SL_2021 22 COURSE FILE Converted Compressed

Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology
(Autonomous)
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal District – 501 301 (T.S)
SCRIPTING LANGUAGES
(18CS3107)
COURSE FILE
III Year B.Tech. CSE – I Semester

A.Y:2021 - 2022
DEPARTMENT OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
(2020-2021)
Faculty in charge HOD-CSE

E. Mahender Dr. A. Sree Lakshmi
CH. Vikas
K.Vijaykumar
1
CONTENTS
S.No Topic Page. No.

1 Cover Page 3
2 Syllabus copy 4
3 Vision of the Department 5
4 Mission of the Department 5
5 PEO’s,PO’s and PSO’s 5
6 Course objectives and outcomes 7
7 Course mapping with Pos 8
8 Brief notes on the importance of the course and how it fits into the curriculum 9
9 Prerequisites if any 13
10 Instructional Learning Outcomes 13
11 Class Time Table 15
12 Individual Time Table 20
13 Lecture schedule with methodology being used/adopted 21
14 Detailed notes 25
15 Additional topics 245
16 University Question papers of previous years 250
17 Question Bank 250
18 Assignment Questions 254
19 Unit wise Quiz Questions and long answer questions 255
20 Tutorial problems 272
21 Known gaps ,if any and inclusion of the same in lecture schedule 273
22 Discussion topics , if any 273
23 References, Journals, websites and E-links if any 274
24 Quality Measurement Sheets 274
A Course End Survey
B Teaching Evaluation
25 Student List 275
26 Group-Wise students list for discussion topic 282
2
Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology
(Autonomous)
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal District, Telangana State– 501 301
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Name of the Course : SCRIPTING LANGUAGES
(COURSE CODE: 18CS3107 ) Programme: UG
Branch: CSE Version No: 02
Year: III Document Number : GCET/CSE/CN/AR18/01
Semester: I No. of Pages: 284
Section: III- CSE - A,B,C,D,E
Classification status (Unrestricted/Restricted ) : Restricted
Distribution List: Department, Library
Prepared by : Updated by :
1) Name : Mr.E. Mahender/Mr.CH. Vikas/Mr. 1)Name: : Mr.E. Mahender/Mr.CH. Vikas/Mr.
K. Vijaykumar K. Vijaykumar
2) Designation: Asst.Professor/ Asst.Professor/
2) Designation: Asst.Professor/ Asst.Professor/ Asst.Professor
Asst.Professor
3) Sign : 3) Sign :
4) Date : 02-08-2021 4) Date : 09-08-2021

Verified by : *For Q.C only
1) Name : Dr K Kamakshaiah 1)Name :
2) Sign : 2) Sign :
3) Design : Associate Professor 3) Design :
4) Date : 4) Date :
Approved by (HOD) :
1) Name : Dr. A. Sree Lakshmi
2) Sign : 3) Date :
Course coordinator Program Coordinator HOD
3
2. SYLLABUS
18CS3107 - SCRIPTING LANGUAGES L T P/D C
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE-I) 3 - -/- 3
III Year- B.Tech. (CSE)– I Sem Prerequisite(s): None
UNIT I
Introduction to Scripting: Scripts and Programs, Origin of Scripting , Scripting Today,
Characteristics of Scripting Languages, Uses for Scripting Languages, Web Scripting, and the
universe of Scripting Languages.
UNIT II
Introduction to PERL - Names and Values, Variables, Scalar Expressions, Control Structures,
arrays, list, hashes, strings, pattern and regular expressions, subroutines. Advanced PERL: Finer
points of looping, pack and unpack, file system, eval, data structures, packages, modules,
objects, interfacing to the operating system, Creating Internet ware applications, Dirty Hands
Internet Programming, security Issues.
UNIT III
PHP Basics : PHP Basics- Features, Embedding PHP Code in your Web pages, Outputting the
data to the browser, Data types, Variables, Constants, expressions, string interpolation, control
structures, Function, Creating a Function, Function Libraries, Arrays, strings and Regular
Expressions.
Advanced PHP Programming: PHP and Web Forms, Files, PHP Authentication and
Methodologies -Hard Coded, File Based, Database Based, IP Based, Login Administration,
Uploading Files with PHP, Sending Email using PHP, Building Web sites for the World.
UNIT IV
TCL: TCL Structure, syntax, Variables and Data in TCL, Control Flow, Data Structures,
input/output, procedures, strings, patterns, files Advance TCL: Eval, source, exec and up level
commands, Name spaces, trapping errors, event driven programs, making applications internet
aware, Nuts and Bolts Internet Programming, Security Issues, C Interface. Tk - Visual Tool Kits,
Fundamental Concepts of Tk, Tk by example, Events and Binding, Perl-Tk.
UNIT V
Python: Introduction to Python language, python-syntax, statements, functions, Built-in-
functions and Methods, Modules in python, Exception Handling. Integrated Web Applications
in Python- Building Small, Efficient Python Web Systems, Web Application Framework.
TEXT BOOK(S)
1. The World of Scripting Languages, David Barron, Wiley Publications.(Unit I II & IV)
2. Beginning PHP and MySQL, Fourth Edition, W Jason Gilmore, Apress Publications (Dream
tech.). (Unit III)
3. Python Web Programming, Steve Holden and David Beazley, New Riders Publications.
(UnitV)
REFERENCE BOOK(S)
1. Perl Power, J.RFlynt, Cengage Learning.
2. PHP 6 Fast and Easy Web Development, Julie Meloni and Matt Telles, Cengage Learning
Publications.
3. PHP and MySQL by Example, E.Quigley, Prentice HalI(Pearson).
4
4. Tcl and the Tk Tool kit, John K Ousterhout, Pearson Education.
5. Programming Python,M.Lutz.
3. Vision of the Department
To produce globally competent and socially responsible computer science engineers

contributing to the advancement of engineering and technology which involves creativity and
innovation by providing excellent learning environment with world class facilities.
4. Mission of the Department
• To be a centre of excellence in instruction, innovation in research and scholarship, and
service to the stake holders, the profession, and the public.
• To prepare graduates to enter a rapidly changing field as a competent computer science
engineer.
• To prepare graduate capable in all phases of software development, possess a firm
understanding of hardware technologies, have the strong mathematical background
necessary for scientific computing, and be sufficiently well versed in general theory to
allow growth within the discipline as it advances.
• To prepare graduates to assume leadership roles by possessing good communication
skills, the ability to work effectively as team members, and an appreciation for their
social and ethical responsibility in a global setting.
5. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES and PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
PEO1: To provide graduates with a good foundation in mathematics, sciences and engineering
fundamentals required to solve engineering problems that will facilitate them to find employment
in industry and / or to pursue postgraduate studies with an appreciation for lifelong learning.
PEO2: To provide graduates with analytical and problem solving skills to design algorithms,
other hardware / software systems, and inculcate professional ethics, inter-personal skills to work
in a multi-cultural team.
PEO3: To facilitate graduates to get familiarized with the art software / hardware tools, imbibing
creativity and innovation that would enable them to develop cutting-edge technologies of multi-
disciplinary nature for societal development.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
PO1.Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2.Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
5
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3.Design/development of solutions : Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
PO4.Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5.Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7.Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO8.Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO9.Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO11.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12.Life-long learning : Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
6
PSO (Program Specific Outcome):
PSO1: To identify and define the computing requirements for its solution under given
constraints.
PSO 2: To follow the best practices namely SEI-CMM levels and six sigma which varies from
time to time for software development project using open ended programming environment to
produce software deliverables as per customer needs.
6.Course Objectives and Outcomes
Course Objectives
Develop ability to
1. Understand the concepts of scripting languages for developing Web Scripting.

2. Illustrates object oriented concepts of PERL.
3. Create database connections using PHP and build the website for the world.
4. Analyze the internet ware application, security issues and frame works for application.
5. Understanding of python especially the object oriented concepts.
Course Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
18CS3107.1: Apply the concepts of scripting languages for developing Web Scripting.
18C23107.2: Explain the object oriented concepts of PERL.
18CS3107.3: Illustrate the PHP Authentication and Methodologies
18CS3107.4: Examine the internet ware application, security issues and frame works for application.
18CS3107.5: Explain the python object oriented concepts.
7
7. Course mapping with PO’s
Course PEOS POs Teaching Aids

Name
Scripting PEO1,PEO2, PO1, PO2, PO3, OHP/LCD Projector, Internet,
Languages PEO3 PO4, PO5, PO9, Q&A , Group Tasks ,E-tutorials.
(18CS3107) PO10, PO11, PO12,
PSO1, PSO2
Course Outcomes - Program Outcomes and Program Specific Outcomes

Scripting Languages 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PSO1 PSO2
( 18CS3107 )
CO1. Apply the concepts

of scripting languages for
3 3 1 1 3 - - - 2 2 2 3 3 3
developing Web
Scripting.
CO2. Explain the object
oriented concepts of 3 3 1 1 3 - - - 2 2 2 3 3 3
PERL.
CO3. Illustrate the PHP

Authentication and 3 3 1 1 3 - - - 2 2 2 3 3 3
Methodologies
CO4. Examine the

internet ware application,
3 3 1 1 3 - - - 2 2 2 3 3 3
security issues and frame
works for application.
CO5. Explain the Python

object oriented concepts. 3 3 1 1 3 - - - 2 2 2 3 3 3
Mapping of Course outcomes with Programme outcomes and Program Specific Outcomes:
8
8. Brief Importance of the Course and how it fits into the curriculum
a. What role does this course play within the Program?

Scripting programming languages like Python, Perl, PHP, TCL are widely used in system
programming, scientific computing, etc. Although solving a particular problem in these languages
requires less time, less programming effort, and less concepts to be taught to achieve the desired goal.
Therefore, the use of scripting languages as a teaching vehicle for programming course is very
promising.
b. How is the course unique or different from other courses of the Program?
This is the only course wherein students learn the basic concepts of scripting languages,
which is the core competency of all IT organizations.
Another unique feature of the course is it demonstrates competence and gaining a
competitive edge in the job market.
c. What essential knowledge or skills should they gain from this experience?
• Students acquire skills in scripting languages for developing both client and server side
web applications, desktop applications which would help the student fetch a job in the
respective domain.
• Students will able to creating and designing websites,create frameworks basically
required for websites, can style up different websites using web developing languages
like CSS,Java script,Python etc.
d. What knowledge or skills from this course will students need to have mastered to
perform well in future classes or later (Higher Education / Jobs)?
• Obtaining good knowledge of scripting languages concepts such as HTML, Python
scripting, creating web application frameworks,good understanding of SQL database
concepts, is a good way to improve personal marketability and continue this as his/her
career.
9
• Student need to acquire good knowledge in PERL scripting language which is used for
a wide range of tasks including system administration, web development, network
programming, GUI development.
• Student need to acquire good knowledge in PHP which is a server-side scripting
language. PHP was designed primarily for web development.
e. Why is this course important for students to take?
• In order to understand the latest industry trends, needs and scenarios,its important for
students to take this course.
• As Scripting languages are becoming more popular due to the emergence of web-based
applications. The market for producing dynamic web content is now expanding extremely
rapidly such that new scripting languages have been developed to allow users with little
or no programming expertise to develop interactive web pages with minimum effort.
f. What is/are the prerequisite(s) for this course?

• C programming, HTML, SQL.
g. When students complete this course, what do they need know or be able to do?
• Able to design and develop web pages, websites, desktop applications, mobile
applications, web frameworks.
• Student should able to develop web applications may range to Blogs & Forums, E-
Commerce Sites, ERP Apps and both client side and server side applications.
h. Is there specific knowledge that the students will need to know in the future?
• As there is very high growth in usage of e-commerce websites,In future students need to
know latest trends in development of web applications ,how to develop Progressive web
apps, Accelerated Mobile Pages,web frameworks, Enterprise & Intranet platforms,Geo-
based Applications, enhance web pages within browser software.
10
i. Are there certain practical or professional skills that students will need to apply in the
future?
• Yes. Most of the mini and major projects are generally based on developing Web
applications, mobile applications and using Python in Machine language, Artificial
intelligence projects.
j. Five years from now, what do you hope students will remember from this course?
• Students will remember how to create integrated web applications, developing websites,
embedding code in web pagesusing PHP.
k. What is it about this course that makes it unique or special?

• It is the only fundamental course that facilitates students to learn and attain knowledge on
developing web applications and know about different scripting languages and its featurs.
l. Why does the program offer this course?

• This is the course that gives idea about scripting languages. Without this course, students
cannot develop web pages and building a website.
m. Why can’t this course be “covered” as a sub-section of another course?

