ROCKS IN EAST AFRICA:

ACTIVITY 1.
Megan, a petrologist from Oxford University was to carry out his research in East
Africa. Due to family financial constraints he is unable to visit East Africa for his
research. Unfortunately the deadline for the submission of his research is closing up
and he desperately needs your help to understand Uganda’s petrology.
Note: Petrology is the scientific study of rocks that deals with their composition,
texture, structure, their occurrence and distribution. It’s concerned with all three
major types of rocks that is; igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.
Task: As a student of geography that has traversed Uganda, make a well researched
write-up to help Megan come up with a good research paper based on facts from this
region.

The earth’s outer layer of East Africa is made up of rocks. A rock is made up of minerals that
forms part of the earth’s crust ranging from soft clay to sand through to volcanic to granite.

They are divided into 3;

 Igneous rocks (foreground)

 Sedimentary rocks (laid down).
 Metamorphic rocks (changed).

Igneous rocks/fire formed rocks.

These are rocks which are formed by cooling and solidification of magma from deep the
earth as a result of volcanic activity. Igneous rocks are subdivided into three i.e.

Volcanic/extrusive igneous rocks. These are formed as a result of magma cooling and
solidifying quickly on the earth’s surface examples are, obsidian, ryolite, andesite, basalt.

Hypabysal igneous rocks. The y is formed when magma cools and solidifies near the earth’s
surface. Examples are dolerite, quartz, porphyry.

Abyssal/Plutonic/deep formed igneous. These are formed when magma cools and solidifies
deep underground. Magma cools very slowly. Examples include granite, diorite, kimberlite,
gabbro, syenite, periodite.

Sedimentary rocks.

These are sometimes called laid down in layers/strata in water or on land. Sedimentary rocks
are classified according to their mode of formation as follows;
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Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks. These are sedimentary rocks formed as a result of
breakdown, transportation and deposition of rock sediments which are laid down into
layers/strata in water or on low lands. They are later compacted into hard rocks. Examples
include sandstone, clay, shale, mudstone, grit, breccia, gravel, siltstone and conglomerate.

Organically formed sedimentary rocks. These are sedimentary rocks formed from remains of
dead plants animals. Some remains of these organisms accumulated in lakes or on land for
over a long period of time. For example fossils of fish and polyps. Examples include, coal
(peat, lignite) coral, chalk and limestone.

Chemically formed sedimentary rocks. These are formed through precipitation of mineral
particles which have been dissolved from the land. The dissolved minerals are precipitated
directly from the water through evaporation especially in hot areas. Rocks formed as a result
of evaporation are called evaporate. Examples are sodash, dolomite, rock salt (sodium
chloride) and gypsum (calcium carbonate).

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks:

 They are made up of layers/strata and each layer indicating a phase of formation.
 They are non crystalline in nature.
 Their layers are separated by bedding planes of cementing materials.
 Their layers are either horizontal, gentle dip or steeply dipping.

Metamorphic rocks.

These rocks that formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks change.

Therefore they are sometimes called changed rocks because they are either derived from
igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks as a result of intensive heat or pressure.

For example;

 Limestone changes into marble.

 Sandstone turns into quartzite.
 Granite turns into gneiss.
 Coal changes to graphite.
 Shale changes to schist.
 Clay changes to slate.

Metamorphic rocks are found in Ankole, West Nile and Kasese region. They are the oldest
rocks and cover the biggest area of East Africa.
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Characteristics:

 They are changed rocks.

 They are harder than the original rock.
 They are resistant to erosion.

Economic Importance of Rocks.

 Rocks breakdown through weathering leading to the formation of soil which promote
crop cultivation.
 Some rocks contain minerals of great economic value e.g. limestone rocks which is
used to manufacture cement used for construction.
 Some rocks like granite provide building and construction materials while clay can be
used to make bricks, tiles, cups, plates.
 Some rocks like coal are sources of energy which is used for domestic and industrial
purposes.
 Some rocks are sources of salt to animals and flavoring food.
 Some rocks form good water holding strata leading to the formation of springs and
wells which provide water for domestic and industrial use.
 Coral rocks help to shelter the harbours from strong waves leading to the
establishment of well sheltered harbours.
 Rocks act as tourist attractions. Forexample Tororo rock in eastern Uganda, Kakamega
rocks in Kenya hence a source of foreign exchange used to provide social services.
 Some rocks are used to grind cereals such as millet and sorghum.

