects of humidity and thermal index
• Trewartha supported koppen’s scheme
• Thornthwaite’s scheme was based on seasonal rain.

*trewartha
• According to trewartha, a general climate pattern based scheme for the world is more
relevant to geography and not a detail mathematical approach.
• Also, empirical approach is suitable but where possible the genetic approach should be
included vegetation basis of classification is acceptable.
• His scheme is balance between genetic scheme and empirical scheme.

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 the major change/modifications by trewartha were:
→ He altered boundaries of c, d, e type of climate
→ The change over koppen’s scheme was alteration of poleward boundary of c, d, e.
o He believed the latitudinal range covered under ‘c’ type was too wide. He
reduced the boundary to 00c of winter from –30c for demarcating c and d
boundaries. He introduced the transition type at poleward of d and e by f with
same boundary demarcation.
o He modified monsoon basis, defined as the; at least 3 months of dry conditions
and rainfall less than 6 cm.
o He changed the symbol ‘f’ for rainfall to ‘r’
o He encouraged using less symbols to demarcate climatic regions.
for ex: mediterranean type in koppen’s scheme is ‘csk’
but, trewartha encouraged only ‘cs’
o He added modifications on the basis of genetic components and causal factors
too:
1. ‘h’ type of climate for highland type or altitude effect.
2. Effect of maritime coastal location that moderates temperature for tropical desert along
the west coast.
ex.: the sahara desert on the western coast of africa denoted bo, also atacama desert,
california desert with ocean moderating effect.

o The boreal (taiga) belts along the gulf of alaskan coast and norwegian coast were
moderated by the warm currents and may be therefore represented as do type
of climate. This is also true for the atlantic coast of tierra del fuego.

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Evaluation:
o Trewartha’s scheme was empirical and vegetation based
o He used aspects of temperature and seasonal rains, precipitation
o His scheme was applied in nature, used in crop planning, land management, drought
demarcation.

*climatic classification schemes

A. Koppen’s scheme
dr. Wladimir koppen of the university of graz first published his scheme of classification
of world climates in 1901 and subsequently modified it a number of times the major
revisions being 1918 and 1931.

Fig: koppen’s scheme

(i) amw (monsoon type with short dry winter season)
this climate is found in the western coastal region south of mumbai. This area receives
over 300 cm of annual rainfall in summer from the s-w monsoons.
(ii) as (monsoon type with dry season in high sun period)
this is the region in which rainfall occurs in winter and summer is dry. Coromandel coast
experiences this type of climate. Coastal tamil nadu and adjoining areas of andhra
pradesh are included in it. Rainfall is in winter 75-100 cm and is received from the
retreating monsoons.
(iii) aw (tropical savannah type)
this climate is found in most parts of the peninsular plateau barring coromondel and
malabar coastal strips. The northern boundary of this climatic region roughly coincides
with the tropic of cancer. The aug annual rainfall is 75 cm which is received in summer
season from s.w. monsoons winter remains dry.

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(iv) 85hw (semi arid steppe type)
some rainshadow areas of western ghats, large part of rajasthan and contagious areas
of haryana and gujarat have this type of climate. Rainfall varies from 12-25cm and most
of it occurs in summer. Winter is completely dry. Some arid steppe vegetation is found
here.
(v) 8whw (hot desert type)
most of western rajasthan has hot desert type of climate where the amount of annual
rainfall is less than 12 cm temperatures are very high in summer. Natural vegetation is
almost absent.
(vi) cwg (monsoon type with dry winters)
this type of climate is found in most parts of the ganga plain, eastern rajasthan, assam
and in malwa plateau. The summer temperature rises to 400c which falls to 270c in
winter. Most of rainfall occurs in summer and winter is dry.
(vii) dfc (cold, humid winters type with shorter summer)
some of the north eastern states such as sikkim, arunachal pradesh and parts of assam
have this type of climate. Winters are cold, humid and of longer duration. The winter
temperatures are about 100c summers are short but humid.
(viii) et (tundra type)
this climate is found in the mountain areas of uttrakhand. The average temp varies from
00 to 100c. There is fall temperature with altitude.
(ix) e (polar type)
the higher areas of jammu and kashmir and himachal pradesh experience polar climate
in which the temperature of the warmest month varies from 00 to 100c. These areas are
covered with snow for most part of the year.
o In koppen’s classification monsoon is depicted mainly for malabar coast and
monsoon is defined as atleast one month dry conditions and rainfall less than 6
cm.
o Depicting northeast himalayas as dfc is not correct it is not typically tiaga type.
o Cwg modification for ganga plain dilute his original scheme, can’t differentiate
plateau interior from semi arid region of rajasthan.
B. Trewartha’s scheme
prof. Glemn t. Trewartha of the university of wisconsin in the usa, modified and
simplified koppen’s classification and presented his own classification in his book
entitled ‘an introduction to climate’. He has recognized 6 major climates of the world.
They are:
(i) a- tropical humid climate (temp not below 180c)
(a) am - tropical monsoon type with average annual rainfall of over 250cm western
coastal plain and tripurat have this climate.
(b) aw - tropical wet and dry (savanna type). The temp here also remains at 270c but
the annual rainfall is much less, about 100 cm. The entire rainfall occurs in
summer season. A major part of peninsular plateau and north eastern state of
mizoram have this climate.
(ii) b-dry climate (rainfall less than 100 cm)

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 (a) 8s- is semi arid or steppe type which is found in the rain shadow of the western
ghats. The average temperature is above 270c but the rainfall is below 100 cm.
Rainfall occurs mainly in summer and support grasslands.
(b) 8sh-it tropical and subtropical desert climate in which the average annual
temperature is above 270c and the rainfall declines to 50-100 cm. Large parts of
gujarat, rajasthan and s-w haryana experience this type of climate.
(c) 8wh - is middle latitude desert climate which is found in west rajasthan and
kachchh region of gujarat. Here the temperatures are sufficiently high but the
annual rainfall further declines to a low of 20 cm. This climate supports only
thorny bushes.
(iii) c- mesothermal or subtropical climate in which winter is dry and cold
(a) caw- most parts of the northern plain of india have this type of climate where
winter temperature falls below 180c. Most of the rainfall occurs in summer and
the amount of rainfall decreases from east to west western disturbances give
light winter rainfall in the western part.
(iv) d-humid microthermal climate
(v) e-boreal climate
(vi) h-undifferentiated climate of highlands.
Where temperature are invariably low higher areas have snowfall in winter. Rainfall is caused
by the monsoon winds in summer and by western disturbances in winter. Most of himalayan
region including j&k, himachal pradesh, uttarakhand, sikkim and arunachal pradesh have this
climate out of the above climatic types 4 types –a, 8, c & h are found in india.