• It is not possible as it covers four scripting languages with many topics, programming
concepts which are used for implementing different applications in projects and if one
tries to cover these as part of another course, it would be too heavy to be taught in one
semester.
n. What unique contributions to students learning experience does this course make?
It helps in executing mini and major projects that involve website applications both
mobile applications and desktop applications during the later years of the program.
11
o. What is the value of taking this course? How exactly does it enrich the program?
• This course plays a vital role in today’s IT industry, Software development is a dynamic
field. New and in-demand programming languages, frameworks and technologies can
emerge, rise to fame, and then fade away in the course of a few years. Students must
learn how to give as well as take information in this new, shareable environment, while
still protecting their career requirements. Innovative companies will take advantage of
these new resources, such as latest trends in web development such as web assembly,
voice search, data security and reinvent themselves as unstoppable forces in their
markets.
p. What are the major career options that require this course
Specific occupations that employ Scripting languages include:
▪ Web developer.
▪ Web designer.
▪ Front End Developer
▪ SEO specialist
▪ UX/UI designer.
▪ Automation engineer
▪ System administrator
12
9. Prerequisites
None
10. Instructional Learning Outcomes
Upon completing this course, it is expected that a student will be able to do the following:
UNIT-I
1. Understand the difference between scripting and programming
2. Understand the characteristics of different scripting languages.
3. Understand traditional scripting and modern scripting.
4. Uses for scripting languages.
UNIT-II
1. Understand PERL scripting language basic of syntax and semantics .
2. Understand Advance PERL scripting language concepts.
3. Understand how to Create Internet ware applications.
4. Implementation of Dirty Hands Internet Programming ,sockets.
5. Understand Security issues in PERL scripting.
UNIT-III
1. Understand basics of PHP language.
2. Understand and implement the Advanced PHP Programming like PHP and web forms,
Files concepts.
3. Understand PHP Authentication and Methodologies.
4. Advanced PHP further develops the skills of experienced PHP Programmers by

introducing them to advanced techniques, tools, and methodologies that can be used to
build complex, scalable, PHP applications.
13
5. Also learn to develop, maintain, and scale the performance of web sites using Smarty
templates.
UNIT-IV
1. Understand basics of Tcl language concepts and structure.
2. Understand usage of advanced Tcl concepts.
3. Analyze the internet ware application, security issues and frame works for application.
4. Understand Fundamental concepts of Tk and Visual tool kits.
UNIT-V
1. Understand Python language syntax, modules, built-in functions and methods.
2. Understanding Web application framework
3. Can build small and efficient python web systems.
4. Master the principles of object-oriented programming
5. Demonstrate significant experience with the Python program development environment.
6. Use some advanced Python environments and tools.
14
11. Class Time Table
III B.Tech CSE I Semester – A Section
Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Computer Science & Engineering
ODD Semester
Year/Sem/Sec: III-B.Tech I-Semester A-Section A.Y : 2021 -22 W.E.F 09-08-2021
Class Teacher: K.Vijaykumar
Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday SL CN OS LAB
LUNCH
Tuesday OS AI CN LAB
Wednesday CN OS AI LAB
Thursday AI GW & CC CN
Friday GW & CC SL IC
Saturday
S.No Subject(T/P) Course Code Faculty Name

1 Operating Systems 18CS3101 Dr. Puja prasad
2 Computer Networks 18CS3102 Dr. Sugandha Singh
3 Artificial Intelligence 18CS3103 Dr. K. Kamakshaiah
4 Scripting Languages 18CS3107 K.Vijaykumar
5 Global Warming and Climate Change 18CE3121 Dr.Praveen
6 Indian Constitution 18MC3102 Mrs. K.Vijaya Laksmi
7 Operating Systems Lab 18CS31L1 Dr. Puja Prasad, K.Shivakumar
8 Computer Networks Lab 18CS31L2 Dr. Sugandha Singh, D.Rakesh Kumar
9 Artificial Intelligence Lab 18CS31L3 Dr. K. Kamakshaiah, K.Vijay Kumar
TT. Coord:__________ HOD:__________________ Dean Academics:-_______________ Principal:___________________
15
III B.Tech CSE I Semester – B Section

ODD Semester
Year/Sem/Sec: III-B.Tech I-Semester B-Section A.Y : 2021 -22 W.E.F 09-08-2021
Class Teacher: C.Esther Varma
Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday SL CN OS LAB
LUNCH
Tuesday OS IC CN LAB
Wednesday CN OS AI LAB
Thursday AI GW & CC CN
Friday GW & CC AI SL
Saturday

1 Operating Systems 18CS3101 M.Srinivas
2 Computer Networks 18CS3102 Dr.G.Soma Sekhar
3 Artificial Intelligence 18CS3103 C.Esther Varma
4 Scripting Languages 18CS3107 Ch. Vikas
5 Global Warming and Climate Change 18CE3121 Mr.D.Varun Kumar
7 Operating Systems Lab 18CS31L1 M.Srinivas, Viswa Shanthi
8 Computer Networks Lab 18CS31L2 Dr.G.Soma Sekhar, Vandana
9 Artificial Intelligence Lab 18CS31L3 C.Esther Varma, Niveditha
16
III B.Tech CSE I Semester – C Section

ODD Semester
Year/Sem/Sec: III-B.Tech I-Semester C-Section A.Y : 2021 -22 W.E.F 09-08-2021
Class Teacher: P Haritha
Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday CN IC AI LAB
LUNCH
Tuesday AI CN OS LAB
Wednesday SL AI CN LAB
Thursday OS SL GW & CC
Friday GW & CC OS CN
Saturday

1 Operating Systems 18CS3101 M.Srinivas
2 Computer Networks 18CS3102 P.Haritha
3 Artificial Intelligence 18CS3103 C.Esther Varma
4 Scripting Languages 18CS3107 Ch. Vikas
5 Global Warming and Climate Change 18CE3121 Mts.V.Anusha
7 Operating Systems Lab 18CS31L1 M.Srinivas, K Shiva Kumar
8 Computer Networks Lab 18CS31L2 P.Haritha, Vishwa Shanthi
9 Artificial Intelligence Lab 18CS31L3 C.Esther Varma, Niveditha
17
III B.Tech CSE I Semester – D Section

ODD Semester
Year/Sem/Sec: III-B.Tech I-Semester D-Section A.Y : 2021 -22 W.E.F 09-08-2021
Class Teacher: G.Nivedita
Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday AI OS LUNCH CN LAB
Tuesday SL AI OS LAB
Wednesday CN SL AI LAB
Thursday OS CN GW & CC
Friday CN GW & CC IC
Saturday

1 Operating Systems 18CS3101 G.Lokeshwari
2 Computer Networks 18CS3102 P.Haritha
3 Artificial Intelligence 18CS3103 G.Nivedita
4 Scripting Languages 18CS3107 Mr. E. Mahender
5 Global Warming and Climate Change 18CE3121 Mrs.V.Navaneetha
6 Indian Constitution 18MC3102 Mrs.V.S.Suhasini
7 Operating Systems Lab 18CS31L1 G.Lokeshwari, Vishwashanthi
8 Computer Networks Lab 18CS31L2 P.Haritha, Vandana
9 Artificial Intelligence Lab 18CS31L3 G.Nivedita, K.Srinivas
18
III B.Tech CSE I Semester – E Section

ODD Semester
Year/Sem/Sec: III-B.Tech I-Semester E-Section A.Y : 2021 -22 W.E.F 09-08-2021
Class Teacher: Mr. E. Mahender
Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday SL GW & CC CN LAB
LUNCH
Tuesday OS CN AI LAB
Wednesday GW & CC AI OS LAB
Thursday CN OS IC
Friday AI SL CN
Saturday

1 Operating Systems 18CS3101 G.Lokeshwari
2 Computer Networks 18CS3102 N.Radhika Amareshwari
3 Artificial Intelligence 18CS3103 Dr.A.Hari Prasad Reddy
4 Scripting Languages 18CS3107 Mr. E. Mahender
5 Global Warming and Climate Change 18CE3121 Mrs.V.Navaneetha
6 Indian Constitution 18MC3102 Mrs.V.S.Suhasini
7 Operating Systems Lab 18CS31L1 G.Lokeshwari, K.Shiva Kumar
8 Computer Networks Lab 18CS31L2 N.Radhika Amareshwari, G.Santhoshi
9 Artificial Intelligence Lab 18CS31L3 Dr.A.Hari Prasad Reddy, K.Srinivas
19
12.Individual Time Table
Faculty NAME:K.Vijaykumar-SL (III CSE I Sem A Section)

Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday SL
LUNCH
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday SL
Saturday
Faculty Name:Ch. Vikas-SL (III CSE I SEM B & C Section)

Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday SL (B Sec)
LUNCH
Tuesday
Wednesday SL (C Sec)
Thursday SL(C Sec)
Friday SL (B Sec)
Saturday
FacultyName:Mr. E. Mahender-SL (III CSE I Sem D & E Section)

Time 09.00-10.30 11.00-12.30 12.30-1.30 1.30-3.30
Period 1 2 3
Monday SL (E Sec)
LUNCH
Tuesday SL (D Sec)
Wednesday SL (D Sec)
Thursday
Friday SL (E Sec)
Saturday
20
13. Lecture Schedule with methodology being used/adopted
Un Class Topic Teaching Aids

S.No it PPT
No
I Day1 Introduction to Scripting PPT
1.
Day2 Scripts and Programs, Origin of Scripting , PPT
2.
Scripting Today
Day3 Characteristics of Scripting Languages, Uses for PPT
3.
Scripting Languages
Day4 Characteristics of Scripting Languages, Uses for PPT
4.
Scripting Languages
Day5 Web Scripting, and the universe of Scripting PPT
5.
Languages.
Day6 Web Scripting, and the universe of Scripting PPT
6.
Languages.
II Day7 Introduction to PERL PPT
7.
Day8 Names and Values PPT
8.
Day9 Variables, Scalar Expressions PPT
9.
Day10 Control Structures, PPT
10.
Day11 Arrays, list, hashes PPT
11.
Day12 hashes ,strings PPT
12.
Day 13 Patterns and regular expressions PPT
13.
Day14 subroutines. PPT
14.
Day15 Advanced PERL: Finer points of looping PPT
15.
Day16 pack and unpack, file system, eval PPT
16.
Day17 Data structures PPT
17.
Day 18 packages, modules PPT
18.
Day19 modules, objects PPT
19.
21
Day20 interfacing to the operating system PPT
20.
Day21 Creating Internet ware applications, PPT
21.
Day22 Dirty Hands Internet Programming PPT
22.
Day23 security Issues PPT
23.
PHP Basics : PHP Basics- Features
24. III Day24 PPT
Day25 Embedding PHP Code in your Web pages PPT

25.
Day26 Outputting the data to the browser, , Function, , PPT
26.
Day27 Data types, Variables PPT
27.
Day28 Constants, expressions, PPT
28.
Day29 string interpolation, PPT
29.
Day30 control structures, PPT
30.
Day31 Creating a Function, Function Libraries PPT
31.
Day32 Arrays, strings and Regular Expressions. PPT
32.
Day33 Advanced PHP Programming: PHP and Web PPT
33.
Forms.
Day34 Files PPT
34.
Day35 PHP Authentication and Methodologies -Hard PPT
35.
Coded
Day36 File Based, Database Based PPT
36.
Day37 IP Based, Login Administration PPT
37.
Day38 Uploading Files with PHP PPT
38.
Day39 Uploading Files with PHP PPT
39.
Day40 Sending Email using PHP PPT
40.
Day41 Building Web sites for the World PPT
41.
IV Day42 TCL: TCL Structure, syntax PPT
42.
43. Day43 Variables and Data in TCL PPT
22
Day44 PPT
44. Control Flow, Data Structures,
Day45 PPT
45. Control Flow, Data Structures,
Day46 input/output PPT
46.
Day47 procedures, strings, patterns, files PPT
47.
Day48 Advance TCL: Eval, source, Name spaces. PPT
48.
Day49 PPT
49. exec and up level commands,
Day50 PPT
50. trapping errors, event driven programs
Day51 making applications internet aware, PPT
51.
Day52 Nuts and Bolts Internet Programming PPT
52.
Day53 Security Issues, C Interface PPT
53.
Day54 PPT
54. Tk - Visual Tool Kits, ,
Day55 PPT
55. Fundamental Concepts of Tk
Day56 PPT
56. Tk by example, Events and Binding, Perl-Tk.
Day57 PPT
57. Tk by example, Events and Binding, Perl-Tk.
V Day58 PPT
58. Python: Introduction to Python language
Day59 PPT
59. Python-syntax
Day60 PPT
60. statements, functions
Day61 PPT
61. Built-in-functions and Methods
Day62 PPT
62. Modules in python
Day63 PPT
63. Exception Handling.
Day64 Integrated Web Applications in Python- Building PPT
64.
Small
Day65 Efficient Python Web Systems, Web Application PPT
65.
Framework.
Day66 Efficient Python Web Systems, Web Application PPT
66.
Framework.
23
Day67 IntroductiontoLinuxShellandShell PPT
67.
Scripting(Additional topic)
Day 68 Introduction to Linux Shell and Shell Scripting PPT
68.
Total No of classes: 68
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14. Detailed Notes
UNIT-1
Scripts and programs
Scripting is the action of typing scripts using a scripting language, distinguishing neatly
between programs, which are written in conventional programming language such as
C,C++,java, and scripts, which are written using a different kind of language.
We could reasonably argue that the use of scripting languages is just another kind of
programming. Scripting languages are used for is qualitatively different from conventional
programming languages like C++ and Ada address the problem of developing large
applications from the ground up, employing a team of professional programmers, starting from
well-defined specifications, and meeting specified performance constraints.
Scripting languages, on other hand, address different problems:
▪ Building applications from ‘off the shelf’components