Negative importance of rocks:

 Rocks found along river channeles and in lakes hinder navigation.

 Some rocks breakdown into infertile soils that hinder crop cultivation leading to
shortage of food like the coral rocks in Pemba and Zanzibar.
 Coral rocks along the coast hinder fish activities because they damage nets and limit
the movement of fishing vessels.

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 SAMPLE ACTIVITY.

The Mengo S.S Geography Department organized a field study tour to Western Uganda and one of
the places they visited was Nyakasura a lime stone region. The learners were excited about the
features they saw, locally referred to as “amabeere ganyina mwiru”. In one of the places they
entered was dripping white liquid from the roof top with whitish mushroom like structures on the
roof top just as they were on the ground. Some areas on the other side of the same area had ditches
and features that looked like paved places. The local people however could not understand why
people enjoyed coming to this place perhaps how the features that people treasured in this area were
formed.

1. As a student of Geography, describe how the features in this area were formed.

2. Identify the type of rocks found in Nyakasura.

3. Contrast the characteristics of the rocks in Nyakasura with those around your school.

4. Weigh the contribution of rocks in your community.

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MAJOR LAND FORMS IN EAST AFRICA AND PROCESSES RESPONSIBLE FOR
THEIR FORMATION.
ACTIVITY 2.
2. Carryout research and write notes about the following processes and the resultant land
forms in East Africa including the diagrams, economic importance of each to the people
living around them, problems and solutions to the problems.
i. Faulting.
ii. Folding.
iii. Volcanicity.

The relief of East Africa has been shaped and modified by a number of factors/processes.
Some of the processes responsible for the formation and modification of East Africa’s relief
include; faulting, folding, volcanicity, warping as well as denudation forces such as
glaciation, wave action, soil erosion/mass wasting etc.
The physical processes responsible for land form evaluation in East Africa fall into two
categories.
Endogenic Processes. (Internal Forces)
These are forces which originate from within the earth’s crust and the major processes
include volcanicity, faulting, folding and warping.
Exogenic Forces (External Forces)
These forces act on the surface of the earth. They include erosion and weathering
(denudation forces)
Faulting
This is the breaking/fracturing of rocks within the earth’s crust followed by relative
displacement of the rocks either side of the fracture/fault line. Therefore faulting leads to
either uplift or down throw of the rock. Faulting takes place as a result of convectional
currents in the interior of the earth that creates tensional and compression forces. These
forces create different types of faults but the most common ones are normal faults resulting
from tensional forces and reverse faults caused by compression forces.
Faulting as an endogenic force has led to the formation of a number of landforms which
include; the rift valley, block mountains/horsts, escarpments, fault scarps, fault guided
valleys, grabens and graben lakes, waterfalls and tilt blocks.
Rift valley is an elongated trough or depression bounded by in facing scarps. The east
African rift valley extends southwards from the Red sea through Ethiopia. East Africa to
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 Malawi and disappears into Mozambique. The great East African rift valley is divided into
two branches i.e. the western branch.
The western branch stretches from Lake Albert in Uganda to Lake Malawi. It is deep with
steep rugged sides. Within this branch there are five lakes namely;
 Albert
 Tanganyika
 Rukwa
 George
 Edward
These lakes are deep, narrow and long except L. George and are mostly fresh water lakes.
The eastern branch stretches from L.Turkana in northern Kenya to Lake Malawi. This branch
splits into two parts south of L.Nation disappears in the Shinyanga area. The other part in
which Lake Manyara lies also disappears south of that lake.
The Eastern branch holds a number of lakes namely; Turkana, Eyasi, Magadi, Manyara,
Nakuru, Naivasha, Baringo, Elementeita etc. These lakes are mostly saline.
The Formation of the Rift Valley.
The formation of the rift valley was a guided process that took place after a period of many
years. The main process responsible for the formation of the rift valley was faulting. The east
African rift valley even up to the present time is still undergoing some adjustments expressed
through earthquakes and occasional tremors. Different theories have been put forward to
explain the formation of the rift valley but the main ones are;
i) Tensional Theory.
This theory states that tensional forces acted on a block of land/rock strata, pulling it apart
(opposite directions) continues pulling on the rock strata resulted into development of lines
of weakness referred to as normal faults. These faults divided the land into three blocks i.e.
two side blocks and the middle block. Continued pressure from the tensional forces caused
the middle block to subside/sink hence forming the rift valley. The side blocks remained in
position creating steep sides referred to as escarpment.