Fig 2: trewartha’s scheme

C. Thornthwaite’s scheme
following koppen, thornthwaite presented his classification of climates in 1931 and
revised it in 1933 and 1948. His classification is empirical and natural vegetation based
because it used statistical detail of rainfall and temperature details from local level in

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 concept of pet and moisture index, his classification was able to represent india’s rainfall
& climatic variation better.
(s − d)
• Moisture index = 100×
PET
(s= rainfall deficient in summer, d = rainfall deficient in all seasons)
• Thornthwaite’s 1948 scheme captures the relationship between vegetation and
precipitation better the detailing is for the local district level & therefore a better
represents indian climate type.
• His map has been used for water management drought area identification and land &
crop planning it has applied significance but too through and rigorous and therefore not
popular in geographical studies.

Fig. 3: thornwaite’s scheme

D. Stamp and kendrew’s scheme

this classification is empirical, arbitrary and subjective, but uses quantitative limits to
the regions in easily understood units like temperature and rainfall. The main challenge
of koppen, trewartha and thornthwaite was the fact that the schemes were not
developed and were not defined keeping india and its unique conditions defined india’s
climate is monsoonal type and differentiating aspect is that of rainfall.
stamp and kendrew developed a specific scheme for india alone. Stamp used 18ᵒc
isotherm of mean monthly temperature for january to divide the country into 2 broad
climatic regions, viz. Temperate or continental zone in the north and tropical zone in the
south.
the 2 major climatic regions are further divided into 11 regions depending upon the
amount of rainfall and temperature.

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A. The temperate or continental india has been divide into following two regions:
1. The himalayan region (heavy rainfall)
2. The north-western region (moderate rainfall)
3. The arid low-land
4. The region of moderate rainfall
5. The transitional zone
B. The tropical india has been divided into following 6 regimes:
6. Region of very heavy rainfall
7. Region of heavy rainfall
8. Region of moderate rainfall
9. The konkan coast
10. The malabar coast
11. Tamil nadu

Fig. 4: stamp & kendrew’s scheme

E. R. L singh’s scheme
following kendrew and stamp, dr. R. L. Singh presented his climatic divisions of india in
1971. He divided the country into 10 climatic divisions based on the temperature
conditions of the hottest and the coldest months along annual rainfall.

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 1. PER HUMID NORTH EAST
2. HUMID SAHYADRI AND WEST
COAST
3. HUMID SOUTH WEST
4. SUB HUMID TRANSITION
5. SUB HUMID LITTORALS
6. SUB HUMID CONTINENTAL
7. SEMI ARID SUB TROPICAL
9. ARID
10 WEST HIMALAYAN
fig 5: r. L. Singh’s scheme

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 Chapter - 13
Hydrological cycle
• The hydrological cycle of the earth is the total of all processes in which water moves
from the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of precipitation.
The hydrological cycle is dependent on various factors and is equally affected by oceans
and land surfaces.
• The hydrological cycle can be defined as the model of exchange of water over
the surface of the earth from oceans via the atmosphere, land surface, and back
to the oceans.
It involves the following mechanism:
• Evaporation of water from oceanic water through insolation.
• Conversion of water into water vapour or humidity
• Horizontal transport of atmospheric moisture over the oceans and the continents by
atmospheric circulation (advection)
• Release of atmospheric moisture in the form of precipitation
• Eventual transfer of water received at the earth’s surface to the oceans through
different routes and processes such as surface runoff and rivers.

Mechanism of global hydrological cycle

• Heating of oceanic water by insolation, which transforms it into gaseous form-water
vapour or moisture.
• It is then horizontally transported across the oceans and over the continents by
atmospheric circulation
• The air is cooled because of its ascent and the moisture is released in the form of
precipitation over the oceans and the continents.

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Precipitation can be different ways:
 It can directly fall in the lakes, streams, other water bodies; this is called direct fall as is
directly disposed off back into the oceans
 Some are intercepted by the vegetation, from this a portion is evaporated from the
leaves and the remaining part is transported to the ground through the branches and
stems of the plants as stem flow or aerial streams.
 A part of the rainfall reaches the ground directly as throughfall. Some portion of rainfall
is lost to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration from the vegetation, while some
are lost to the atmosphere through evaporation from the lakes, ponds and rivers.
While a good portion of rainfall reaching the ground surface becomes effective overland flow
which reaches the streams as surface runoff. Some portion of rainwater received at the ground
surface enters the soil through infiltration and thus forms soil moisture storage of which some
portion is again lost to the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration, some
portion reappears as seepage and springs via through flow and interflow while some portion
percolates further downward to form groundwater storage of which some portion reaches the
channel through base flow, some portion moves upward as capillary rise to reach soil moisture
storage and some portion is routed further down through deep transfer and enters the
underlying bedrocks. The channel storage receives water from surface storage through surface
runoff , from soil moisture storage through interflow and flow and from groundwater storage
through base flow . Thus the input precipitation finds exit through two paths of output e.g.
(i) To the atmosphere through evaporation from rivers, lakes ponds, soil,
evapotranspiration from vegetation and evaporation of falling rains
(ii) To the oceans through channel runoff or stream flow. This process is repeated every
year to make the water or hydrological cycle at global scale effective.
It may be pointed out that though the different hydrological processes as elaborated above
maintain the global hydrological cycle through the oceans, the atmosphere and the continents
but out of the total moisture of the biosphere 95% is never available for the hydrological cycle
because it is ( estimated quantity being 2,50,000 x 10(20) grams) locked in the rocks of the
earth’s crust.
The hydrological cycle is important to the transport and cycling of nutrients and energy. Though
the interaction between vegetation and the hydrological cycle is very limited but the effect of
hydrological cycle is enormous because the vegetation is an effective medium for the
circulation of sediments and chemical elements through biogeochemical cycles in the biosphere
and all these cycles become possible only through the movement of water.
Modification of hydrological cycle by man:
• Cloud seeding for induced precipitation, atmospheric pollution, modified atmospheric
circulation, forest clearance.
• Additional input of water on ground surface is provided through irrigation of crops and
effluent disposal from urban areas.
• Modification of interception storage by forest clearance and vegetation modification.
• Increase in surface runoff due to deforestation and cultivation and which is
supplemented by additional input through channelled irrigation for cropland and
effluent disposal from urban areas.