▪ Controlling applications that have a programmableinterface
▪ Writing programs where speed of development is more important
than run-timeefficiency.
The most important difference is that scripting languages incorporate features that enhance
the productivity of the user in one way or another, making them accessible to people who
would not normally describe themselves as programmers, their primary employment being in
some other capacity. Scripting languages make programmers of us all, to someextent.
Origin of scripting
The use of the word ‘script’ in a computing context dates back to the early
1970s,when the originators of the UNIX operating system create the term ‘shell script’ for
sequence of commands that were to be read from a file and follow in sequence as if they had
been typed in at the keyword. e.g. an ‘AWKscript’, a ‘perl script’ etc.. the name ‘script ‘
being used for a text file that was intended to be executed directly rather than being compiled
to a different form of file prior toexecution.
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Other early occurrences of the term ‘script’ can be found. For example, in a DOS-
based system, use of a dial-up connection to a remote system required a communication
package that used proprietary language to write scripts to automate the sequence of operations
required to establish a connection to a remote system. Note that if we regard a scripts as a
sequence of commands to control an application or a device, a configuration file such as a
UNIX ‘make file’ could be regard as a script.
However, scripts only become interesting when they have the added value that comes
from using programming concepts such as loops and branches.
Scripting today
SCRIPTING IS USED WITH 3 DIFFRENT MEANINGS
1. A new style of programming which allows applications to be developed much faster than
traditional methods allow, and makes it possible for applications to evolve rapidly to meet
changing user requirements. This style of programming frequently uses a scripting language to
interconnect ‘off the shelf ‘components that are themselves written in conventional language.
Applications built in this way are called ‘glue applications’, and the language is called a ‘glue
language’.
A glue language is a programming language i,e an interpreted scripting language and is

designed or suited for writing glue code – code is to connect software parts. They are
especially useful for writing andmaintaining:
• Custom commands for a commandshell
• Smaller programs than those that are better implemented in a compiledlanguage
• "Wrapper" programs for executables, like a batch file that moves or manipulates files
and does other things with the operating system before or after running an application
like a word processor, spreadsheet, data base, assembler, compiler, etc.
• Scripts that maychange
• Rapid prototypes of a solution eventually implemented in another, usually
compiled,language.
Glue language examples:
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AppleScript m4 Scheme
ColdFusionD Perl Tcl
CL PH Unix Shell
Embeddable P scripts (ksh, csh,bash, sh and
CommonLispecl PurePy others)
Erlan thonRe VBScript
gJCL bolRex Work Flow
JScript and JavaScript x LanguageWindows
Lua PowerShell
Ruby
XSLT
2. Using a scripting language to ‘manipulate, customize and automate the facilities of an existing
system’, as the ECMA Script definition puts it. Here the script is used to control an application that
provides a programmable interface: this may be an API, though more commonly the application is
constructed from a collection of objects whose properties and methods are exposed to the scripting
language. Example: use of Visual Basic for applications to control the applications in the Microsoft
OfficeSuite.
3. Using a scripting language with its rich functionality and ease of use as an alternate to a
conventional language for general programming tasks, particularly system programming and
administration. Examples: are UNIX system administrators have for a long time used
scripting languages for system maintenance tasks, and administrators of WINDOWS NT
systems are adopting a scripting language, PERL for theirwork.
Characteristics of scripting languages
These are some properties of scripting languages which differentiate SL fromprogramming
languages.
• Integrated compile and run: SL’s are usually characterized as interpreted languages,
but this is just an oversimplification. They operate on an immediate execution,without
a need to issue a separate command to compile the program and then to run the
resulting object file, and without the need to link extensive libraries into the object
code. This is done automatically. A few SL’S are indeed implemented as strict
interpreters.
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• Low overheads and ease ofuse:
Variables can be declared by using the number of different data types is usually limited
everything is a string by context it will be converted as number(vice versa). Number of
data structures is limited(arrays)
• Enhanced functionality: SL’s usually have enhanced functionality in some areas. For
example, most languages provide string manipulation based on the use of regular
expressions, while other languages provide easy access to low-level operating system
facilities, or to the API, or object exported by anapplication.
• Efficiency is not an issue: ease of use is achieved at the expense of efficiencybecause
efficiency is not an issue in the applications for which SL’S aredesigned.
• A scripting language is usually interpreted from source code or bytecode. Bycontrast,
the software environment the scripts are written for is typically written in a compiled
language and distributed in machine codeform.
• Scripting languages may be designed for use by end users of a program – end-user
development – or maybe only for internal use by developers, so they can write portions
of the program in the scriptinglanguage.
• Scripting languages typically use abstraction, a form of information hiding, to spare
users the details of internal variable types, data storage, and memory management.
Scripts are often created or modified by the person executing them, but they arealso
often distributed, such as when large portions of games are written in a scripting
language.
The characteristics of ease of use, particularly the lack of an explicit compile-link-load
sequence, are sometimes taken as the sole definition of a scripting language.
Users for Scripting Languages
Users are classified into two types
1. Modernapplications
2. Traditionalusers
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Modern applications of scripting languages
Visual scripting: A collection of visual objects is used to construct a graphical interface. This
process of constructing a graphical interface is known as visual scripting. the properties of
visual objects include text on button, background and foreground colors. These properties of
objects can be changed by writing a program in a suitable language. The outstanding visual
scripting system is visual basic. It is used to develop new applications. Visual scripting is also
used to create enhanced web pages.
1. Scripting components: In scripting languages, we use the idea to control the scriptable
objects belonging to scripting architecture. Microsoft's visual basic and excel are the first
applications that used the concept of scriptable objects. To support all the applications of
Microsoft the concept of scriptable objects was developed.3.Web scripting web scripting is
classified into three forms they are processing forms, dynamic web pages, dynamically
generating HTML.
Applications of traditional scripting languages are:
1. systemadministration,
2. experimentalprogramming,
3. controlling applications.
Application areas:
Four main usage areas for scripting languages:
1. Command scripting languages
2.Application scripting languages
3.Markup language
4. Universal scripting languages
1. Command scripting languages are the oldest class of scripting expressions. They
appeared in 1960 when a need for programs and tasks control arises. The most known
language from the first generation of such type of languages is JCL (Job Control Language),
created by IBM OS/360 operating system. Examples of such languages are shell language,
described above, and also text-processing languages, such as sed and awk. These languages
were one of the first to directly include support for regular expression matching - a feature
that later was included into more general-purpose languages, such asPerl.
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Webscripting
Web is the most fertile areas for the application of scripting languages. Web scriptingdivides
into threeareas
a. processingforms
b. creating pages with enhanced visual effects and user interactionand
c. generating pages ’on the fly’ from material held indatabase.
Processing Webforms
In the original implementation of the web , when the form is submitted for processing, the
information entered by the user is encoded and sent to the server for processing by a CGI script
that generates an HTML page to be sent back to the Web browser. This processing requires
string manipulation to construct the HTML page that constitutes the replay, and may also
require system access , to run other processes and to establish network connections. Perl is also
a language that uses CGI scripting. Alternatively for processing the form with script running on
the server it possible to do some client –side processing within the browser to validate form
data before sending it to the server by using JavaScript, VBScriptetc.
Dynamic Web pages
‘Dynamic HTML’ makes every component of a Web page (headings, anchors, tables etc.) a
scriptable object. This makes it possible to provide simple interaction with the user using
scripts written in JavaScript/Jscript or VBScript, which are interpreted by the browser.
Microsoft’s ActiveX technology allows the creation of pages with more elaborate user
interaction by using embedded visual objects called ActiveX controls. These controls are
scriptable objects, and can in fact be scripted in a variety languages. This can be scripted by
using Perl scriptingengine.
Dynamically generatedHTML
Another form of dynamic Web page is one in which some or all of the HTML is generated by
scripts executed on the server. A common application of the technique is to construct pages whose
content is retrieved from a database. For example, Microsoft’s IIS web server implements Active
Server Pages (ASP), which incorporate scripts in Jscript or VBScript.
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The universe of scripting languages
Scripting can be traditional or modern scripting, and Web scripting forms an important part of
modern scripting. Scripting universe contains multiple overlapping worlds
o The original UNIX world of traditional scripting usingPerl
o The Microsoft world of Visual Basic and Active controls

o The world of VBA for scripting compounddocuments
o The world of client-side and server-side Webscripting
The overlap is complex, for example web scripting can be done in VBScript, JavaScript/Jscript,
Perl or Tcl. This universe has been enlarged as Perl and Tcl are used to implement complex
applications for large organizations e.g Tcl has been used to develop a major banking system,
and Perl has been used to implement an enterprise- wide document management system for a
leading aerospace company.
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UNIT II
INTRODUCTION TO PERL
Names
Like any other programming language, Perl manipulates variables which have a name (or
identifier) and a value: a value is assigned to a variable by an assignment statement of the
form
name=value;
Variable names resemble nouns in English, and like English, Perl distinguishes between
singular and plural nouns. A singular name is associated with a variable that holds a single
item of data (a scalar value), a plural name is associated with a variable that holds a
collection of data items (an array or hash).
A notable characteristic of Perl is that variable names start with a special character that
denotes the kind of thing that the name stands for - scalar data ($), array (@), hash (%),
subroutine (&) etc. The syntax also allows a name that consists of a single non-
alphanumeric character after the initial special character, eg. $$, $?; such names are usually
reserved for the Perl system.
If we write an assignment, eg. j=j+1, the occurrence of j on the left denotes a storage
location, while the right-hand occurrence denotes the contents of the storage location. We
sometimes refer to these as the lvalue and rvalue of the variable: more precisely we are
determining the meaning of the identifier in a left-context or a right-context. In the
assignment a[j] = a[j] + 1, both occurrences of j are determined in a right-context, even
though one of them appears on the left of theassignment.
In conventional programming languages, new variables are introduced by a

declaration, which specifies the name of the new variable and also its type, which determines
the kind of value that can be stored in the variable and, by implication, the operations that can
be carried out on that variable.
Strings and numbers
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In common with many scripting languages, Perl recognizes just two kinds of scalar
data: strings and numbers. There is no distinction between integer and real numbers as
different types. Perl is a dynamically typed language: the system keeps track of whether a
variable contains a numeric value or a string value, and the user doesn't have to worry about
the difference between strings and numbers since conversions between the two kinds of data
are done automatically as required by the context in which they areused.
Booleanvalues
All programming languages need some way of representing truth values and Perl is no
exception. Since scalar values are either numbers or strings, some convention is needed for
representing Boolean values, and Perl adopts the simple rule that numeric zero, "0" and the
empty string (" ") mean false, and anything else means true.
Numeric constants
Numeric constants can be written in a variety of ways, including specific notation,

octal and hexadecimal. Although Perl tries to emulate natural human communication, the
common practice of using commas or spaces to break up a large integer constant into
meaningful digit groups cannot be used, since the comma has a syntactic significance in Perl.
Instead, underscores can be included in a number literal to improvelegibility.
String constants
String constants can be enclosed in single or double quotes. The string is terminated by
the first next occurrence of the quote which started it, so a single-quoted string can include
double quotes and vice versa. The q (quote) and qq (double quote) operators allow you to use
any character as a quoting character. Thus q / any string/ or q ( any string ) are the same as 'any
string' and qq / any string / or qq ( any string ) are the same as "any string"
Variables and assignment
Assignment
Borrowing from C, Perl uses '=' as the assignment operator. It is important to note that an
assignment statement returns a value, the value assigned. This permits statements like
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$b = 4 + ( $a = 3) ;
which assigns the value 3 to $a and the value 7 to $b.If it is required to interpolate a variable
value without an intervening space the following syntax, borrowed from UNIX shell scripts ,
is used:
$a = "Java ;
$b = "$ { a } Script" ; which gives $b the value "JavaScript".
<STDIN> - a special value
When the 'variable' <STDIN> appears in a context where a scalar value is required, it
evaluates to a string containing the next line from standard input, including the terminating
newline. If there is no input queued, Perl will wait until a line is typed and the return key
pressed. The empty string is treated as false in a Boolean context. If <STDIN> appears on the
right-hand side of an assignment to a scalar variable, the string containing the input line is
assigned to the variable named on the ;eft. If it appears in any other scalar context the string is
assigned to the anonymous variable: this can be accessed by the name $- : many operations
use it as adefault.
Scalar Expressions
Scalar data items are combined into expressions using operators. Perl has a lot of operators,
which are ranked in 22 precedence levels. These are carefully chosen so that the ‘obvious’
meaning is what You get , but the old advice still applies: if in doubt ,use brackets to force the
order of evaluation . In the following sections we describe the available operators in their
natural groupings-arithmetic , strings, logical etc.
Arithmetic operators
Following the principles of ‘no surprises’ Perl provides the usual Arithmetic operators,
including auto-increment and auto-decrement operators after the manner of C: note that in
$c= 17 ; $d= ++$c;