ii) Compression Theory.

This theory, compression forces acted on a block of land/strata. These forces were part.
The land fractured, producing reverse faults hence dividing the block of the land into three
parts. As the compression forces continue to operate, the side blocks were forced to rise/up
thrust and override the middle block which remained stable hence forming a rift valley.
The side blocks created escarpments/fault scarps with very sharp edges which were
gradually smoothened by denudation forces.

Economic Importance of the Rift Valley.

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  The rift valley and its associated features like fault scarps/escarpments is an important
tourist attraction thus leading to the development of the tourism industry and these
tourists bring foreign exchange into the country.
 The rift valley is associated with many lakes e.g. Lake George, Albert, Magadi and
Tanganyika. These lakes act as a ground for fishing hence promoting the fishing industry
in East Africa.
 The rift valley areas have promoted the conservation of wild life due to the existence of
natural pastures. As a result, conservation areas/national parks have developed within the
rift valley region e.g. Queen Elizabeth national park, Masai mara national park,
Murchison falls national park, Lake Nakuru national park.
 The lakes that form on the floor of the rift valley have led to the development of water
transport hence promoting successful border trade e.g. lakes Albert and Edward have
facilitated trade between Uganda and DRC.
 Livestock rearing has also developed within the rift valley areas e.g. the Masai graze
their cattle on the pastures within the rift valley.
 The rift valley areas have promoted agricultural development/arable farming e.g. cotton
growing in Kasese irrigation farming in the Mobuku irrigation scheme in Kasese, the
growing of maize in the Nakuru region of Kenya etc.

Negative Effects of the Rift Valley.

 The steep escarpments associated with the rift valley promote land sides and soil erosion.
 The steep escarpments associated with the rift valley act as transport and communication
barriers leading to difficulties in transport.
 There are wild animals with in the rift valley and these animals are a threat both to man
and his crops.
 The rift valley areas are associated with natural calamities like earthquakes which in
most cases lead to destruction of property loss of lives.
 Some areas of the rift valley are associated with disease carrying vectors like tsetse flies
that cause nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in humans thus affecting land use
activities like animal rearing and settlement.
 The relative flatness of the rift valley area (floor) encourages flooding. This is a serious
problem in some parts of East Africa.

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 ACTIVITY

 Block Mountains
A block mountain is an upland bounded by faults on one or more sides. It can be defined as a
sharply defined/upthrusted fault block bounded by faults on one or more sides. Different
theories have been put forward to explain the formation of Block Mountains including the
tensional force theory, compression force theory, differential uplift and the theory of relative
sinking /subsidence.

Compression Force Theory.

In this theory, compression forces acted on a block of land leading to the creation of reverse
faults and dividing the land into different blocks. Along these faults, the middle block
upthrusted/rose while the side blocks remained behind to create a valley. The upthrusted middle
block created a block mountain.
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Tensional Theory.
According to this theory, tensional forces acted on a block of land by pulling the land in
opposite direction. This created normal faults leading to the division of land into different
blocks. Along these faults/lines of weakness, the side blocks subsided/sunk leaving the middle
block standing as a horst/block mountain.

Differential Uplift Theory.