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• Modification of infiltration through devegetation, urbanisation, afforestation and
reforestation and irrigation.
• Soil moisture storage is positively affected by irrigation, planting of grasses and plants,
and artificial recharge while it is negatively affected by land clearance through
deforestation, burning of grasslands, urbanisation, etc.
• Extraction of groundwater for domestic use and irrigation purpose further modifies
groundwater storage.
Sources:
 Https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780128191668000086
 Https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780444627339000034
 Chapter 8, climatology, singh, s.s pravalika publication

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 Chapter - 14
Ocean atmosphere interaction
El nino, la nina, walker cell
• The inter-related phenomena of el-nino, la-nina and walker cell are together called “el-
nino southern oscillation” (enso).
• Enso is a periodic fluctuation in sea-surface temperatures and the air-pressure of the
overlying atmosphere across the equatorial pacific ocean.
o El-nino: warming phase of central and eastern pacific ocean sea temperature.
o La-nina: cooling phase of central and eastern pacific ocean sea temperature.
o Southern oscillation: the accompanying atmospheric component. It is the
bimodal variation in sea-level barometric pressure between observations at
darwin (australia) and tahiti (in central pacific).
• The two periods of el-nino and la-nina last several months each and typically occur
every 2-7 years.

Normal (enso-neutral) conditions

• During enso neutral i.e. normal conditions, surface trade winds blow east to west across
the equatorial pacific ocean.
• These winds drive a westward current in the ocean.

Fig: enso neutral conditions in pacific ocean

99
• The persistent winds and currents result in higher sea-level in western pacific ocean.eg.
Sea-level can be up to 50 cm higher in the waters around indonesia than in peru.
• this forms the warm western
pacific pool which induces low
pressure and rising air
currents bringing wet, humid
conditions in australia, papua
new guinea, indonesia etc.
• Cold peru current in eastern
pacific and cold upwelling
cause
o High pressure and
sinking air
o Dry, arid conditions of
the atacama desert
o Nutrient rich sea water on peru coast which promotes a healthy marine
ecosystem and robust aquaculture.
• The pressure conditions on either margin of pacific results in an atmospheric cell with
rising air currents in west, with upper air moving west to east, to sink in east over cooler
water. This latitudinal (zonal) cell is called walker cell (after sir gilbert walker who
studied the phenomenon in detail in india while studying monsoons).
• Thermocline – slanting down from eastern pacific to the western pacific (thermocline
marks transition between warm upper water and cold deep waters.)

El-nino conditions
• During el-nino years, the usual east to west trade winds get weakened and an
anomalous west to east flow develops.
• The west to east flow drives the warm equatorial waters from the western pacific
towards the eastern pacific ocean (northern south america).
• This suppresses the cold peru current (humboldt current is its other name) and causes
sea-level rise in eastern equatorial pacific.
• It also inhibits cold upwelling along peru coast.
• Air pressure: surface air pressure is anomalously low over the central equatorial pacific
e.g. tahiti and anomalously high in the western equatorial pacific for example australia.
• The reduced pressure gradient further drives surface air west to east.
• Low level winds converge over anomalous warm waters of the central and eastern
pacific and rise up. This causes unusually heavy rains near peru coast.
• On the other hand, australia and indonesia have the descending air which causes dry
conditions, drought, crop failure, forest fires etc.
The 2019 australian drought and bushfires coincide with el-nino.
• Thermocline: staring from eastern to western pacific, but considerably gentler slope.
The decrease in slope suppresses upwelling and destroys fisheries in peru.

100
 Fig: el nino conditions

La nina conditions
• During la-nina conditions, the east to west flow present during neutral conditions is
intensified.
• Strong trade winds result in above average sea-surface temperatures in the western
pacific and below average in the eastern pacific.
• Surface air pressure: anomalously low in western pacific e.g. northern australia.
o Anomalously high in central pacific over tahiti.
• Wind rises above western pacific due to high temperatures (and low-pressure). It causes
intense rainfall and flooding in australia and indonesia.
• Sea (surface water) circulation: enhanced east to west flow due to strong trade winds
promotes cold upwelling – unusually large catch of fish in peru – glut in the market.

Fig: la nina conditions

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• Thermocline:
o During la-nina, thermocline has steeper slope, slanted down from the eastern
pacific to the western pacific – denoting the enhanced upwelling of cooler,
nutrient rich deep waters towards the surface layer in the eastern equatorial
pacific.
o During la-nina, the deviations of sea surface temperature and rainfall from
normal are generally less dramatic than the deviations that occur during el-nino.

Fig: a comparisons of enso conditions

Walker circulation
• The walker circulation, also known as the walker cell, is a conceptual model of zonal
and vertical air flow in the troposphere, flowing along the equatorial pacific ocean.
• The term “walker circulation” was coined in 1969 by the norwegian-american
meteorologist jacob bjerknes after sir gilbert walker who studied the indian monsoon
extensively and discovered its link with southern oscillation, discovering the walker
circulation in the process.

102
 Fig.: pacific walker cell during enso neutral conditions

• the walker cell is driven by

temperature and pressure
gradients.
• Areas of high pressure
form over the cooler
eastern pacific waters.
Areas of low pressure form
over the warmer western
pacific waters.
• Winds near earth surface,
flow from areas pf high
pressure to low pressure.
So the near-surface winds
move across the pacific
from east to west as part of
trade winds.
• These trade winds push some of the warm near-surface ocean water to the west,
helping to make the air temperatures further warm in the west.
• The warm air over the west pacific rises and forms clouds, losing its moisture as
precipitation.
• The dryer air then travels back at the top of troposphere towards eastern pacific. This
cool pacific air then converges with cool continental air and sinks along the eastern
pacific coast. Because the air is cool and dry, calm conditions with very few
thunderstorms occur on peru coast, creating aridity in the atacama desert, and
completing the loop of the walker cell.