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The sequence is increment and the assign, whereas in
$c= 17 ; $d = $c++;
The sequence is assign then increment . As C, binary arithmetic operations can be combined
with assignment, e.g.
$a += 3;
This adds 3 to $a, being equivalent to
$a =$a + 3;
As in most other languages, unary minus is used to negate a numeric value; an almost never-
used unary plus operator is provided for completeness.
String Operators
Perl provides very basic operators on strings: most string processing is one using built-in
functions expressions, as described later. Unlike many languages use + as a concatenation
operator for strings, Perl uses a period for this purpose: this lack of overloading means that
an operator uniquely determines the context for its operands. The other string operator is x,
which is used to replicate strings, e.g.
$a =”Hello” x 3;
Sets $a to “HelloHelloHello”.
The capability of combining an operator with assignment is extended to string operations. E.g.
$foo .= “ “ ;
Appends a space to $foo.
So far, things have been boringly conventional for the most part. However, we begin to get a
taste of the real flavor of perl when we see how it adds a little magic when some operators,
normally used in arithmetic context, are used in a string context.
Two examples illustrate this.
1. Autoincrement
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If a variable has only ever been used in a string context, the auto increment operator can be
applied to it. If the value consists of a sequence of letters, or a sequence of letters followed by
a sequence of digits, the auto increment takes place in string mode starting with the right most
character, with ‘carry’ along the string. For example, thesequence
$a = ‘a0’ ; $b =
‘Az9’ ;
Print ++$a, ‘ ‘, ++$b;
“/n”; Prints a1 Ba0.
2. Unaryminus
This has an unusual effect on non numeric values. Unary minus applied to a string which starts
with a plus or minus character returns the same string, but starting with the opposite sign.
Unary minus applie to an identifier returns a string consists of minus prefixed to the characters
of the identifiers. Thus if we have a variable named $config with the value “ foo”, then –config
evaluates the string “-foo”. This is useful, for example, in constructing command arguments
are introducedby
Comparison operators
The value of comparisons is returned as 1 if true, and an empty string (“ ”) if false, in

accordance with the convention described earlier. Two families of comparison operators
provide, one for numbers and one for strings. The operator used determines the context , and
perl converts the operands as required to match the operator. This duality is necessary because
a comparison between strings made up entirely numerical digits should apply the usual rules
for sorting strings ASCII as a collating sequence, and this may not give the same result as the
numerical comparison(‘5’ <’10’) returns the value true as a numerical comparison having been
converted into (5<10) where as the string comparison (‘5’ lt ‘10’) returns false, since 10comes
before 5 in the canonical sort order forASCII strings.
numbers,cmpforstrings),performsathreewaytest,returning-1forless-than,0forequalan
+1 for greater-than. Note that the comparison operators are non associative, so an expression
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like $a > $b > $c Iserroneous.
Logical operators
The logical operators allows to combine conditions using the usual logical operations ‘not’(!,
not), ‘and’(&&,and) and ‘or’(||,or). Perl implements the ‘and’ and ‘or’ operators in ‘shortcut’
mode, i.e evaluation stops as soon as the final result is certain using the rules false &&b=false,
and true||b=true. Before Perl 5,only the !, && and || operators were provided. The new set, not,
and ,or, are provided partly to increase readability, and partly because their extra-low precedence
makes it possible to omit brackets in most circumstances-the precedence ordering is chosen so
that numerical expressions can be compared without having to enclose them in brackets, e.g.
Print” OK\n” if $a<10 and $b<12;
Bitwise operators
The unary tilde(~) applied to a numerical argument performs bitwise negation on its operand,
generating the one’s compliment. If applied to a string operand it complements all the bits in the
string – effective way of inverting a lot of bits. The remaining bitwise operators - & (and), | (or)
and ^(exclusive or)- have a rather complicated definition. If either operand is a number or a
variable that has previously been used as a number, both operands are converted to integers if
need be, and the bitwise operation takes place between the integers. If the both operands are
strings, and if variables have never been used as numbers, Perl performs the bitwise operation
between corresponding bits in the two strings, padding the shorter strings with zeros as required.
Conditional expressions
A conditional expression is one whose values is chosen from two alternatives at run-time
depending on the outcome of a test. The syntax is borrowed from C
Test ? true_exp: false_exp
The first expression is evaluated as Boolean value : if it returns true the whole expression
is replaced by true_exp, otherwise it is replaced by false_exp, e.g.
$a= ($a<0)? 0 : $a;
Control structures
The Control Structures for conditional execution and repetition all the control mechanisms is
similar to C.
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BLOCKS
A block is a sequence i\of one or more statements enclosed in curly braces. Eg: { $positive
=1;$negative=-1;} The last statement is the block terminated by the closing brace. In, Perl they
use conditions to control the evaluation of one or more blocks. Blocks can appear almost
anywhere that a statement can appear such a block called bare block.
Conditions
A condition is a Perl expression which is evaluated in a Boolean context: if it evaluates
to zero or the empty string the condition is false, otherwise it is true. Conditions usually make
use of relational operators. Eg: $total>50
$total>50 and $total<100
Simple Conditions can be combined into a complex condition using the logical operators. A
condition can be negated using the ! operator.
Eg: !($total>50 and $total<100)
CONDITIONAL EXECUTION
If-then-else statements
if ($total>0)
{
print “$total\n”-
if ($total>0)
{
print “$total\n”
}
else
{
print “bad total!\n”-
}
}
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A single statement is a block and requires braces round it. The if statement requires that the
expression forming the condition is enclosed in brackets. The construct extends to multiple
selections
Eg: if ($total>70)
{
$grade=”A”;
}
elsif ($total >50)
{
$grade=”B”;
}
elsif ($total>40)
{
$grade=”C”;
} else {
$grade=”F”;
$total=0;
}
Alternatives to if-then-else
To use a conditional expression in place of an if-then-else construct.

if ($a<0)
($b=0)
else
($b=1)
can be writtenas
$b= ($a<0)? 0:1;
To use the ‘or’ operator between statements Eg: open (IN, $ARGV[0] or die
“Can’t open $ARGV*0+\n”;
Statement qualifiers
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A single statement(not a block) can be followed by a conditional modifier.
Eg: print“OK\n”
if $volts>=1.5;
print“Weak\n”
if
$volts>=1.2 and
$volts<1.5;
print “Replace\n”
if $volts<1.2;
Code using Conditional expressions,

Eg: print (($volts>=1.5)? “Ok\n”; (($volts>=1.2)? “Weak\n”; “Replace\n”));
REPETITION:
Repetition mechanisms include both
Testing Loops
Counting Loops
TESTING LOOPS
While ($a! = $b)

if ($a > $b) {
$a=$a-$b
} else {
$b=$b-$a
}
}
With the if statement, the expression that forms the condition must be enclosed in brackets. But
now, while can be replaced by until to give the same effect. Single statement can use while and
until as statement modifiers to improve readability.
Eg: $a += 2 while $a <$b;
$a += 2 until $a > $b;
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Here, although the condition is written after the statement, it is evaluated before the statement is
executed, if the condition is initially false the statement will be never executed. When the
condition is attached to a do loop is same as a statement modifier, so the block is executed at
leastonce.
do
{
……….
} while $a! = $b;
Counting Loops
In C,
for ($i= 1;$i<=10;$i++)
{
$i_square=$i*$i;
$i_cube=$i**3;
print “$i\t$i_square\t$i_cube\n”;
}
InPerl,
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foreach
$i
(1…10),
$i_squar
e=$i* $i;
$i_cube
=$i**3;
print
“$i\t$i_s
quare\t$i
_cube\n”
;
}
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LISTS
A list is a collection of scalar data items which can be treated as a whole, and has a temporary existence
on the run-time stack. It is a collection of variables, constants (numbers or strings) or expressions,
which is to be treated as a whole. It is written as a comma-separated sequence of values, eg: “red” ,
“green” , “blue”. A list often appears in a script enclosed in round brackets. For eg:( “red” , “green”,
“blue” ) Shorthand notation is acceptable in lists, for eg: (1..8)(“A”..”H” , “O”..”Z”) qw
(the quick brown fox) is a shorthand for (“the” , ”quick” , ”brown” , ”fox”).
Arrays and Hashes: These are the collections of scalar data items which have an assigned storage space in
memory, and can therefore be accessed using a variable name.
ARRAYS
An array is an ordered collection of data whose comparisons are identified by an ordinal index: It is usually the
value of an array variable. The name of the variable always starts with an @, eg: @days_of_week.
NOTE: An array stores a collection, and List is a collection, So it is natural to assign a list to an array.
Eg: @rainfall = (1.2 , 0.4 , 0.3 , 0.1 , 0 , 0 , 0 );
A list can occur as an element of another list.
Eg: @foo = (1 , 2 , 3, “string”);
@foobar = (4 , 5 , @foo , 6);
The foobar result would be (4 , 5 , 1 , 2 , 3 , “string” , 6);
HASHES
An associative array is one in which each element has two components: a key and a value, the element being
‘indexed’ by its key. Such arrays are usually stored in a hash table to facilitate efficient retrieval, and for this
reason Perl uses the term hash for an associative array. Names of hashes in Perl start with a % character: such a
name establishes a list context. The index is a string enclosed in braces(curlybrackets).
Eg: $somehash{aaa} = 123;
$somehash,“$a”-=0; //The key is a the current value of$a.
%anotherhash =%somehash;
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Array Creation
Array variables are prefixed with the @sign and are populated using either parenthesis or the qw operator.
Eg: @array = (1 , 2 ,”Heelo”); @array = qw/This
is an array/;
In C, C++, Java; Array is a collection of homogeneous elements, whereas; In Perl, Array is collection of
heterogeneous elements.
Accessing Array Elements
➢ When accessing an individual element, we have to use the ‘$’ symbol followed by variable name
along with the index in the squarebrackets.
Eg: $bar = $foo[2];
$foo[2] = 7;
➢ A group of contiguous elements is called a slice , and is accessed using a simplesyntax: @foo[1..3] is the
same as the list ($foo[1], $foo[2],$foo[3])
➢ A slice can be used as the destination of an assignment, Eg:
@foo*1..3+ = (“hop” ,“skip”,“jump”);
➢ Like a slice, a selection can appear on the left of an assignment: this leads to auseful idiom for
rearranging the elements in alist.
Eg: To swap the first two elements of an array, we write as;
@foo[0 , 1] = @foo[1 , 0];
Manipulating Lists
Perl provides several built-in functions for list manipulation. Three useful ones are:
➢ shift LIST : Returns the first item of LIST, and moves the remaining items down, reducing the size of
LIST by1.
➢ unshift ARRAY, LIST : The opposite of shift. Puts the items in LIST at the beginning of ARRAY,
moving the original contents up by the requiredamount.
➢ push ARRAY, LIST : Similar to unshift, but adds the values in LIST to the end of ARRAY.
Iterating over Lists
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foreach: The foreach loop performs a simple iteration over all the elements of a list.
Eg: foreach $item (list)

{
……………
The block is executed repeatedly with the variables $item taking each value from the list in turn. The variable
can be omitted, in which case $_ will be used.The natural Perl idiom for manipulating all items in an array is ;
foreach(@array)
{
……..#process$_
Working With Hashes
➢ A hash is a set of key/valuepairs.

➢ Hash variables are preceded by a “%”sign.
➢ To refer to a single element of a hash, you will use the hash variable name preceded by a ‘$’ sign and
followed by the “key” associated with the value in the curlybrackets.
➢ It is also called as associativearray.
Creating Hashes
We can assign a list of key-value pairs to a hash, as, for example
%foo = (key1, value1, key2, value2, …….);
An alternative syntax is provided using the => operator to associate key-value pairs, thus:%foo = (banana =>
‘yellow’ , apple => ‘red’ , grapes=>‘green’, ................................. );
Manipulating Hashes
Perl provides a number of built-in functions to facilitate manipulation of hashes. If we have a hash called
HASH
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➢ keys % HASH returns a list of the keys of the elements in the hash,and
➢ values % HASH returns a list of the values of the elements in thehash.
Eg: %foo = (banana => ‘yellow’ , apple => ‘red’ , grapes=>‘green’, .............. ); keys%
HASH returns banana, apple ,grapes values % HASH returns yellow, red, green.
These functions provide a convenient way to iterate over the elements of a hash using foreach: foreach (keys %
HASH)
process $magic($_)
Other useful operators for manipulating hashes are delete and exists.
➢ delete $HASH{$key} removes theelement

➢ exists $HASH{$key} returnstrue.
Strings, Pattern Matching & Regular Expressions in Perl
The most powerful features of Perl are in its vast collection of string manipulation operators and functions. Perl
would not be as popular as it is today in bioinformatics applications if it did not contain its flexible and powerful
string manipulation capabilities.
String concatenation
To concatenate two strings together, just use the ( .) dot
$a . $b;
$c = $a .$b;
$a = $a .$b;
$a .= $b;
The first expression concatenates $a and $b together, but the the result was immediately lost unless it is saved to
the third string $c as in case two. If $b is meant to be appended to the end of $a, use the .= operator will be more
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convenient. As is any other assignments in Perl, if you see an assignment written this way $a = $a op expression,
where op stands for any operator and expr stands for the rest of the statement, you can make a shorter version by
moving the op to the front of the assignment, e.g., $a op= expression.
Substring extraction
The counterpart of string concatenation is substring extraction. To extract the substring at certain location
inside a string, use the substr function:
➢ $second_char = substr($a, 1,1);
➢ $last_char = substr($a, -1,1);
➢ $last_three_char = substr($a,-3);
The first argument to the substr function is the source string, the second argument is the start position of the
substring in the source string, and the third argument is the length of the substring to extract. The second
argument can be negative, and if that being the case, the start position will be counted from the back of the source
string. Also, the third argument can be omitted. In that case, it will run to the end of the source string. Particularly
interesting feature in Perl is that the substr function can be assigned into as well, meaning that in addition to string
extraction, it can be used as stringreplacement:
substr($a, 1, 1) = 'b'; # change the second character to b
substr($a, -1) = 'abc'; # replace the last character as abc (i.e., also add two newletters c)
substr($a, 1, 0) = 'abc'; #insert abc in front of the second character
Substring search
In order to provide the second argument to substr, usually you need to locate the substring tobe extracted or replaced
first. The index function does thejob:
▪ $loc1 = index($string,"abc");
▪ $loc2 = index($string, "abc",$loc+1);