Block Mountains may also form due to differential uplift. A block of land is subjected to
compression forces hence creating a series of reverse faults that divide the land into a series of
blocks. This was followed by general uplift of faulted region, however different blocks rose at
different rates due to their level of resistance and density.
The middle blocks are believed to have risen at a much faster rate compared to the side blocks
hence creating a block mountain.
Examples of Block Mountains in east Africa include;
 Mt. Rwenzori in Uganda.
 Mt. Usambara in Tanzania
 Mt Uluguru in Tanzania
 Mt. Pare in Tanzania
 Mt. Ufipa in Tanzania
 Mt. Kipengere in Tanzania
 Mt. Nyiru in Kenya
 Mt. Ndotos in Kenya
 Mt. Matthews in Kenya

 Escarpments/Fault Scarp.
An escarpment is a steep slope where land falls from a higher level to lower level/ a steep slope
formed when one slab/block of land slips/falls downwards relative to the other.
An escarpment is formed by vertical earth movement brought about by either tensional or
compression forces. An escarpment develops from one pronounced fault line. Examples of
escarpments in East Africa include Butiaba, Kichwamba and Kyambira escarpments in Uganda,
Mali, Nadia, Aberdare, Elegenyo, Laikipia and Kedona in Kenya, Chunya, Ruaha and Iringa in
Tanzania.

Formation of Escarpments.
By Tensional Forces.
A block of land is subjected to tensional forces, a pronounced normal fault develops and one
side of the block subsides relative to another creating a steep face relative to an escarpment.
By Compression Forces.

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A block of land is subjected to compression forces, a pronounced reverse faults develops and
one side of the block is uplifted/rises relative to another creating a steep face that is an
escarpment.

 Grabens
Grabens form after the formation of a rift valley. Tensional and compression forces act on a
block of land leading to the formation of a rift valley formation, secondary faulting takes place
on the floor of the rift valley to the formation of a depression within the rift valley. This
depression is referred to as a Graben.
When the depression is filled with water from in flowing rivers and heavy rains, a graben
lake/rift valley lake is formed. Examples of such lakes include; Lake Albert, Tanganyika,
Malawi, George, Edward, Magadi etc.

 Fault Guided Valley.

This is a valley guided/directed by a fault line i.e. the river valley follows the direction of a
fault line. As faulting takes place, the rocks crossed by the fault line are crushed and shattered.
This means that they are weakened and are therefore easily eroded. With time, this area is
enlarged and a valley which follows a fault guided valleys include; River Aswa in Northern
Uganda, Ruaha River in Tanzania, River Kerio and River Ewaso-ngiro in Kenya.

 Fault Block Landscape.

This is a faulted landscape made up of regular ridges formed on one side of the block is uplifted
higher than the other side. When tilting occurs, the top of the block will not be flat but rather
inclined. Such a landscape can be found west of Nairobi in Kenya.

 Waterfalls.
When faulting occurs along a river valley water fall or rapid will develop. A waterfall can also
develop where a river flows over a fault scarp. Examples of waterfalls resulting from faulting
include; Murchison falls and Karuma falls alone. The Rive Nile waterfalls also occur along
River. Keria in Kenya when it flows over the Elgeyo escarpment.

Economic Importance of Mountains, Waterfalls and Other Relief Features (Faulting)

 They attract tourists who bring in foreign exchange.
 Help in formation of relief rainfall (mountains) which supports agriculture.
 Fertile soils around mountains support agriculture.
 They are habitat for wild animals.
 Provide leisure activities such as mountain climbing and white water rafting on
waterfalls which provide income.
 They promote education and research.
 Waterfalls provide fast running used for generating hydro Electric Power.
 Formation of rivers e.g. River Semliki, Nyamwamba River Mpanga, River Sebwer

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  Promoted mining since some of the land forms are associated with minerals e.g. Mt.
Rwenzori ranges with deposition e.g. gold, copper and cobalt.
 Block Mountains modify temperatures of surrounding areas hence attracting dense
settlements.
 Support the growth of mountain vegetation which includes grassland and forest
vegetation. This in turn supports forestry activities and grazing of the animals.
 Block Mountains and escarpments act as transport barriers limiting accessibility to
particular areas.
 Some harbor dangerous animals that can be a threat to people in surrounding areas.
 Waterfalls and rapids hinder transport and cause accidents and soil erosion
 Block Mountains act as hiding places for anti government forces and bandits hence
promoting insecurity.
 Highlands associated with faulting cause landslides and soil erosion.
 There is a danger of flooding associated with lakes and rivers in the faulted regions.
 It is also associated with earthquakes and tremors which lead to loss of property and
lives.
 Block mountains act as rainfall barriers (create a rain shadow effect) having the leeward
side of mountain Rwenzori.
 Pests and diseases in the faulted regions e.g. tsetse flies.