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 The southern oscillation index
• The southern oscillation index (soi) is a measure of the intensity or strength of the
walker circulation.
• It is one of the key atmospheric indices for gauging the strength of el-nino and la-nina
events.
• The soi measures the difference in surface air pressure between tahiti and darwin
(australia)
The index is best represented by monthly (or longer) averages, as daily/weekly soi values show
considerable fluctuations due to short-lived weather patterns.
• Sustained positive soi values above +8 indicate a la-nina event.
• Sustained negative soi values below -8 indicate an el-nino event.
El-nino: recent occurences
• El-nino events are thought to have been occurring for thousands of years.
• It is thought that there have been at least 30 el-nino events since 1990, with the 1982-
83, 1997-98 and 2014-16 events among the strongest on record.
• In recent times, el-nino events have been observed in 2009-10, 201416, 2018-19 and
2019-20.
• Typically, el-nino occurs every two to seven years.
• When it occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified as el-nino conditions.
• When duration is more than that it is classified as an el-nino episode.
2018-19 el-nino event
• It caused severe drought conditions in eastern australia, starting in 2018 and peaking in
2019. (worst on record in murray-darling basin).
• The prolonged drought is considered to be the major factor which contributed to the
2019 australian bushfires (black summer).
2014-16 el-nino event
• Warming of eastern pacific.
• One of the strongest el-nino events on record.
• Influenced the world’s weather in a number of ways-
o Drought conditions in venezuela, australia, and a number of pacific islands.
o More cyclones than normal in pacific ocean. Fewer than normal cyclones in
atlantic ocean.
o Central pacific basin – 16 cyclones in 2015 (most on record)
o Also cause the most severe coral bleaching in the great barrier reef ever
recorded.
o Bushfires season started early and widespread in australia (2015-16).
o Severe drought in africa – one of the three strongest since 1950. Many countries
like lesotho, swaziland and zimbabwe declared national emergency.
o Drought in south-east brazil, floods in southern region of brazil.
o Weak and delayed monsoon in south-east asia.

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1997-98 el-nino event
• It is one of the most powerful el-nino event in recorded history.
• It temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5ᵒc, compared to the usual increase of
0.25ᵒc associated with el-nino events.
• It resulted in the widespread droughts, flooding and other natural disasters across the
globe.
• It caused an estimated 16% of the world’s coral reef systems to die.
• Severe outbreak of rift valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern kenya and
southern somalia.
• Recorded rainfalls in california.
• Indonesia’s worst drought on record.
• 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history (up till then).16 tropical
cyclones in southern pacific as compared to an average of 8.
• West pacific – recorded 11 super-typhoons, with 10 of them reaching category 5
(highest in saffir simpson scale) intensity.
El-nino and indian monsoon
• El-nino tends to have a negative impact on indian monsoons. (whereas la-nina tends to
reinforce the monsoon floods).
• The reason is that the walker cell disturbance causes disturbances in other similar zonal
circulations in the tropics.
• The el-nino warming which causes the anomalous ascent of air in central to east pacific
leading to high precipitation over there, also generated anomalous subsidence of air
over the indian ocean region. This impacts the monsoons in india and south-east asia.

o While a general inverse relation between el-nino and indian monsoonal rains is
observed but no direct correlation has been established yet.
o From 1950-2012, there have been 5 instances of clear drought due to el-nino;
but on 14 other occasions, monsoon performance ranged from below average to
even above average.

105
  Example -1998 el-nino – strongest yet india has more than average
monsoon rain.
 2002- a weak to moderate el-nino, but severe drought in india.
• Now 2 factors are taken into account in addition to el-nino:
1. Indian ocean dipole – difference in sea surface temperature in arabian sea and eastern
indian ocean; it is also called ‘indian nino’.
o A positive iod – western indian ocean near africa, arabian sea becomes warmer.
It has been demonstrated that a positive iod index often negates the effect of
enso resulting in increased monsoon rains in several enso years like 1983, 1994
and 1997 – which actually led to discovery of iod.
2. El-nino modoki – it has been observed that there are various types/variations of el-nino.
o El-nino modoki/central pacific el-nino is different from the traditional or
canonical eastern pacific el-nino.
o During el-nino modoki there is anomalous rise of sst (sea surface temperature)
in central pacific, flanked by cold anomalies in western and eastern pacific.
o El-nino modoki has become more significant in recent times as compared to
canonical enso.
o The el-nino modoki has much significant impact on indian monsoon than the
canonical enso.
Hence, the relatively small but central pacific el-nino events like 2002 and 2009 have a large
influence on monsoon drought.
Whereas the large east pacific event of 1997 did not cause drought in india.

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 Chapter - 15
Ozone depletion
Ozone layer
The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high concentration of
ozone and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun.
The ozone layer is found in the lower portion of the atmosphere. It has the potential to absorb
around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun that can damage life
on earth. If the ozone layer was absent millions of people would develop skin diseases and
weakened immune systems.

Creation of ozone layer

• Ozone is tri-atomic form of oxygen. It is faintly blue irritating gas with a pungent smell. It
is present at all altitudes of atmosphere but the bulk of its concentration is in 10-50kms
up in atmosphere. Its highest concentration is between 12-35km of stratosphere and
this zone is called as ozonosphere or ozone layer.
• Ozone gas is unstable. It’s creation and destruction is continuous natural process.
• Step 1: breaking of oxygen molecule by uv solar radiation or electric discharge
o2 o+o
• Step 2: combination of separate oxygen atom with oxygen molecule and thus ozone is
formed
o2 + o o3
This step 2 is not common between altitude of 80-100km because of low density of gases in
atmosphere and such collision is also rare below 35km because most of the solar radiation have
been already absorbed above the height.
Hence the reaction triggered by sunlight is more active in 30-60km of atmosphere.
Note: ozone mixing ratio (= mass of ozone per unit mass of dry air)

Is mixing at height of 35 km but maximum ozone density found at height 20-25km because
ozone is transported by upper air circulation mechanism.
• Step 3: destruction of ozone by collision with mono-atomic oxygen by action of solar
radiation.

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 o3 + o o2 + o2

Ozone layer depletion

• Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the atmosphere. This
happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with
ozone and destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100000 molecules of
ozone. Ozone is destroyed more quickly than it is created.
• Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light
which then contributes to the ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known as
ozone depleting substances (ods).
Ods containing chlorine Ods containing bromine
• Chlorofloro carbons • Halons
• Methyl chloroform • Methyl bromide
• Hydro-bromo-fluoro carbons

Effects of ozone layer depletion

a. Effects on human health
The humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun due
to depletion of ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans
such as skin diseases, cancer, sun-burns, cataract, quick ageing and weakened immune
system.
b. Effects on animals
Direct exposure to uv radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
c. Effects on environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in
plants and in forest plants too.
d. Effects on marine life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are
higher in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed the organisms present in
the lower food chain are also affected.
Ozone depletion: an environmental concern
• Problems of ozone depletion and its consequence have threatened the existence of all
forms of life in the biosphere.
• It provides a protective cover to all organism in the ecosystem against their exposure to
uv solar radiation.
• Ozone layer filters the solar radiation by absorbing unwanted uv rays and allow only
those radiation wave to reach the earth’s surface which are essential for maintenance of
life.
• The accumulation of cfc in atmosphere leads to the rapid rate of depletion of ozone. In
some places ozone concentration has dropped by 100% resulting in ozone hole.