▪ print "not found" if$loc2<0;
The index function takes two arguments, the source string to search, and the substring to be located inside the
source string. It can optionally take a third argument to mean the start position of the search. If the index
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function finds no substring in the source string anymore, then it returns -1.
Regular expression
Regular expression is a way to write a pattern which describes certain substrings. In general, the number of
possible strings that can match a pattern is large, thus you need to make use of the regular expression to describe
them instead of listing all possibilities. If the possible substring matches are just one, then maybe the index
function is more efficient.
The following are some basic syntax rules of regular expression:
o Any character except the following special ones stands for itself. Thus abc matches 'abc', and xyz matches
'xyz'.
o The character . matches any single character. To match it only with the . character itself, put an escape \ in
front of it, so \. will match only '.', but . will match anything. To match the escape character itself, type two
of them \\ to escapeitself.
o If instead of matching any character, you just want to match a subset of characters, put all of them into
brackets [ ], thus [abc] will match 'a', 'b', or 'c'. It is also possible to shorten the listing if characters in a set
are consecutive, so [a-z] will match all lowercase alphabets, [0-9] will match all single digits, etc. A
character set can be negated by the special^character,thus[^0-9]willmatchanythingbutnumbers,and[^a-
f]willmatch
anything but 'a' through 'f'. Again, if you just want to match the special symbols themselves, put an escape in
front of them, e.g., \[, \^ and \].
o All the above so far just match single characters. The power of regular expression lies in its ability to match
multiple characters with some meta symbols. The * will match 0 or more of the previous symbol, the + will
match 1 or more of the previous symbol, and ? will match 0 or 1 of the previoussymbol.
o For example, a* will match 'aaaa...' for any number of a's including none '', a+ will match 1 or more a's, and
a? will match zero or one a's. A more complicated example is to match numbers, which can be written this
way [0-9]+. To matching real numbers, you need to write [0-9]+\.?[0-9]*. Note that the decimal point and
fraction numbers can be omitted, thus we use ?, and * instead of+.
o If you want to combine two regular expressions together, just write them consecutively.If you want to use
either one of the two regular expressions, use the | meta symbol. Thus, a|b will match a or b, which is
equivalent to [ab], and a+|b+ will match any string of a's or b's. The second case cannot be expressed using
character subset because [ab]+ does not mean the same thing asa+|b+.
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o Finally, regular expressions can be grouped together with parentheses to change the order of their
interpretation. For example, a(b|c)d will match 'abd' or 'acd'. Without the parentheses, it would match 'ab'
or'cd'.
The rules above are simple, but it takes some experience to apply them successfully on the actual substrings you
wish to match. There are no better ways to learn this than simply to write some regular expressions and see if they
match the substrings you have inmind.
The following are some examples:
[A-Z][a-z]* will match all words whose first character are capitalized
[A-Za-z_][A-Za-z0-9_]* will match all legal perl variable names

[+-]?[0-9]+\.?[0-9]*([eE][+-]?[0-9]+)? will match scientific numbers
[acgtACGT]+ will match all DNA strings
^> will match the > symbol only at the beginning of a string a$ will match the
a letter only at the end of a string
In the last two examples above, we introduced another two special symbols. The ^ which when not used inside a
character set to negate the character set, stands for the beginning of the string. Thus, ^> will match '>' only when
it is the first character of the string. Similarly, $ inside a regular expression means the end of the string, so a$ will
match 'a' only when it is the last character of the string. These are so called anchorsymbols.
Another commonly used anchor is \b which stands for the boundary of a word. In addition, Perl introduces
predefined character sets for some commonly used patterns, thus \d stands for digits and is equivalent to [0-9], \w
stands for word letters or numbers, and \s stands for space characters ' ', \t, \n, \r, etc. The captial letter version of
these negates their meaning, thus \D matches non-digit characters, \W matches non-word characters, and \S
matches non- whitespaces. The scientific number pattern above can therefore be rewritten as:
[+-]?\d+\.?\d*([eE][+-]?\d+)?
Pattern matching
Regular expressions are used in a few Perl statements, and their most common use is in pattern matching. To
match a regular expression pattern inside a $string, use the string operator =~ combines with the pattern matching
operator / /:
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$string =~ /\w+/; # match alphanumeric words in $string
$string =~ /\d+/; # match numbers in $string
he pattern matching operator / / does not alter the source $string. Instead, it just returns a true or false value to
determine if the pattern is found in $string:
if ($string =~ /\d+/)
{
print "there are numbers in $string\n";
}
Sometimes not only you want to know if the pattern exists in a string, but also what it actually matched. In that case,
use the parentheses to indicate the matched substring you want to know, and they will be assigned to the special $1,
$2, ..., variables if the match is successful:
if ($string =~ /(\d+)\s+(\d+)\s+(\d+)/)
{
print "first three matched numbers are $1, $2, $3 in $string\n";
}
Note that all three numbers above must be found for the whole pattern to match successfully, thus $1, $2 and $3
should be defined when the if statement is true. The same memory of matched substrings within the regular
expression are \1, \2, \3, etc. So, to check if the same number happened twice in the $string, you can do this:
if ($string =~ /(\d).+\1/) {
print "$1 happened at least twice in $string\n";
}
You cannot use $1 in the pattern to indicate the previously matched number because $ means the end of the line
inside the pattern. Use \1 instead.
Pattern substitution
In addition to matching a pattern, you can replace the matched substring with a new string using the substitution
operator. In this case, just write the substitution string after the pattern to match and replace:
$string =~ s/\d+/0/; # replace a number with zero
$string =~ s:/:\\:; # replace the forward slash with backward slash
Unlike the pattern matching operator, the substitution operator does change the $string if a match is found. The
second example above indicates that you do not always need to use / to break the pattern and substitution parts
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apart; you can basically use any symbol right after the s operator as the separator. In the second case above, since
what we want to replace is the forward slash symbol, using it to indicate the pattern boundary would be very
cumbersome and need a lot of escape characters:
$string =~ s/\//\\/; # this is the same but much harder to read
For pattern matching, you can also use any separator by writing them with m operator, i.e., m:/: will match the
forward splash symbol. Natually, the substitution string may (and often does) contain the \1, \2 special memory
substrings to mean the just matched substrings. For example, the following will add parentheses around the
matched number in the source $string:
$string =~ s/(\d+)/(\1)/;
The parentheses in the replacement string have no special meanings, thus they were just added to surround the
matched number.
Modifiers to pattern matching and substitution
You can add some suffix modifiers to Perl pattern matching or substitution operators totell them more
precisely what you intend todo:
/g tells Perl to match all existing patterns, thus the following prints all numbers in
$string
while ($string =~ /(\d+)/g)
print "$1\n";
}
$string =~ s/\d+/0/g; # replace all numbers in $string with zero
/i tells Perl to ignore cases, thus
$string =~ /abc/i; # matches AbC, abC, Abc, etc.
/m tells perl to ignore newlines, thus
"a\na\na" =~ /a$/m will match the last a in the $string, not the a before the firstnewline if /m is notgiven.
Perl- Subroutines
A Perl subroutine or function is a group of statements that together performs a task. You can divideup your code
into separate subroutines. How you divide up your code among different subroutines is up to you, but logically
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the division usually is so each function performs a specific task.
Define and Call a Subroutine
The general form of a subroutine definition in Perl programming language is as follows – sub
subroutine_name
{
body of the subroutine
}
The typical way of calling that Perl subroutine is as follows – subroutine_nam e( list of argum ents );Let's have a
look into the following example, which defines a simple function
andthencallit.BecausePerlcompilesyourprogrambeforeexecutingit,itdoesn'tmatter
where you declare your subroutine. #!/usr/bin/perl

# Function definition sub Hello{
print "Hello, World!\n";
}
# Function call Hello();
When above program is executed, it produces the following result − Hello, World!
Passing Arguments to a Subroutine
You can pass various arguments to a subroutine like you do in any other programming language and they can be
accessed inside the function using the special array @_. Thus the first argument to the function is in [ 0], these
concision_[1], and soon.
You can pass arrays and hashes as arguments like any scalar but passing more than one array or hash normally
causes them to lose their separate identities.
Passing Lists to Subroutines

Because the @_ variable is an array, it can be used to supply lists to a subroutine. However, because of the way in
which Perl accepts and parses lists and arrays, it can be difficult to extract the individual elements from @_. If you
have to pass a list along with other scalar arguments, then make list as the last argument as shown below −
#!/usr/bin/perl# Function
definition sub PrintList{
m y @ list = @ _;
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print "Given list is @ list\n";
}
$ a = 10;
@ b = (1, 2, 3, 4);
# Function call with list param eter PrintList($ a,
@ b);
When above program is executed, it produces the following result − Given list is 10 1
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Passing Hashes to Subroutines
When you supply a hash to a subroutine or operator that accepts a list, then hash is automatically translated into a list of
key/value pairs. For example −
#!/usr/bin/perl
# Function definition sub PrintHash{
m y (%hash) = @ _;
foreach m y $ key ( keys %hash

){ m y $ value = $ hash{$ key}; print "$ key : $
value\n";
}}
%hash = ('nam e' => 'Tom ', 'age' => 19); # Function call
with hash parameter PrintHash(%hash);
When above program is executed, it produces the following result − nam ee : Tom
age : 19
Returning Value from a Subroutine
You can return a value from subroutine like you do in any other programming language. If you are not
returning a value from a subroutine then whatever calculation is last performed in a subroutine is automatically
also the return value. You can return arrays and hashes from the subroutine like any scalar but returning more
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than one array or hash normally causes them to lose their separate identities. So we will use references
explained in the next chapter to return any array or hash from a function. Let's try the following example,
which takes a list of numbers and then returns their average
#!/usr/bin/perl
# Function definition sub Average{
# get total num ber of argum ents passed.
$ n = scalar(@ _);
$ sum = 0;
foreach $ item (@ _)
{
$ sum += $ item ;
}
$ average = $ sum / $ n; return $ average;
}
# Function call
$ num = Average(10, 20, 30);
print "Average for the given num bers : $ num \n";
When above program is executed, it produces the following result − Average for the given num bers : 20
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Advanced PERL
Finer Points of Looping
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and following is the
general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages −
Perl programming language provides the following types of loop to handle the looping requirements.
Loop Type Description
Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given

while loop
condition is true. It tests the condition beforeexecuting the
loop body.
Repeats a statement or group of statements until a given
until loop
condition becomes true. It tests the condition before executing
the loop body.
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for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and
abbreviates the code that manages the loop variable.
foreach loop The foreach loop iterates over a normal list value and
sets the variable VAR to be each element of the list in
turn.
do...while loop Like a while statement, except that it tests the

condition at the end of the loop body
You can use one or more loop inside any another while, for or
nested loops do..while loop.
Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change the execution from its normal sequence. When execution leaves a scope, all
automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.C supports the following control statements. Click the
following links to check their detail.
Control Statement Description
next statement Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and
immediately retest its condition prior toreiterating.
Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the
laststatement
statement immediately following theloop.
A continue BLOCK, it is always executed just before the

continue statement
conditional is about to be evaluated again.
The redo command restarts the loop block without evaluating

redo statement
the conditional again. The continue block, if any, is not
executed.
goto statement It is used to transfer control by jumping to other label inside a

loop.
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Infinite Loop
A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop is traditionally used
for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that form the for loop are required, you can
make an endless loop by leaving the conditional expression empty.
#!/usr/local/bin/perl
for(;;)
{
printf"This loop will run forever.\n";
}
You can terminate the above infinite loop by pressing the Ctrl + C keys. When the conditional
expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may have an initialization and increment
expression, but as a programmer more commonly use the for (;;) construct to signify an
infiniteloop.
Multiple Loop Variables:
For loop can iterate over two or more variables simultaneously.
Eg: for($m=1,$n=1,$m<10,$m++,$n+=2)
…….
Here (,) operator is a list constructor, it evaluates its left hand argument.
Pack and Unpack
Pack Function
The pack function evaluates the expressions in LIST and packs them into a binary structure
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specified by EXPR. The format is specified using the characters shown in Table below Each
character may be optionally followed by a number, which specifies a repeat count for the type
of value being packed. that is nibbles, chars, or even bits, according to the format. A
valueof*repeatsforasmanyvaluesremaininLIST.Valuescanbeunpackedwiththe
npack function. For example, a5 indicates that five letters are expected. b32 indicates that 32
bits are expected. h8 indicates that 8 nibbles ( or 4 bytes) are expected. P10 indicates that the
structure is 10 byteslong.
Syntax
Following is the simple syntax for this function
pack EXPR, LIST
Return Value
This function returns a packed version of the data in LIST using TEMPLATE to determine
how it is coded.
Here is the table which gives values to be used in TEMPLATE.
Character Description
A ASCII character string padded with null characters
A ASCII character string padded with spaces
B String of bits, lowest first
B String of bits, highest first
C A signed character (range usually -128 to 127)
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C An unsigned character (usually 8 bits)
D A double-precision floating-point number
F A single-precision floating-point number
H Hexadecimal string, lowest digit first
H Hexadecimal string, highest digit first
I A signed integer
I An unsigned integer
L A signed long integer
L An unsigned long integer
N A short integer in network order
N A long integer in network order
P A pointer to a string
S A signed short integer
S An unsigned short integer
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U Convert to uuencode format
A short integer in VAX (little-endian) order

V
A long integer in VAX order

V
X A null byte
Fill with nulls (ASCII 0)
@
X Indicates "go back one byte"
Example
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
$bits =pack("c",65);
# prints A, which is ASCII
65. print"bits are $bits\n";
$bits =pack("x");
# $bits is now a null chracter.
print"bits are $bits\n";
$bits =pack("sai",255,"T",30);
# creates a seven charcter string on most computers'
@array=unpack("sai","$bits");
#Array now contains three elements: 255, T and 30.