SAMPLE ACTIVITY

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 Carryout internet research for the activity below.

SAMPLE ACTIVITY
Phillip Jonathan Muwanguzi the new East African regional Coordinator wanted to familiarize with
his new area of responsibility. He then visited three different regions in East Africa marked A, B
and C. He realized that these three regions were shaped by different geomorphic processes
depending on the way they appeared. He became inquisitive to know the exact processes responsible
for shaping these regions. He however found no help from the local people. All they said was, "we
were born when the landscape was like this, it must have been God". Phillip however needs the
Geo-scientific explanations to write a report to his Supervisors.

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You are the only knowledgeable person in this area about these processes and he needs your
assistance. On that note he designed a questioner to you.

C
B

1. Identify the process responsible for the land form formation in regions A, B and C.

2. Explain how the dominant relief feature in region A was formed.

3. In one of the regions, Philip noted two landforms which seemed to be formed by the same
process and yet appear differently. Help him understand how the formation of these features
resulted into difference in appearance.

4. What are the importance of process B to the people in the surrounding area.

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 VULCANICITY

This is the process through which molten rock/magma is ejected either onto the earth’s crust
surface or injected into the earth’s crust where it cools and solidifies creating both extrusive
and intrusive features. The process through which molten rock is ejected onto the earth’s
surface is commonly referred to as volcanicity. Volcanic features that are formed that are
formed when magma cools and solidifies on the earth’s surface is referred to as; extensive
volcanic features. Some of these features include;
 Volcanoes
 Craters
 Calderas
 Volcanic plugs
 Hot springs
 Larva dammed lakes
 Solfataras
 Geysers
 Larva plains
 Cumulo domes
On the other hand, when magma is injected into the earth’s crust, the resultant features are
referred to as intrusive volcanic feature and examples of such features include;
 Sills
 Dykes
 Batholiths
 Laccoliths
 Lopoliths
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When magma reaches the earth’s surface it is referred to as lava and there are three types of
larva namely;

Acidic lava.
This type of larva has a high percentage of silica (66%). It is thick and it doesn’t flow very
far (it is viscous and immobile). It is associated with violent and explosive eruptions and in
most cases it provides steep and irregular features.
Basic lava.
This type of lava has a relatively low silica percentage between 45-52%. It is very fluid and
highly mobile. It is able to flow for a long distance before solidifying. It is associated with
non violent eruptions and produces relatively smooth features with low altitude.
Inter mediate lava
This lava combines both the characteristic of both acidic and basic lava. It has silica content
of between 52-66% but it tends to behave more like acidic than basic lava.
Apart from larva, other materials ejected during an eruption include; gaseous materials, ash,
volcanic dust, steam as well as solidified rocks from previous eruptions.

Causes of Volcanic Eruptions.

 Heat
 Pressure
 Moving of tectonic plates
 Radio activity and thermal convection.

Intrusive Volcanicity.
This is the process by which magma cools and solidifies within the earth’s crust. Some of
the intrusive volcanic features include; dykes sills, laccoliths, lappolith, batholiths and
phacolith.

1. Batholiths
This is a dome shaped intrusion of magma that solidifies at great depth. Sometime
batholiths form roots of mountains or volcanic cones. On exposure after denudation,
batholiths form massive and resistant uplands covering hundreds of Kilometers.
E.g. exposed batholiths can be seen in Mubende (Mubende rocks) and in Sukuma land in
Tanzania as well as labwor and Parabong in Acholi land.
2. Sills.
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 These are formed when an intrusion of molten magma is made horizontally along the
bedding plains of sedimentary rocks. The magma in the case is basic. Sills can stretch for
many miles. On exposure after denudation, sills may form a bold escarpment while others
when crossed by rivers from waterfalls.
E.g. Sezibwa falls in Mukono and Sipi falls in Kapchorwa.