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 Factors of ozone depletion
Natural factors Anthropogenic factors
• Conversion of nitrogen into nitrogen • Cfcs and halon gases released by several
oxide due to solar activity. Nitrogen devices deplete the ozone.
oxide deplete the ozone. • Sulphate aerosol emitted by chimneys
• Ozone splits into oxygen molecule by of factories.
solar radiation. • Nitrogen oxide emitted by supersonic
• Redistribution of ozone by atmospheric jets.
circulation. This transport of ozone • Increase in the number of clouds in
from over south pole results in stratosphere because of global warming
thinning of ozone layers and formation leads to formation of ice clouds and
of ozone hole. hence depleting ozone.
Impact of ozone depletion
• Global warming because of increase in surface temperature.
• Climate change at regional and global level.
• Increase in amount of hydrogen peroxide in troposphere causing acid rain.
• Urban smog because of increase in photochemical process.
Protection and maintenance of ozone layer
• Reduction in production of cfc and halon gases consumption. For this, montreal protocol
was signed.
• Search of alternative technology like hfcs or cfcs with added extra-hydrogen atom.

Solutions to ozone layer depletion

The depletion of ozone layer is serious issue and various programmes had been launched by the
government of various countries to prevent it.
The montreal protocol
• The montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer is the landmark
multilateral environmental agreement that regulates the production and consumption
of nearly 100 man-made chemicals referred to as ozone depletion substances (ods).
• The montreal protocol was adopted on 15 september 1987; the protocol is to date the
only un treaty ever that has been ratified by every country on earth – all 197 un
member states.
• Nairobi, 03 jan 2019 – the new world has taken an important step on the road
drastically reduce the production and consumption of powerful greenhouse gases
known as hydro-fluoro carbons (hfcs) and limit global warming with the kigali
amendment to the montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer
coming into force on 1 jan 2019
Following are some of the points that would help in preventing this problem at global level:
• Avoid using pesticides
• Minimise the use of vehicles
• Use eco-friendly cleaning products
• The use of nitrous oxide should be prohibited

109
*ozone holes
• Ozone hole refers to a region in the stratosphere where the concentration of ozone
becomes extremely low in certain months.
South pole (antarctic hole)
• Ozone holes are most commonly found over antarctic region than that of the artic
region. They form in the months of september, october and november.
• They are formed due to a set of special meteorological and chemical conditions that rise
at the south pole. Here it can reach sizes of around 20-25 million sq.km.
North pole (arctic hole)
• Ozone holes over the north pole are much smaller in size than the south pole. This is
due to warmer temperatures in the north pole.
• But recently, largest ozone hole was discovered which now has been recovered in april
2020. The reason for this is said to be the polar vortex – a circling whirlpool of
stratospheric winds responsible for bringing cold air to polar regions.
*polar vortex
It is described as a whirling cone of low pressure over the poles that is strongest in the winter
months due to increased temperature contrast between the polar regions and mid-latitudes,
such as the us and the europe.
The polar vortex spins in the stratosphere, a layer of the atmosphere 10-48km above the
ground. Usually when the vortex is strongest cold air is less likely to plunge deep in to north
america or europe. In other words, it forms a wall that protects the mid-latitudes from cold
arctic air.

Fig. 2: type of polar vortex

But occasionally, the polar vortex is disrupted and weakens due to wave energy propagating
upward from the lower atmosphere. When this happens, the stratosphere warms sharply in an
event known as sudden stratospheric warming, in just a few days, miles above the earth’s
surface.
The warming weakens the polar vortex, shifting its location somewhat south of the pole or, in
some instances splitting the vortex up into ‘sister vortices’.

110
Effects
o The split higher up in the atmosphere can give rise to both, sudden and delayed effects,
much of which involves declining temperatures and extreme winter weather in the
eastern us along with northern and western europe.
o A sudden stratospheric warming also leads to a warm arctic not only in the stratosphere
but also in the troposphere as well. A warmer arctic, in turn favors more severe winter
weather in the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes including the eastern us.
How it is linked to global warming
o The global temperature has risen by 0.8ᵒc since 1880
o The arctic has warmed over twice the average
o The temperature difference between north pole and regions like north america has
reduced
o The energy generated by the jet stream travels upwards and disrupt the polar vortex
causing it to split.
o One of these two “child” vortices has visited north america recently causing the record
temperatures (-30ᵒc).

111
 Chapter - 16
Topic: climate change and global warming
The impact of increased surface temperatures is significant in itself. But global warming will
have additional far reaching effects on the planet. Warming modifies rainfall patterns, amplifies
coastal erosion, lengthens the growing seasons in some regions, melts ice caps and glaciers, and
alters the range of some infectious diseases. Some of these changes are already occurring.
The global temperature rose a total of 4-7ᵒc over about 5,000 years. In the past century alone,
the temperatures have climbed 0.7ᵒc, roughly ten times faster than the average rate of ice age
recovery warming.