print"Array $array[0]\n";
Following is the example code showing its basic usage

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When above code is executed, it produces the following result −
bits are A
bits are
bits are
T- Array
255 Array T
Array 30
Unpack Function
The unpack function unpacks the binary string STRING using the format specified in
TEMPLATE. Basically reverses the operation of pack, returning the list of packed values
according to the supplied format. You can also prefix any format field with a %<number> to
indicate that you want a 16-bit checksum of the value of STRING, instead of the value.
Syntax
Following is the simple syntax for this function
unpack TEMPLATE, STRING
Return Value
This function returns the list of unpacked values.
Here is the table which gives values to be used in TEMPLATE.
Character Description
A ASCII character string padded with null characters
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A ASCII character string padded with spaces
B String of bits, lowest first
B String of bits, highest first
C A signed character (range usually -128 to 127)
C An unsigned character (usually 8 bits)
D A double-precision floating-point number
F A single-precision floating-point number
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H Hexadecimal string, lowest digit first
H Hexadecimal string, highest digit first
I A signed integer
I An unsigned integer
L A signed long integer
L An unsigned long integer
N A short integer in network order
N A long integer in network order
P A pointer to a string
S A signed short integer
S An unsigned short integer
U Convert to uuencode format
V A short integer in VAX (little-endian)

order
V A long integer in VAX order
X A null byte
X Indicates "go back one byte"
@ Fill with nulls (ASCII 0)
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Example
Following is the example code showing its basic usage

$bits =pack("x");
# $bits is now a null chracter. print"bits are
$bits\n";
$bits=pack("sai",255,"T",30);
# creates a seven charcter string on most
computers' print"bits are $bits\n";
@array=unpack("sai","$bits");
#Array now contains three elements: 255, A and
47. print"Array $array[0]\n";
When above code is executed, it produces the following result −
bits
are A
bits
are
bits
are
�T-
Array2
Files
The basics of handling files are simple: you associate a filehandle with an external entity (usually a
file) and then use a variety of operators and functions within Perl to read and update the data
stored within the data stream associated with the filehandle. A filehandle is a named internal Perl
structure that associates a physical file with a name. All filehandles are capableof
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read/write access, so you can read from and update any file or device associated with a filehandle.
However, when you associate a filehandle, you can specify the mode in which the filehandle is
opened. Three basic file handles are - STDIN, STDOUT, and STDERR, which represent standard
input, standard output and standard error devices respectively.
Opening and Closing Files
There are following two functions with multiple forms, which can be used to open any new or
existing file in Perl.
open FILEHANDLE,
EXPR open
FILEHANDLE
sysopen FILEHANDLE, FILENAME, MODE,
PERMS sysopen FILEHANDLE, FILENAME,
Here FILEHANDLE is the file handle returned by the open function and EXPR is the expression
having file name and mode of opening the file.
Open Function
Following is the syntax to open file.txt in read-only mode. Here less than < sign indicates that file
has to be opend in read-only mode.
open(DATA,"<file.txt");
Here DATA is the file handle which will be used to read the file. Here is the example which will
open a file and will print its content over the screen.
#!/usr/bin/perl
open(DATA,"<file.txt")ordie"Couldn't open file
file.txt, $!"; while(<DATA>)
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Following is the syntax to open file.txt in writing mode. Here less than > sign indicates that file
has to be opened in the writing mode.
open(DATA,">file.txt")ordie"Couldn't open file file.txt, $!";
This example actually truncates (empties) the file before opening it for writing, which maynot be
the desired effect. If you want to open a file for reading and writing, you can put a plus sign
before the > or <characters.
For example, to open a file for updating without truncating it
open(DATA,"+<file.txt");ordie"Couldn't open file file.txt, $!";
To truncate the file first
open DATA,"+>file.txt"ordie"Couldn't open file file.txt, $!";
You can open a file in the append mode. In this mode writing point will be set to the end of the
file.
open(DATA,">>file.txt")||die"Couldn't open file file.txt, $!";
A double >> opens the file for appending, placing the file pointer at the end, so that you can
immediately start appending information. However, you can't read from it unless you also place
a plus sign in front of it
open(DATA,"+>>file.txt")||die"Couldn't open file file.txt, $!";
Following is the table which gives the possible values of different modes.
Entities Definition
< or r Read Only Access
> or w Creates, Writes, and Truncates
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>> or a Writes, Appends, and Creates
+< or r+ Reads and Writes
+> or w+ Reads, Writes, Creates, and Truncates
+>> or a+ Reads, Writes, Appends, and Creates
Sysopen Function
The sysopen function is similar to the main open function, except that it uses the system open()
function, using the parameters supplied to it as the parameters for the system function For
example, to open a file for updating, emulating the +<filename format fromopen
sysopen(DATA,"file.txt", O_RDWR);
Or to truncate the file before updating
sysopen(DATA,"file.txt", O_RDWR|O_TRUNC );
You can use O_CREAT to create a new file and O_WRONLY- to open file in write only mode and
O_RDONLY - to open file in read only mode. The PERMS argument specifies the file permissions
for the file specified if it has to be created. By default it takes 0x666.Following is
Entities Definition
O_RDWR Read and Write
O_RDONLY Read Only
O_WRONLY Write Only
the table, which gives the possible values of MODE.

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O_CREAT Create the file
O_APPEND Append the file
O_TRUNC Truncate the file
O_EXCL Stops if file already exists
O_NONBLOCK Non-Blocking usability
Close Function
To close a filehandle, and therefore disassociate the filehandle from the corresponding file, you
use the close function. This flushes the filehandle's buffers and closes the system's file descriptor.
close
FILEHANDLE
close
If no FILEHANDLE is specified, then it closes the currently selected filehandle. It returns true
only if it could successfully flush the buffers and close the file.
close(DATA)||die"Couldn't close file properly";
Reading and Writing Files
Once you have an open filehandle, you need to be able to read and write information. There are
a number of different ways of reading and writing data into the file.
The<FILEHANDLE> Operator
The main method of reading the information from an open filehandle is the
<FILEHANDLE> operator. In a scalar context, it returns a single line from the filehandle. For
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#!/usr/bin/perl
print"What is your name?\n";

$name =<STDIN>;
print"Hello $name\n";
When you use the <FILEHANDLE> operator in a list context, it returns a list of lines from the
specified filehandle. For example, to import all the lines from a file into an array
#!/usr/bin/perl
open(DATA,"<import.txt")ordie"Can't open data";

@lines=<DATA
>;
close(DATA);
getc Function
The getc function returns a single character from the specified FILEHANDLE, or STDIN if
none is specified
getc FILEHANDLE
getc
If there was an error, or the filehandle is at end of file, then undef is returned instead.
Read Function
The read function reads a block of information from the buffered filehandle This function is
used to read binary data from thefile.
read FILEHANDLE, SCALAR, LENGTH,

OFFSET
read FILEHANDLE, SCALAR, LENGTH
The length of the data read is defined by LENGTH, and the data is placed at the start of SCALAR if
no OFFSET is specified. Otherwise data is placed after OFFSET bytes in SCALAR. The function
returns the number of bytes read on success, zero at end of file, or undef if there was an error.
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available in /usr/test directory.
This function renames the takes two arguments and it just rename existing file.
Deletingan Existing File

Here is an example, which shows how to delete a file file1.txt using the unlink function.
#!/usr/bin/perl
unlink("/usr/test/file1.txt");
Positioning inside a File

You can use to tell function to know the current position of a file and seek function to point a
particular position inside the file.
Tell Function
The first requirement is to find your position within a file, which you do using the tellfunction.
This returns the position of the file pointer, in bytes, within FILEHANDLE if specified, or the current
default selected filehandle if none is specified.
tell FILEHANDLE
tell
Seek Function
The seek function positions the file pointer to the specified number of bytes within a file The
seek FILEHANDLE, POSITION, WHENCE

function uses the fseek system function, and you have the same ability to position relative to three
different points: the start, the end, and the current position. You do this by specifying a value for
WHENCE. Zero sets the positioning relative to the start of the file. For example, the line sets the file pointer to
the 256th byte in the file.
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seek DATA, 256, 0;
File Information
You can test certain features very quickly within Perl using a series of test operators known
collectively as -X tests. For example, to perform a quick test of the various permissions on a file,
you might use a script like this
#/usr/bin/perl
my $file ="/usr/test/file1.txt";
my(@description, $size);
if(-e $file)
{
push@description,'binary'if(-B _);
push@description,'a socket'if(-S _);

push@description,'a text file'if(-T _);
push@description,'a block special file'if(-b _);
push@description,'a character special file'if(-c _);
push@description,'a directory'if(-d _);
push@description,'executable'if(-x _);
push@description,(($size =-s _))?"$size
bytes":'empty'; print"$file is ", join(',
',@description),"\n";
}
Here is the list of features, which you can check for a file or directory −
Operator Definition
-A Script start time minus file last access time, in days.
-B Is it a binary file?
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-C Script start time minus file last inode change time, in days.
-M Script start time minus file modification time, in days.
-O Is the file owned by the real user ID?
-R Is the file readable by the real user ID or real group?
-S Is the file a socket?
-T Is it a text file?
-W Is the file writable by the real user ID or real group?
-X Is the file executable by the real user ID or real group?
-b Is it a block special file?
-c Is it a character special file?
-d Is the file a directory?
-e Does the file exist?
-f Is it a plain file?
-g Does the file have the setgid bit set?
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-k Does the file have the sticky bit set?
-l Is the file a symbolic link?
-o Is the file owned by the effective user ID?
p Is the file a named pipe?
-r Is the file readable by the effective user or group ID?
-s Returns the size of the file, zero size = empty file.
-t Is the filehandle opened by a TTY (terminal)?
-u Does the file have the setuid bit set?
-w Is the file writable by the effective user or group ID?
-x Is the file executable by the effective user or group ID?
-z Is the file size zero?
EVAL
The eval operator comes in 2 forms
In the first form ,eval takes an arbitrary string as an operand and evaluates the string and
executed in the current context.
The value returned is the value of the last expression evaluated.In case of syntax error or
runtime error,eval returns the value “undefined” and places the error in the variable $@
Ex:
$myvar =’ …’;
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….
$value = eval “ \$$myvar “;
In the second form ,it takes a block as an argument and the block is compiled only once. If
there is a runtime error,the error is returned in $@. Instead of try we use eval and instead of
catch we test $@
Ex:
Eval
{
…….
If ($@ ne ‘ ‘)
{
……..
}
Data Structures
Arrays Of Arrays
In perl a two dimensional array is constructed by creating an array of references to anonymous
arrays.
For ex: @colors = ( [35,39,43] , [4,5,8] , [32,31,25] ) ;
The array composer converts each comma-separated list to an anonymous array in memory and
returns a reference and when we write an exp. Like
$colors [0][1] = 64;
$colors [0] is a reference to an array and 2nd subscript represents the element present in that
array. A two dimensional array can be dynamically created by using PUSH operator to add a
reference to an anonymous array to the top level array. For ex: we are interested in converting
a table set of data having white spaces between the fields can be converted to two dimensional
array by repeteadly using split to put the fields of a line into list and then using push to add
the reference to anarray.
While (<STDIN>)
{
Push @table , [split]
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}
COMPLEX DATA STRUCTURES
Not only an array of arrays can be created but we can create hashes of hashes ,arrays of
hashes and hashes of arrays. By combining all these possibilities ,data structures of great
complexity can be created ex: doubly linked list. We can make an element of the array a hash
containing three fields with keys ‘L’(left neighbour) ,’ R’(right neighbour) and ‘C’(content).
The values related to L and R are references to element hashes and the value of C can be
anything(scalar,variables,hash,reference).
Ex:We can move forwards along the list with
$current = $current->{‘R’} ; And backwards with
$current = $current->{‘L’} ; Create a new element
$new = { L =>undef , R=>undef , C=>…} ;
And we can insert new element after current element as
$new->{‘R’}=$current->{‘R’} ;
$current{‘R’}->{‘L’}= $new;
$current{‘R’}=$new ;
$new->{‘L’} = $current ;
And the current element can be deleted as
$current->{‘L’}->{‘R’} = $current->{‘R’};
$current->{‘R’}->{‘L’} = $current->{‘L’};
Packages
Packages are the basis for libraries, modules and objects. It is the unit of code with its own
namespace(i.e. separate symbol table),which determines bindings of names both at compile- time
and run-time. Initially code runs in default package main. Variables used in a package are global
to that packageonly.
Ex:$A::x is the variable x in package A. Package A ;
$x = 0;
……. Package B ;
$x = 1 ;
……. Package A ; Print $x;
output: zero.
The package B declaration switches to a different symbol table then the package A points to
the original symbol table having $x =0;.
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Nested packages can be created of the form A::B provided the variables should be of the fully
qualified form Ex>$A::B::x.
ApackagecanhaveoneormoreBEGINroutinesandalsoENDroutines. Package
declaration is rarely used on itsown.
Modules
Libraries and modules are packages contained within a single file and are units of program
reusability. The power of perl is increased by the usage of modules that provide functionality
in specific application areas. To be fact module is nothing but a package contained in a separate
file whose name is same as the package name with the extension .pm and makes use of built-in-
support. The use of modules make mathematical routines in the library math.p1 are converted into
a module math.pm and can be written as Ex: Use math ; at the start of the program and the
subroutines are available .The subroutine names imported are those defined in the export list of the
math module and it is possible to suppress the import of names but loses the point of themodule.
Ex: use IO : : File ;
Indicates a requirement for the module File.pm which will be found in a directory called IO.
The use of “ use math (‘sin’ , ‘cos’ , ‘tan’ )“ is same as BEGIN {Require “ Math.pm” ;
Math :: import ( ‘sin’ , ‘cos’ , ‘tan’ );}
The module names are imported by calling the import() method defined in the module. The
package writer is free to define import() in any way.
Objects
Objects in Perl provide a similar functionality as objects in real object oriented programming
(OOP), but in a different way. They use the same terminology as OOP, but the words have
different meanings as given below.
➢ Object: An object with in Perl is a reference to a data type that knows what class it
belongs to. The object is stored as a reference in a scalar variable. The object is said to
be blessed into a class: this is done by calling the built in function bless in a
constructor.
➢ Constructor: A constructor is just a subroutine that returns a reference to anobject.
➢ Class: A class is a package that provides methods to deal with objects that belong to it.
Method: A method is a subroutine that expects an object reference as its first
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argument.
Constructors
Objects are created by a constructor subroutine which is generally called new.
Eg.Package Animal;
sub new { my $ref ={ };