3. Dykes.
This is the vertical shaft or steeply inclined sheet of magma intrudes into a fissure.
The magma will simply cut across bedding plains and form a wall-like intrusion of magma
referred to as a dyke. Some dykes on exposure by denudation forces form upstanding wall
ridges while others which are less resistant to erosion form along shallow trenches.
Example can be found in Turkana area in Kenya, the river Nile flows across a dyke where
it forms the Bujagali falls.

4. Laccoliths.
This is the large blister/igneous mound which a dome shaped upper surface and a
flat/level base fed by a pipe like conduct from below. It is formed when viscous magma
fails to spread far and therefore accumulates in a large mass and solidifies quickly
along the bedding plains. It arches up the over lined strata of sedimentary rocks. On
exposure, if a laccolith is more resistant than the surrounding rocks, it forms an upland
e.g. in voi and Kitui area in Kenya.

5. Lopolith.
This is a saucer shaped intrusion of magma in bedding plains of sedimentary rocks. The
saucer shape is a result of the increasing weight exerted by overlying rocks that form
sinking/sagging.

6. Phacolith.
I the lens shaped mass of igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the
bottom of a syncline and being fed by the conduct from beneath.

Extrusive Volcanic Features

Composite Volcano
A composite volcano is also known as strato volcano. This is a type of volcano made up of
alternating layers of ash and lava ejected through a central pipe referred to as a vent over a
long period of time. The composite volcano is formed as a result of eruption in cycles and
series.
When pressure builds up in the earth’s crust, molten rock is ejected to the earth’s surface
through a vent. The material ejected builds up around the vent in a cone shaped mount. The
eruption begins with great violence forming a layer of ash and lava pours out forming a layer
of lava over the ash layer.

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When the eruption occurs and magma reaches the earth’s surface, the pressure underground
decreases but with time it will build up again and another cycle of larva and ash will be
deposited on what was previously ejected. This process will continue until a raised piece of
land referred to as a volcano is built. When the pressure becomes insufficient to push to
molten rock to the top/if the main vent is blocked, magma may be forced to pass through a
subsidiary vent resulting into the formation of a parasitic/subsidiary cone/secondary cone.
When mountain building ceases, a funnel like depression is left on top of the volcano and
this depression is referred to as a crater.
Examples of composite cones in East Africa include;
 Mt. Kilimanjaro
 Mt. Kenya
 Mt. Meru
 Mt. Longonot
 Mt. Elgon
 Mt. Ol-doinyo-lengai
 Mt Suswa
 Mt. Muhabura on Uganda-Rwanda border.
Ash and Cinder Cones (Scoria Cones).
These cones are formed when acidic lava with a lot of gas erupts at the surface of the earth
explosively and violently. Materials are blown to great heights where they break into small
sizes with ash particles being much smaller than under. These materials fall back to the
ground around the vent to build ash and under cones. These cones are usually small and less
than 3000 meters in height above sea level. They usually occur in groups or near large
volcanoes. Cinder cones tend to be steeper than ash cones. There craters are large and cover a
whole summit.
An example of cinder cones is; Likaiyu cone in Kenya.
Examples of ash cones is; Nabunyatom in North eastern Uganda, Abili – agituk in north
eastern Uganda, Teleki in Kenya, Sarambwe in Kenya.
Cumulo Dome
This is a steep sided convex dome made up of acidic/inter-mediate lava. This viscous lava
does not flow very far instead it piles around the vent where it hardens quickly causing later
extrusions to force initial layers out wards hence internal expansion takes place within the
cone giving it a round appearance. Cumulo domes don’t have visible craters. An example of
such a dome is the Mtumbi dome in Tanzania.
The Volcanic Plug /Neck.