Effects and impacts of climate change

Impacts of 1.1ᵒc increase are here today in the increased frequency and magnitude of extreme
weather events from heatwaves, droughts, flooding, winter storms, hurricanes and wildfires are
per ipcc (intergovernmental panel on climate change).
• Wmo (world meteorological organization) says that the global average temperature in
2019 was 1.1ᵒc above the pre-industrial period.
• 2019 concluded a decade of exceptional global heat, retreating ice and record sea level
driven by greenhouse gases produced by human activities as stated by wmo.
• Wmo – 2019 was the second hottest year on record. As per egr (exhaust gas
recirculation) report of 2019, total annual global ghg emissions reached its highest
levels in 2018, with no sign of peaking.
• Average temperatures for the five years (2015-2019) and ten years (2010-2019) periods
are highest on record (wmo).
The climate crisis is with us now and getting worse. Unep’s emission gap report (egp), 2019
warns that unless global greenhouse gas emissions fall by 7.6% each year between 2020 and
2030, the world will miss the opportunity to get on track toward the 1.5ᵒc temperature goal of
the paris agreement.
Why is 1.5ᵒc important?
• At 1.5ᵒc over 70% of coral reefs will die, but at 2ᵒc all reefs over 99% will be lost
(situation can be analysed from 2019 mass coral bleaching of the great barrier reef).
• Insects, vital for pollination of crops and plants are likely to lose half their habitat.
• The arctic ocean being completely bare of sea ice in summer would be a once per
century likelihood at 1.5ᵒc
• Sea-level will be 100 cm higher at 2ᵒc than at 1.5ᵒc
• Over 6mn people currently living in coastal areas would be vulnerable to submergence
at 1.5ᵒc rise.
• Frequency and intensity of droughts, storms and extreme weather events are
increasingly likely above 1.5ᵒc
The enanced green house effect
Ongoing by the paleoclimate records, since the industrial revolution began in about 1750, co2
levels have increased nearly 38% as of 2009 and methane levels have increased 148%.

112
 Fig: global average concentrations of co2 and ch4
The models predict that as the world consumes over more fossil fuels, ghs concentrations will
increase and earth’s average surface temperature will continue to rise with them. Based on a
range of plausible emission scenarios, average surface temperatures could rise between 2ᵒc
and 6ᵒc by the end of 21st century.

The rise of average sea level

The ipcc estimates that sea level will rise between 0.18 and 0.59 meters by 2099 as warming
sea water expands and mountains and polar glaciers melt. Satellite measurements reveal that
he greenland and west antarctic ice sheets are shedding about 125 billion tons of ice every year
enough to raise sea levels by 0.35mn per year.
• The graphs shown below depicts (a) change in sea level since 1993 as observed by
satellites (b) how much sea level changed from about 1870 to 2013, as derived from
coastal tide gauge data.
satellite data : 1993-present Ground data: 1870-2013
Rate of change = 3.3 mm/year Data source: coastal tide gauge records
Credit: csiro (commonwealth scientific and
Credit: nasa goddard space flight center
industrial research organisation)

Global sea level rise which occur because f climate change is absolute in nature and affect all
the seas and oceans around the world and are primarily driven by large scale climate changes
like glaciation and deglaciations since the historical ice ages.

113
As per 2019 ipcc special report on oceans and cryosphere in a changing climate (srocc), global
incidence of sea level rise is as follows:

1901 – 1990 Sea level Rise = 1.4 mm/year

years
1970 – 2005 Sea level Rise = 2.1 mm/year
2005 – 2015 Sea level Rise = 3.5 mm/year

Evidences of sea level change

• Marine terraces and buried wetlands are only two of many types of geological evidences
for earlier sea levels.
• Geologists also study foraminifera and diatoms for evidence of ice ages and sea level
change. These fossils can be used as indicators of past climates as different species
preferred living in different water temperatures.
• The composition of oxygen isotopes found in the carbonate shell can be measured to
determine what the water temperatures was like when the organism was found. High
proportions of the oxygen-18 isotope in the shells are associated with cold seas and
glaciations.
• Through radiocarbon dating techniques, ages of the oceans/seas and presence of an
older sea level can be determined that can help us in building a history of sea level
changes.
Marine heat waves (mhs)

Fig: recent events of marine heatwaves over the world map

114
** as per the january 2020 report on “impact of co2 emissions on global intense hydro-
meteorological disasters”, indian faces 5 to 10 times as many extreme events as the “average
country”. One more extreme event in india (such as kerala floods 2018 that killed at least 400)
would strain the ability of country to cope.
Case study – 2019 – kerala floods
• displaced - >1 million, deaths at least 400
• Cause– heavy monsoon rainfall and mismanagement of dams in the region, weak early
warning and response systems, no effective flood control zone and flood cushions.

case study australian bushfires

o heaviest structural damage in new south wales – 1588 homes were destroyed
and over 650 damaged, more than 16.8 million hectares of area have been
burned across australia’s six states, approx. 1 billion affected, 1/3rd of koalas in
new south wales killed.
o Causes
 Dry, hot weather (fire season) during australian summers.
 Dry lightning in victoria’s east gippsland region.
 Nsw police charged at least 24 people with deliberately starting
bushfires.
** challenges to address climate change:
Solutions such as reforestation, ecosystem protection and rewilding represent 30% of the
opportunity to address climate change yet receive just 3% of the available funding.

Historical aspects of climate change

Earth’s climate has constantly changed. Very hot and dry climate is experienced by earth before
archean time but from archean time, climate had moderated to support life on earth.
• During late pre cambrian times, earth witnessed ice age known as huornianice age
whose evidence are also found in india (eastern himalayas).
• Cambrian times were fairly warm and wet and hence proliferation of life forms took
place which is also referred to as cambrian explosition.
• Devonian and silurian times supported growth of dense forests.
• Permian times were characterized by intense ice age which led to permian extinction
wherein >95% of lifeforms ever survived or dead.
• Mesozoic times however experienced comparatively warm and dry climate.
• From late cretaceous, progressive cooling of earth started.
• Pleistocene (2-3 million years ago) was a major ice age.
Agassiz first discovered global evidences of ice age in europe and america.
 North america was once largely covered by massive ice sheets and ice shelves. Mass
wasting of sheets and retreat of glaciers resulted in typical topography of canada with
its fluvio-glacial deposits, deranged rivers and numerous glacial lakes.
 Pleistocene and pliocene ice ages (cycles of cold r glacial phase) were separated by
warm interglacial or interstadial phases.

115
Examples:
Warm phases of north Cold phases of north america Cold phases of europe
america • Nebraskan and britain
• Aftonian • Kansan • Gunz
• Yarmouth • Illinoin • Riss
• Sangamon • Wiscosin • Mindel
• Wurm
Since then, how things changed?