bless ref; return ref;
}
The flower brackets { } returns a reference to an anonymous hash. So the new constructor returns
a reference to an object that is an empty hash, and knows that it belongs to the package Animal.
Instances
We can create the instances for the object with this defined constructor as
$Dougal = new Animal;
$Ermyntrude = new Animal;
This makes $Dougal and $Ermyntrude references to objects that are empty hashes, and know
that they belong to the Animal class.
Method Invocation
Perl supports two syntactic forms for invoking methods one is by using arrow operator and
another one is by using Indirect objects. If a class is used to invoke the method, that argument will
be the name of the class. If an object is used to invoke the method, that argument will be the
reference to the object. Whichever it is, we'll call it the method's invocant. For a class method, the
invocant is the name of a package. For an instance method, the invocant is a reference that
specifies an object.
Method Invocation Using the Arrow Operator:
For example if set_species, get_species are the methods they can be invoked using arrow
operator as follows.
$Dougal -> set_species ‘Dog’;
$Dougal_is ->= $Dougal->get_species;
Method Invocation Using Indirect Objects:
The methods can be invoked by using indirect objects as given below set_species $Dougal,
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‘Dog’;
$Dougal_is = get _species $Dougal;
Attributes
Subroutine declarations and definitions may optionally have attribute lists associated with them.
An attribute is a piece of data belonging to a particular object. Unlike most object-
riented languages, Perl provides no special syntax or support for declaring and manipulating
attributes. Attributes are often stored in the object itself. For example, if the object is an
anonymous hash, we can store the attribute values in the hash using the attribute name as
thekey.
E.g: sub species
{
my $self =shift;
my $was = $self->{‘species’};
----------
--------
}
Class Methods And Attributes
There are operations that are relevant to the class and not need to operate on a specific instance are
called class methods or static methods. Similarly attributes that are common to all instances of a
class are called as class attributes. Class attributes are just package global variables and class
methods are just subroutines that do not require an object reference as the first argument
e.g the new constructor.
Inheritance
Perl only provides method inheritance. Inheritance is realized by including a special array @ISA in
the package that defines the derived class. For single inheritance @ISA is an array of one element,
the name of the base class. Multiple inheritance can be realized by making @Isa an array of more
than one element. Each element in the array @ISA is the name of the another package that is being
used as a class. If a method cannot be found, the packages referenced in @Isa are recursively
searched, depth first. The current class is derived class and those referenced in @ISA are the
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baseclasses.
e.g : package Employee; use Person;
use strict;
our @ISA=qw(Person); # inherits from Person
Interfacing to theOS:
Creating Internet Ware Applications
The internet is a rich source of information, held on web servers, FTP servers, POP/IMAP
mail servers, news servers etc. A web browser can access information on web servers and FTP
servers, and clients access mail and news servers. however, this is not the way of to the
information: an 'internet-aware' application can access a server and collect the information
without manual intervention. For suppose that a website offers 'lookup' facility in which the
user a query by filling in a then clicks the 'submit' button . the data from the form in sent to a
CGI program on the server(probably written in which retrieves the information, formats it as a
webpage, and returns the page to the browser. A perl application can establish a connection to
the server, send the request in the format that the browser would use, collect the returned
HTML and then extract the fields that form the answer to the query. In the same way, a perl
application can establish a connection to a POP3 mail server and send a request which will
result in the server returning a message listing the number of currently unreadmessages.
Much of the power of scripting languages comes from the way in which they hide the
complexity of operations, and this is particularly the case when we make use of specialized
modules: tasks that might pages of code in C are achieved in few lines. The LWP (library for
WWW access in perl) collection of modules is a very good case in point it makes the kind of
interaction described above almost trivial. The LWP:: simple module is a interface to web
servers. It can be achieved by exploiting modules, LWP::simple we can retrieve the contents of
a web page in a statement:
use LWP::simple $url=...http://www.somesite.com/index.html..;
$page=get($url);
Dirty Hands Internet Programming:
Modules like LWP: : Simple and LWP: :User Agent meet the needs of most programmers
requiring web access, and there are numerous other modules for other types of Internet access.
EX:- Net: : FTP for access to FTP servers
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Some tasks may require a lower level of access to the network, and this is provided by Perl
both in the form of modules(e.g IO: : Socket) and at an even lower level by built-in functions.
Support for network programming in perl is so complete that you can use the language to write
any conceivable internet application Access to the internet at this level involves the use of
sockets, and we explain what a socket is before getting down to details of the programming.
Sockets are network communication channels, providing a bi- directional channel between
processes on different machines. Sockets were originally a feature of UNIX other UNIX
systems adopted them and the socket became the de facto mechanism of network
communication in the UNIX world.
The popular Winsock provided similar functionality for Windows, allowing Windows systems
to communicate over the network with UNIX systems, and sockets are a built-in feature of
Windows 9X and WindowsNT4.From the Perl programmer’s point a network socket can be
treated like an open file it is identified by a you write to it with print, and read it from operator.
The socket interface is based on the TCP/IP protocol suite, so that all information is handled
automatically. In TCP a reliable channel, with automatic recovery from data loss or corruption:
for this reason a TCP connection is often described as a virtual circuit. The socket in Perl is an
exact mirror of the UNIX and also permits connections using UDP(Unreliable
DatagramProtocol).
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UNIT-III
PHP Features
Every user has specific reasons for using PHP to implement a mission-critical application, although
one could argue that such motives tend to fall into four key categories: practicality, power,
possibility, and price.
Practicality
From the very start, the PHP language was created with practicality in mind. After all, Lerdorf’s
original intention was not to design an entirely new language, but to resolve a problem that had no
readily available solution. Furthermore, much of PHP’s early evolution was not the result of the
explicit intention to improve the language itself, but rather to increase its utility to the user. The result
is a language that allows the user to build powerful applications even with a minimum ofknowledge.
PHP is a loosely typed language, meaning there is no need to explicitly create, typecast, or
destroy a variable, although you are not prevented from doing so. PHP handles such matters
internally, creating variables on the fly as they are called in a script, and employing a best-guess
formula for automatically typecasting variables. For instance, PHP considers the following set of
statements to be perfectlyvalid:
<?php
$number = "5"; // $number is a string
$sum = 15 + $number; // Add an integer and string to produce integer
$sum = "twenty"; // Overwrite $sum with a string.
?>
PHP will also automatically destroy variables and return resources to the system when the script
completes.
Power
PHP developers have almost 200 native libraries containing well over 1,000 functions, in addition to
thousands of third-party extensions.
Although you’re likely aware of PHP’s ability to interface with databases, manipulate form
information, and create pages dynamically, you might not know that PHP can also do the following:
Create and manipulate Adobe Flash and Portable Document Format (PDF) files.
Evaluate a password for guess ability by comparing it to language dictionaries and easilybroken
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Patterns. Parse even the most complex of strings using the POSIX and Perl-based regular expression
libraries. Authenticate users against login credentials stored in flat files, databases, and even
Microsoft’s Active Directory. Communicate with a wide variety of protocols, including LDAP,
IMAP, POP3, NNTP, and DNS, among others. Tightly integrate with a wide array of credit-card
processing solutions.
Possibility
PHP developers are rarely bound to any single implementation solution. On the contrary, a user
is typically fraught with choices offered by the language. For example, consider PHP’s array of
database support options. Native support is offered for more than 25 database products, including
Adabas D,dBase, Empress, FilePro, FrontBase, Hyperwave, IBM DB2, Informix, Ingres, InterBase,
mSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, Oracle, Ovrimos, PostgreSQL, Solid, Sybase, Unix dbm,
and Velocis.PHP’s flexible string-parsing capabilities offer users of differing skill sets the
opportunity to not only immediately begin performing complex string operations but also to quickly
port programs of similar functionality (such as Perl and Python) over toPHP.
Price
PHP is available free of charge! Since its inception, PHP has been without usage, modification,
and redistribution restrictions. In recent years, software meeting such open licensing qualifications
has been referred to as open source software. Open source software and the Internet go together like
bread and butter. Open source projects such as Send mail, Bind, Linux, and Apache all play
enormous roles in the ongoing operations of the Internet at large. Although open source software’s
free availability has been the point most promoted by the media, several other characteristics are
equally important: Free of licensing restrictions imposed by most commercialproducts:
Open source software users are freed of the vast majority of licensing restrictions one would expect
of commercial counterparts. Although some discrepancies do exist among license variants, users are
largely free to modify, redistribute, and integrate the software into other products. Open
development and auditing process: Although not without incidents, open source software has long
enjoyed a stellar security record. Such high-quality standards are a result of the open development
and auditing process. Because the source code is freely available for anyone to examine, security
holes and potential problems are rapidly found andfixed.
This advantage was perhaps best summarized by open source advocate Eric S. Raymond, who
wrote “Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow.”Participation is encouraged: Development
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teams are not limited to a particular organization. Anyone who has the interest and the ability is
free to join the project. The absence of member restrictions greatly enhances the talent pool for a
given project, ultimately contributing to a higher-qualityproduct.
Embedding PHP Code in Your Web Pages
One of PHP’s advantages is that you can embed PHP code directly alongside HTML. The engine
needs some means to immediately determine which areas of the page are PHP-enabled. This is
logically accomplished by delimiting the PHP code. There are four delimitation variants. Default
Syntax
The default delimiter syntax opens with <?php and concludes with ?>, like this:
<h3>Welcome!</h3>
<?php
echo "<p>Some dynamic output here</p>";
?>
<p>Some static output here</p>
Expected output:
Short-Tags
For less motivated typists, an even shorter delimiter syntax is available. Known as short-tags, this
syntax forgoes the php reference required in the default syntax. However, to use this
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feature, you need to enable PHP’s short_open_tag directive. An example follows
<?
print "This is another PHP example.";
?
>
When short-tags syntax is enabled and you want to quickly escape to and from PHP to output a
bitof dynamic text, you can omit these statements using an output variation known as short- circuit
syntax:
<?="This is another PHP example.";?>
This is functionally equivalent to both of the following variations:
<? echo "This is another PHP example."; ?>
<?php echo "This is another PHP example.";?>
Script
Certain editors have historically had problems dealing with PHP’s more commonly used escape
syntax variants. Therefore, support for another mainstream delimiter variant, <script>, isoffered:
<script language="php">
</script>
ASP Style
Microsoft ASP pages employ a delimiting strategy similar to that used by PHP, delimiting static
from dynamic syntax by using a predefined character pattern: opening dynamic syntax with <%,
and concluding with %>. If you’re coming from an ASP background and prefer to continue using
this escape syntax, PHP supports it. Here’s an example:
<%
%>
Embedding Multiple Code Blocks
You can escape to and from PHP as many times as required within a given page. For instance, the
following example is perfectly acceptable:
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<html>
<head>
<title><?php echo "Welcome to my web site!";?></title>
</head>
<body>
<?php
$date = "July 26, 2010";
?>
<p>Today's date is <?=$date;?></p>
</body>
</html>
Outputting Data to the Browser
The print() Statement
The print() statement outputs data passed to it . Its prototype looks like this: int
print(argument)
All of the following are plausible print() statements:
<?php
print("<p>I love the summertime.</p>");
?>
<?php
$season = "summertime";
print "<p>I love the $season.</p>";
?>
<?php
print "<p>I love the summertime.</p>";
?>
All these statements produce identical output: I love the summertime.
The echo() Statement
Alternatively, you could use the echo() statement for the same purposes as print().echo()’s
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prototype looks like this.
void echo(string argument1 [, ...string argumentN])

To use echo(), just provide it with an argument just as was done with print(): echo "I love the
summertime.";
As you can see from the prototype, echo() is capable of outputting multiple strings. Here’s an
example:
<?php
$heavyweight = "Lennox Lewis";
$lightweight = "Floyd Mayweather";
echo $heavyweight, " and ", $lightweight, " are great fighters.";
?>
This code produces the following
Lennox Lewis and Floyd May weather are great fighters.
The printf() Statement
The printf() statement is ideal when you want to output a blend of static text and dynamic
information stored within one or several variables. It’s ideal for two reasons. First, it neatly
separates the static and dynamic data into two distinct sections, allowing for easy maintenance.
Second, printf() allows you to wield considerable control over how the dynamic information is
rendered to the screen in terms of its type, precision, alignment, and position.
Its prototype looks like this:
integer printf(string format [, mixed args])
For example, suppose you wanted to insert a single dynamic integer value into an otherwise static
string:
printf("Bar inventory: %d bottles of tonic water.", 100);
Executing this command produces the following: Bar inventory: 100 bottles of tonic water.
Commonly Used Type Specifiers
%b Argument considered an integer; presented as a binarynumber
%c Argument considered an integer; presented as a character corresponding to that ASCII
value
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%d Argument considered an integer; presented as a signed decimalnumber
%f Argument considered a floating-point number; presented as a floating-pointnumber
%o Argument considered an integer; presented as an octal number
%s Argument considered a string; presented as astring
%u Argument considered an integer; presented as an unsigned decimalnumber