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This is a central cone of solidified magma in a vent of a volcanic which is exposed by
erosion of the surrounding cone. The outer layer of the cone which are less resistant are
eroded and the harder rock/ solidified magma in the vent remains standing as a volcanic
plug/neck e.g. Tororo rock in Eastern Uganda and Mawenzi plug in Tanzania, Loldiani,
Tinderet and Timboro in the kano plains of Kenya.
Basalt Dome (Shield Volcano)
This is the fairly flat lopped highland which is formed by lava that is more fluid/basic than
acidic. The lava finds its way to the surface through many fissures/small openings and
accumulates and builds a highland. Since the lava is basic, basalt domes are associated with
low altitude, gentle slopes and a large and extensive base. It has an extensive crater at the
top.
Examples of basalt domes in East Africa include; the Kenya highlands and the Muhabura
ranges in south western Uganda. Small subsidiary cones may form along the fissures and
eruptions that lead to the formation of basalt domes are not usually very explosive.
Lava Plain/Plateau
This volcanic feature is formed by the eruption of very fluid of basic lava which flows from
numerous fissures in the crust of the earth and spreads out completely covering the original
land scape of hills and valleys. Lava flows out with little explosure action. Repeated eruption
leads to the formation of a thick gently sloping plateau/lava plain. Examples of such plains in
East Africa include;
 Kericho in Kenya
 Thika in Kenya
 Uasin-Gishu in Kenya
 Bunyonyi/kisoro plains in south western Uganda.
Caldera.
This is a wide depression on top of volcanic mountain. A caldera forms in two ways;
It is formed when the upper part of the volcano is blown off by a violent re-eruption (second
eruption). When this happens, the crater on top violent re-eruption is shattered and a larger
rounded depression known as a caldera is formed.
Caldera’s also form through a process of cauldron subsidence. This is when the summit of a
great volcano collapses in wards i.e. the weight of the overstaying core becomes too heavy
thereby causing the realm of the crater to collapse inwards producing a wider depression
known as a caldera.
Examples include;
Napak caldera in north eastern Uganda
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 Mt. Suswa and Mt. Ngozi in caldera
Longonot caldera and Embagai in Kenya
Ngororngoro and Enbagai resulted from cauldron subsidence.

Crater (Explosion Craters)

These are also referred to as ring craters. They are formed when gaseous eruption takes
place. Gaseous eruption takes place when the gaseous material is ejected in a violent eruption
blow. The torn country rocks also known as pyroclasts are deposited round the depression
here they form a low rim. The depression may be about 500m wide but it’s usually less 50m
deep. Explosion craters are usually found in low lying areas e.g. on the floor of the rift
valley. Since the depression extends towards the water table, it may be filled with water from
a lake. Examples of lakes that occupy explosion craters include; lake Katwe, Lake Rutoto,
Lake Nyungu, Lake Nyamununka, Lake kyegere, lake Saaka.
Lava Dammed Lake.
These are lakes formed when lava from a nearby volcano or basalt dome comes across a river
valley. It blocks the river forcing it to pond back its waters there by creating a lava dammed
lake. The lake usually takes the shape of the River valley. Lava dammed lakes are usually
very deep. Examples include; lake Bunyonyi, Lake Mutanda, Lake Mulehe and Lake
Muhondo in Uganda.
Hot Spring
Hot springs are formed when rain water together with underground water comes into contact
with the hot underlying rock. This water is pushed out due to increased pressure and emerges
at the surface as springs of warm water. A hot spring therefore is a spring with warm /boiling
water. Examples of hot springs in east Africa include;
 Kitagata in Bushenyi district in Uganda
 Sempaya in Bundibugyo in Uganda
 Kisizi in Rukungiri in Uganda
 Rubare in Ntungamo in Uganda
 Maji ya moto in Tanzania
 Other hot springs occur near Lake Bogoria in Kenya.
Geysers.
This is a special hot spring which forms a fountain. At times water comes into contact with
very hot underlying rocks. It changes into steam. When pressure builds up within the earth’s
crust, some of the steam escapes in a jet form through a small opening. This water/steam is
ejected explosively on the surface to form a geyser. Geysers can be tapped to generate geo-
thermal power.
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E.g. the Olkaria geo-thermal al plant in Naivasha Kenya. Geysers occur around Lake Bogoria
and Lake Hannington in Kenya and also in Bundibugyo district in Uganda.
Life Cycle of Volcanoes.
Volcanic mountains in their life time are categorized according to their rate of eruption
into the following groups
1. Active volcanoes.
These are volcanoes that frequently erupt/those that have erupted in recent times.
Examples of active volcanoes in East Africa include; Mt.Longonot, Mt.Oldoinyo-Legai
and Mt.Nyamulagira.