Fig: trend of changes in surface temperatures for the past 18,000 years. Temperature change is
from present average global temperature.
• Younger diyas (10-12k years ago) – less amount of solar radiation.
• Little ice ages (1400 to 1800 = 400 years) – sudden drop in temperature.
• Since then, temperature was increasing as a consequence of industrial revolution,
agricultural revolution and urbanisation.
James hutton while propounding the concept of uniformitarianism, postulated the concept of
cyclic nature of earth’s history. The occurrences of above written events(ice ages and
interglacial periods) validated the concept of cyclic nature of climatic changes.
Indicators of climate change
the riddle of reconstruction of paleoclimates is a fascinating puzzle, the solution of which
basically depends on proxy data and logical deductions by the investigations. The indicators of
paleoclimates may be classified on the basis of basic sources as follows:

116
 Biological Indicators:
A. Floral Indicators
• Fossil remains of
plants
• Fossilized plants
• Oxygen isotopes
• Tree ring growth
B. Faunal Indicators:
• Fossilized animals
• Distribution and
dispersal of animals
Geological Indicators:
A. Glaciation
a. Ice Ages
b. Glaciers and Glaciation
c. Ice Sheets and Ice
cores.
B. Periglacial evidences
Fig: Paleo-climatic indicators of Climate Change
Geological Indicators: Geomorphological
A. Terrigeneous Ancient Indicators:
Deposits: A. Morphological
a. Lacustrine Deposits a. erratics
b. Evaporite Deposits b. Sand dunes
c. Sedimentary c. River terraces
Deposits d. Duricrusts
B. Marine Deposits e. Pediments
a. Sea Floor Deposits f. tors
C. Pedogenic Indicators B. Geomorphological
Process
INDICATORS OF
CLIMATE CHANGE
Tectonic Indicators: Historical Record:
A. Plate Tectonics • Flood Records
a. Pole wandering and continental • Drought Records
drift • Migration of man
b. Paleo-magnetism and Sea
and animals
Floor Spreading
B. Sea Level Changes
117
Theories related to climate changes
I. Solar irradiance (variation in solar radiation)
II. Sunspot cycles
III. Astronomical theories (eccentricity of earth’s orbit, obliquity of the ecliptic, precession
of the equinoxes, earth-sun relationships etc.)
IV. Atmospheric dust hypothesis (mainly volcanic eruptions and dust thereof).
V. Carbon dioxide hypothesis
VI. Continental drift and pole wandering.
VII. Tectonic and topographic control theory.
VIII. Oceanic variation hypothesis
IX. Extra terrestrial bodies collision theory
X. Anthropogenic sources (changes in the earth’s surface and atmospheric composition).
Solar irradiance theory:
• Related to solar radiation
• Appearance of sunspots or increase in sunspots activity implies high solar radiation. For
example: in 1998 earth was impacted by one such increase in sun spot cycles.
Simpson theory
• Higher solar radiation result in expansion of ice sheets and ice shelves n polar regions.
Atmospheric dust hypothesis
• There exists a strong co-relationship between major mountain building phases,
supercontinent formation followed by a major ice age.
• Example:
o Archean mountain building – huronian ice age
o Caledonian and hercynian mountain building – carboniferous-permian ice age
o Tertiary mountain building – pleistocene ice age
This maybe because even if in short term, water vapour, co2, dust from volcanic eruption can
warm the conditions. In longer span (5-10 years), the dust and clouds can block insolation
resulting in lowering of temperature. The krakatoa eruption (1885 – sunda trench) and
mountain katmain (alaska) eruption known to have caused global cooling.
**climate forcing – difference of incoming and outgoing radiation
• Factors that increases incoming radiation and causes global warming = positive forcing
• Factors that decreases incoming radiation and causes global warming = negative forcing
Astronomical theories
Factors related to earth-sun geometry again impacts the amount of radiation received on earth.
i. Eccentricity of orbit: shape of earth’s elliptical orbit can change from more
eccentric/elongated orbits to relatively circular. Periodicity of such activity is approx. 95,
000 years (milutin-milankovitch cycle).
ii. Obliquity of axis:
a. Angles of a real tilt can fluctuate between 21ᵒ and 25ᵒ.
b. Periodicity ≈ 40,000 – 45,000 years.
c. Changes of tilt, increases the seasonal contrast of temperatures.

118
iii. Precision of equinoxes
a. Orientation of axis can change without changing axial tilt. It can change between
north star and star vega, consequence of which is the change of timings of
seasons (solstice – equinoxes). It happens once in 19,000 – 23,000 years.
Recent global warming – co2 theory:
Concentration of co2= 0.03% in atmosphere. Therefore, it plays a very important role.
**pre industrial era – concentration of co2 = 280-290ppm
Currently, – concentration of co2 = >380-390ppm and touching 400 ppm.
Reasons:
Enhances greenhouse effect (ghe) because of human activities (burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation and consequent carbon sequestration, agriculture-known to emit and increase
amount of methane , melting i.e. sheets and shelves of arctic and antarctic).

Climate change due to anthropogenic factors

• Climate change-2014 synthesis report highlights that the period from 1983-2012 was
likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years in the northern hemisphere
contributed by recent anthropogenic emissions of ghgs. The globally averaged combined
land and ocean surface temperature data as calculated by a linear trend show a
warming of 0.85ᵒc over the period 1880 to 2012.
• Since the beginning of industrial era, oceanic uptake of co2 has resulted in acidification
of the ocean (ph decreased by ≈ 26% (0.1 unit)). Atmospheric concentrations of co2, ch4
and no2 are unprecedented in at least the last 8,00,000 years. Anthropogenic influences
have likely affected the global water cycle since 1960s and contributes to retreat of
glaciers since 1960s and to increased surface melting of greenland ice sheet since 1993.
Anthropogenic ghg emissions are mainly driven by population size, economic activity,
lifestyle, energy use, land use patterns, technology and climate policy.
Future risks and impacts caused by a changing climate
Climate change will amplify existing risks and create new risks for natural and human systems.
Risks are unevenly distributed and are generally greater for disadvantaged people and
communities in countries at all levels of development.
• A large fraction of species faces extinction.
• Climate change is projected to undermine food security.
• Projected climate change will impact human health mainly by exacerbating health
problems that already exists.
• In urban area – increase risks for people, assets, economies and ecosystems, including
risks from heat stress, storms, extreme precipitation, inland and coastal flooding,
landslides, air-pollution, droughts, water scarcity, flash floods, sea-level rise etc.
• In rural areas – major impacts on water availability and supply, food security,
infrastructure and agricultural incomes including shifts in the production of food and
non-food crops around the world.
• **climate change is a threat to sustainable development. Nonetheless, there are many
opportunities to sink mitigation, adaptation and the pursuit of other societal objectives,
through integrated responses. Successful implementation relies on relevant tools,
suitable governance structures and enhanced capacity to respond.

119
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 Geography optional syllabus for UPSC
Paper 1: principles of geography
1. Geomorphology: factors controlling landform development; endogenetic and
exogenetic forces; origin and evolution of the earth’s crust; fundamentals of
geomagnetism; physical conditions of the earth’s interior; geosynclines; continental
drift; isostasy; plate tectonics; recent views on mountain building; vulcanicity;
earthquakes and tsunamis; concepts of geomorphic cycles and landscape development;
denudation chronology; channel morphology; erosion surfaces; slope development ;
applied geomorphology : geohydrology, economic geology and environment.
2. Climatology: temperature and pressure belts of the world; heat budget of the earth;
atmospheric circulation; atmospheric stability and instability. Planetary and local winds;
monsoons and jet streams; air masses and fronto genesis, temperate and tropical
cyclones; types and distribution of precipitation; weather and climate; koppen’s,
thornthwaite’s and trewartha’s classification of world climates; hydrological cycle;
global climatic change and role and response of man in climatic changes, applied
climatology and urban climate.
3. Oceanography: bottom topography of the atlantic, indian and pacific oceans;
temperature and salinity of the oceans; heat and salt budgets, ocean deposits; waves,
currents and tides; marine resources: biotic, mineral and energy resources; coral reefs,
coral bleaching; sealevel changes; law of the sea and marine pollution.
4. Biogeography: genesis of soils; classification and distribution of soils; soil profile; soil
erosion, degradation and conservation; factors influencing world distribution of plants
and animals; problems of deforestation and conservation measures; social forestry;
agro-forestry; wild life; major gene pool centres.
5. Environmental geography: principle of ecology; human ecological adaptations;
influence of man on ecology and environment; global and regional ecological changes
and imbalances; ecosystem their management and conservation; environmental
degradation, management and conservation; biodiversity and sustainable development;
environmental policy; environmental hazards and remedial measures; environmental
education and legislation.
6. Perspectives in human geography: areal differentiation; regional synthesis; dichotomy
and dualism; environmentalism; quantitative revolution and locational analysis; radical,
behavioural, human and welfare approaches; languages, religions and secularisation;
cultural regions of the world; human development index.
7. Economic geography:world economic development: measurement and problems; world
resources and their distribution; energy crisis; the limits to growth; world agriculture:
typology of agricultural regions; agricultural inputs and productivity; food and nutrition
problems; food security; famine: causes, effects and remedies; world industries:
locational patterns and problems; patterns of world trade.
8. Population and settlement geography:growth and distribution of world population;
demographic attributes; causes and consequences of migration; concepts of over-
under-and optimum population; population theories, world population problems and
policies, social well-being and quality of life; population as social capital. Types and
patterns of rural settlements; environmental issues in rural settlements; hierarchy of

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 urban settlements; urban morphology: concepts of primate city and rank-size rule;
functional classification of towns; sphere of urban influence; rural – urban fringe;
satellite towns; problems and remedies of urbanization; sustainable development of
cities.
9. Regional planning:concept of a region; types of regions and methods of regionalisation;
growth centres and growth poles; regional imbalances; regional development strategies;
environmental issues in regional planning; planning for sustainable development.
10. Models, theories and laws in human geography:systems analysis in human geography;
malthusian, marxian and demographic transition models; central place theories of
christaller and losch; perroux and boudeville; von thunen’s model of agricultural
location; weber’s model of industrial location; rostov’s model of stages of growth.
Heartland and rimland theories; laws of international boundaries and frontiers.

Paper 2: geography of india

Note: candidates will be required to answer one compulsory map question pertinent to
subjects covered by this paper.

1. Physical setting:space relationship of india with neighboring countries; structure and

relief; drainage system and watersheds; physiographic regions; mechanism of indian
monsoons and rainfall patterns, tropical cyclones and western disturbances; floods and
droughts; climatic regions; natural vegetation; soil types and their distributions.
2. Resources:land, surface and ground water, energy, minerals, biotic and marine
resources; forest and wild life resources and their conservation; energy crisis.
3. Agriculture:infrastructure: irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, power; institutional factors: land
holdings, land tenure and land reforms; cropping pattern, agricultural productivity,
agricultural intensity, crop combination, land capability; agro and socialforestry; green
revolution and its socioeconomic and ecological implications; significance of dry
farming; livestock resources and white revolution; aqua – culture; sericulture, apiculture
and poultry; agricultural regionalisation; agro-climatic zones; agro- ecological regions.
4. Industry:evolution of industries; locational factors of cotton, jute, textile, iron and steel,
aluminium, fertilizer, paper, chemical and pharmaceutical, automobile, cottage and
agro-based industries; industrial houses and complexes including public sector
undertakings; industrial regionalisation; new industrial policies; multinationals and
liberalization; special economic zones; tourism including eco -tourism.
5. Transport, communication and trade:road, railway, waterway, airway and pipeline
networks and their complementary roles in regional development; growing importance
of ports on national and foreign trade; trade balance; trade policy; export processing
zones; developments in communication and information technology and their impacts
on economy and society; indian space programme.
6. Cultural setting:historical perspective of indian society; racial, linguistic and ethnic
diversities; religious minorities; major tribes, tribal areas and their problems; cultural
regions; growth, distribution and density of population; demographic attributes: sex-
ratio, age structure, literacy rate, work-force, dependency ratio, longevity; migration
(inter-regional, intra- regional and international) and associated problems; population
problems and policies; health indicators.

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7. Settlements:types, patterns and morphology of rural settlements; urban developments;
morphology of indian cities; functional classification of indian cities; conurbations and
metropolitan regions; urban sprawl; slums and associated problems; town planning;
problems of urbanization and remedies.
8. Regional development and planning:experience of regional planning in india; five year
plans; integrated rural development programmes; panchayati raj and decentralised
planning; command area development; watershed management; planning for backward
area, desert, drought prone, hill, tribal area development; multi-level planning; regional
planning and development of island territories.
9. Political aspects:geographical basis of indian federalism; state reorganisation;
emergence of new states; regional consciousness and inter state issues; international
boundary of india and related issues; cross border terrorism; india’s role in world affairs;
geopolitics of south asia and indian ocean realm.
10. Contemporary issues:ecological issues: environmental hazards: landslides, earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods and droughts, epidemics; issues relating to environmental pollution;
changes in patterns of land use; principles of environmental impact assessment and
environmental management; population explosion and food security; environmental
degradation; deforestation, desertification and soil erosion; problems of agrarian and
industrial unrest; regional disparities in economic development; concept of sustainable
growth and development; environmental awareness; linkage of rivers; globalisation and
indian economy.

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