2. Dormant volcanoes
These are volcanoes that have ever erupted and show signs of possible eruption i.e. the
first eruption is followed by a long period of inactivity e.g. Mt. Meru, Mt.Kilimanjaro,
Muhavura ranges etc.

3. Extinct volcanoes
These are volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic times but retain features of
volcanoes e.g. Mt. Elgon and Mt.Kenya.
Economic Importance of Vulcanicity.
 Vulcanicity is associated with a wide range of features like calderas, cones, lakes,
craters, hot springs etc. these are important tourist attractions leading to the
development of tourism industry as a result foreign exchange is earned.
 Volcanic areas are associated with fertile support successful agriculture e.g. the slopes
of Mt. Elgon, Kilimanjaro and the Mufumbira ranges support the flowing of a variety
of crops e.g. coffee, banana, Irish potatoes, wheat.
 Volcanic areas help in modifying the climate in which they are found through the
formation of relief rainfall and influencing cool temperature. This climate supports
both agriculture and settlement.
 Some volcanic areas are important mining sites e.g. salt from Kigeai highlands as well
as clay and sand from lake shores.
 Some volcanic lakes e.g. Bunyonyi are used for water transport promoting inland trade
between districts.
 Lava volcanic features are used as fishing grounds e.g. Lake Bunyonyi, Lake Kigere
 Some volcanic features e.g. geysers are potential sites for geo thermal power
generation e.g. Olkaria geo-thermal plant in Naivasha Kenya, while waterfalls are
potential sites for generation of hydro electric power.
 Wildlife conservation takes place in volcanic areas e.g. mountain Elgon conservation
area in Eastern Uganda, Bwindi and Ngahinga national parks.

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  Geysers and hot springs contain dissolved minerals which have important medical
properties e.g. Kitagata in Bushenyi and Sempaya in Bundibugyo.
 The slopes of volcanic mountains are densely forested thus supporting forest
conservation and lumbering.
 Volcanic mountains act as catchment areas/sources of rivers e.g. River Atui from Mt.
Kenya, River Pangani from Mt.Kilimanjaro, River Sipi, River Malaba.
Negative Effects of Volcanicity.
 Volcanic eruption and lava flows lead to loss of lives and property.
 Volcanic highlands are barriers to communication e.g in Kisoro the roads are poor due
to the steepness of the region and the existence of volcanic intrusion that interfere with
construction of communication lines. Existing roads have sharpened and steep sides
that cause accidents.
 Landslides are also a very serious problem especially in Mbale. These cause
destruction of farmlands, contaminate water bodies, lead to los of lives and property.
Other areas with serious landslides include; Meru in Tanzania, Kigezi and Kapchorwa
in Uganda.
 Volcanic areas are associated with soil erosion. This is common on the slopes of
volcanic mountains.
 Volcanic activity promotes pollution due ti the gas emission during eruption and after
e.g sulpur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
 Deposition of volcanic lava tends to cover the previously fertile soils which are mature
and leaves young and porus soils which have not gone throught sufficient weathering.
 Due to existence of porus, rocks in volcanic areas, there is shortage of surface water.
This is because layers of larva are permeable water drains easily e.g Kisoro Uganda.
 Flooding of rivers in volcanic highlands.
 Volcanic highlands act as hiding places for robbers and rebels hence promoting
insecurity.
 Attack from wild animals in the conservation areas leading o destruction of farm lands
and also loss of live.

DRAINAGE
1. East Africa is blessed with a number of water bodies’ majority occupying central,
south Uganda.
i. With reference to central Uganda to major water bodies located in this region,
explain the process by which they were formed.
ii. Analyze the effects these water bodies to the way of living of the people in East
Africa.
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 iii. Make a write-up showing how the people of East Africa are misusing these
resources and your suggested conservation plan.

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