%x Argument considered an integer; presented as a lowercase hexadecimalnumber
%X Argument considered an integer; presented as an uppercase hexadecimalnumber
The sprintf ()Statement
The sprintf() statement is functionally identical to printf() except that the output is assigned to a
string rather than rendered to the browser. The prototype follows:
string sprintf(string format [, mixed arguments]) An
example follows:
$cost = sprintf("$%.2f", 43.2); // $cost = $43.20
PHP’s Supported Data Types
A data type is the generic name assigned to any data sharing a common set of characteristics.
Common data types include Boolean, integer, float, string, and array.
Scalar Data Types
Scalar data types are used to represent a single value. Several data types fall under this category,
including Boolean, integer, float, and string.
Boolean
The Boolean datatype is named after George Boole (1815–1864), a mathematician who is
considered to be one of the founding fathers of information theory. The Boolean data type represents
truth, supporting only two values: TRUE and FALSE (case insensitive). Alternatively, you can use
zero to represent FALSE, and any nonzero value to represent TRUE.
A few examples follow:
$alive = false; // $alive is false.
$alive = 1; // $alive is true.
$alive = -1; // $alive is true.
$alive = 5; // $alive is true.
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$alive = 0; // $alive is false.
Integer
An integer is representative of any whole number or, in other words, a number that does not contain
fractional parts. PHP supports integer values represented in base 10 (decimal), base 8
(octal), and base 16 (hexadecimal) numbering systems. Several examples follow

42 // decimal
-678900 // decimal
0755 // octal
0xC4E // hexadecimal
The maximum supported integer size is platform-dependent, although this is typically positive or
negative 2^31 for PHP version 5 and earlier. PHP 6 introduced a 64-bit integer value, meaning
PHP will support integer values up to positive or negative 2^63 in size.
Float
Floating-point numbers, also referred to as floats, doubles, or real numbers, allow you to specify
numbers that contain fractional parts. Floats are used to represent monetary values, weights,
distances, and a whole host of other representations in which a simple integer value won’t suffice.
PHP’s floats can be specified in a variety of ways, several of which are demonstrated here:
4.5678
4.0
e4
1.23E+11
String
Simply put, a string is a sequence of characters treated as a contiguous group. Strings are
delimited by single or double quotes. The following are all examples of valid strings: "PHP is a
great language"
"whoop-de-do" '*9subway\n' "123$%^789"
For example, consider the following string:
$color = "maroon";
You could retrieve a particular character of the string by treating the string as an array, like this:
$parser = $color[2]; // Assigns 'r' to $parser
Compound Data Types
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Compound data types allow for multiple items of the same type to be aggregated under a single
representative entity. The array and the object fall into this category.
Array
It’s often useful to aggregate a series of similar items together, arranging and referencing them in
some specific way. This data structure, known as an array, is formally defined as an indexed
collection of data values. Each member of the array index (also known as the key) references a
corresponding value and can be a simple numerical reference to the value’s position in the series, or it
could have some direct correlation to the value.
For example, if you were interested in creating a list of U.S. states, you could use a numerically
indexed array, like so:
$state[0] = "Alabama";
$state[1] = "Alaska";
$state[2] = "Arizona";
...
$state[49] = "Wyoming";
But what if the project required correlating U.S. states to their capitals? Rather than base the keys on a
numerical index, you might instead use an associative index, like this:
$state["Alabama"] = "Montgomery";
$state["Alaska"] = "Juneau";
$state["Arizona"] = "Phoenix";...
$state["Wyoming"] = "Cheyenne";
Object
The other compound data type supported by PHP is the object. The object is a central concept of the
object-oriented programming paradigm. Unlike the other data types contained in the PHP language, an
object must be explicitly declared. This declaration of an object’s characteristics and behavior takes
place within something called a class.Here’s a general example of a class definition and subsequent
invocation:
class Appliance{
private$_power;
function setPower($status) {
$this->_power = $status;
}
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}
...
$blender = new Appliance;
A class definition creates several attributes and functions pertinent to a data structure, in this case a data structure
named Appliance. There is only one attribute, power, which can be modified by using the method setPower().
Remember, however, that a class definition is a template and cannot itself be manipulated. Instead,
objects are created based on this template. This is accomplished via the new keyword. Therefore, in
the last line of the previous listing, an object of class Appliance named blender is created.
The blender object’s power attribute can then be set by making use of the method setPower():
$blender->setPower("on");
Converting Between Data Types Using Type Casting
Converting values from one data type to another is known as type casting. A variable can be
evaluated once as a different type by casting it to another. This is accomplished by placing the
intended type in front of the variable to becast.
Cast Operators Conve

(array) Array
(bool) or (boolean) Boole
(int) or (integer) Intege
(object) Object
(real) or (double) or (float) Float
(string) String
Let’s consider several examples. Suppose you’d like to cast an integer as a double:
$score = (double) 13; // $score = 13.0
Type casting a double to an integer will result in the integer value being rounded down,
regardless of the decimal value. Here’s an example:
$score = (int) 14.8; // $score = 14
What happens if you cast a string datatype to that of an integer? Let’s find out:
$sentence = "This is a sentence"; echo (int) $sentence; // returns 0
While likely not the expected outcome, it’s doubtful you’ll want to cast a string like this anyway.
You can also cast a datatype to be a member of an array. The value being cast simply becomes the
first element of the array:
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$score = 1114;
$scoreboard = (array) $score;
echo $scoreboard[0]; // Outputs 1114
One final example: any data type can be cast as an object. The result is that the variable
becomes an attribute of the object, the attribute having the namescalar:
$model = "Toyota";
$obj = (object) $model;
The value can then be referenced as follows: print $obj->scalar; // returns "Toyota"
Adapting Data Types with Type Juggling
Because of PHP’s lax attitude toward type definitions, variables are sometimes automatically cast
to best fit the circumstances in which they are referenced. Consider the following snippet:
<?php
$total = 5; // an integer
$count = "15"; // a string
$total += $count; // $total = 20 (an integer)
?>
The outcome is the expected one; $total is assigned 20, converting the $count variable from a string
to an integer in the process. Here’s another example demonstrating PHP’s type-juggling
capabilities:
<?php
$total = "45 fire engines";
$incoming = 10;
$total = $incoming + $total; // $total = 55
?>
The integer value at the beginning of the original $total string is used in the calculation.
However, if it begins with anything other than a numerical representation, the value is 0.
Consider another example:
<?php
$total = "1.0";
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if ($total) echo "We're in positive territory!";
?>
In thisexample, a string is converted to Boolean type in order to evaluate the if statement.
Consider one last particularly interesting example. If a string used in a mathematical calculation includes .
or E (representing scientific notation), it will be evaluated as a float:
<?php
$val1 = "1.2e3"; // 1,200
$val2 = 2;
echo $val1 * $val2; // outputs 2400
?>
Type-Related Functions
A few functions are available for both verifying and converting datatypes.
RetrievingTypes
The gettype() function returns the type of the provided variable. In total, eight possible return values
are available: array, boolean, double, integer, object, resource, string, and unknown type. Its
prototype follows:string gettype(mixed var)
Converting Types
The settype() function converts a variable to the type specified by type. Seven possible type values
are available: array, boolean, float, integer, null, object, and string. If the conversion is successful,
TRUE is returned; otherwise, FALSE is returned. Its prototype follows:boolean settype(mixed var,
string type
Type Identifier FunctionsA number of functions are available for determining a variable’s type,
including is_array(), is_bool(),is_float(), is_integer(), is_null(), is_numeric(), is_object(),
is_resource(), is_scalar(), and is_string(). Because all of these functions follow the same naming
convention, arguments, and return values, their introduction is consolidated into a single
example.The generalized prototypefollows:
boolean is_name(mixed var)
All of these functions are grouped in this section because each ultimately accomplishes the same
task. Each determines whether a variable, specified by var, satisfies a particular condition specified
by the function name. If var is indeed of the type tested by the function name, TRUE is returned;
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otherwise, FALSE is returned.
An example follows:
<?php
$item = 43;
printf("The variable \$item is of type array: %d <br />", is_array($item)); printf("The variable
\$item is of type integer: %d <br />", is_integer($item)); printf("The variable \$item is numeric:
%d <br />",is_numeric($item));?>
This code returns the following:
The variable $item is of type array: 0 The variable $item is of type integer: 1 The variable
$item is numeric: 1
Identifiers
Identifier is a general term applied to variables, functions, and various other user-defined objects.
There are several properties that PHP identifiers must abide by:
An identifier can consist of one or more characters and must begin with a letter or an underscore.
Furthermore, identifiers can consist of only letters, numbers, underscore characters, and other
ASCII characters from 127 through255.
Valid Invalid
my_function This&that
Size !counter
_someword 4ward
➢ Identifiers are case sensitive. Therefore, a variable named $recipe is different from a variable
named $Recipe, $rEciPe, or$recipE.
➢ Identifiers can be any length. This is advantageous because it enables a programmer to
accurately describe the identifier’s purpose via the identifiername.
➢ An identifier name can’t be identical to any of PHP’s predefinedkeywords.
Variables
A variable is a symbol that can store different values at different times. For example, suppose you
create a web-based calculator capable of performing mathematicaltasks.
Variable Declaration
A variable always begins with a dollar sign, $, which is then followed by the variable name.
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Variable names follow the same naming rules as identifiers.That is, a variable name can begin with either a letter or
an underscore and can consist of letters, underscores, numbers, or other ASCII characters rangingfrom 127 through
255. The following are all valid variables:
$color
$operating_system
$_some_variable
$model
Note that variables are case sensitive. For instance, the following variables bear no relation to one
another:
$color
$Color
$COLOR
Value Assignment
Assignment by value simply involves copying the value of the assigned expression to the
variable assignee. This is the most common type of assignment. A few examples follow:
$color ="red";
$number =12;
$age = 12;
$sum = 12 + "15"; // $sum = 27.
Reference Assignment
PHP 4 introduced the ability to assign variables by reference, which essentially means that you can
create a variable that refers to the same content as another variable does. Therefore, a change to any
variable referencing a particular item of variable content will be reflected among all other variables
referencing that same content. You can assign variables by reference by appending an ampersand
(&) to the equal sign. Let’s consider an example:
<?php
$value1 = "Hello";
$value2 =& $value1; // $value1 and $value2 both equal "Hello"
$value2 = "Goodbye"; // $value1 and $value2 both equal "Goodbye"
?>
An alternative reference-assignment syntax is also supported, which involves appending the
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ampersand to the front of the variable being referenced. The following example adheres to this new
syntax
<?php
$value1 = "Hello";
$value2 = &$value1; // $value1 and $value2 both equal "Hello"
$value2 = "Goodbye"; // $value1 and $value2 both equal "Goodbye"
?>
Variable Scope
Scope can be defined as the range of availability a variable has to the program in which it is
declared. PHP variables can be one of four scope types Local variablesFunction parametersGlobal
variables Static variables
Local Variables
A variable declared in a function is considered local; that is, it can be referenced solely in that
function. Any assignment outside of that function will be considered to be an entirely different
variable from the one contained in the function
<?php
$x = 4;
function assignx ()
{
$x = 0;
print "\$x inside function is $x. <br />";
}
assignx();
print "\$x outside of function is $x. <br />";
?>
This will produce the following result
$x inside function is 0.
$x outside of function is 4.
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Function Parameters
Function parameters are declared after the function name and inside parentheses. They are
declared much like a typical variable would be
<?php// multiply a value by 10 and return it to the caller function multiply ($value)
{
$value = $value * 10; return $value;
}
$retval = multiply (10);
Print "Return value is $retval\n";
?>
This will produce the following result −
Return value is 100
Global Variables
In contrast to local variables, a global variable can be accessed in any part of the program.
However, in order to be modified, a global variable must be explicitly declared to be global in the
function in which it is to be modified. This is accomplished, conveniently enough, by placing the
keyword GLOBAL in front of the variable that should be recognized as global. Placing this
keyword in front of an already existing variable tells PHP to use the variable having that name.
Consider an example
<?php
$somevar = 15;
function addit()
{ GLOBAL $somevar;$somevar++;print "Somevar is $somevar";}
addit();
?>
Somevar is 16
Static Variables
The final type of variable scoping that I discuss is known as static. In contrast to the variables
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declared as function parameters, which are destroyed on the function's exit, a static variable will
not lose its value when the function exits and will still hold that value should the function be
called again.
You can declare a variable to be static simply by placing the keyword STATIC in front of the
variable name.
<?php
function keep_track() { STATIC $count = 0;

$count++; print $count; print "<br />";
}
keep_track(); keep_track(); keep_track();
?>
This will produce the following result – 1 2
3
PHP’s Superglobal Variables
PHP offers a number of useful predefined variables that are accessible from anywhere within the
executing script and provide you with a substantial amount of environment-specific information.
You can sift through these variables to retrieve details about the current user session, the user’s
operating environment, the local operating environment, and more. PHP creates some of the
variables, while the availability and value of many of the other variables are specific to the
operating system and webserver.
Therefore, rather than attempt to assemble a comprehensive list of all possible predefined variables
and their possible values, the following code will output all predefined variables pertinent to any
given web server and the script’s execution environment:
foreach ($_SERVER as $var => $value)
{
echo "$var => $value <br />";
}
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S.No Variable & Description
$_GLOBALS: Contains a reference to every variable which is currently available
1 within the global scope of the script. The keys of this array are the names of the
global variables.
$_SERVER: This is an array containing information such as headers, paths, and

2
script locations. The entries in this array are created by the web server. There is no
guarantee that every web server will provide any of these. See next section for a
complete list of all the SERVERvariables.
3 $_GET: An associative array of variables passed to the current script via the
HTTP GET method.
4 $_POST: An associative array of variables passed to the current script via the
HTTP POST method.
5 $_FILES: An associative array of items uploaded to the current script via the
HTTP POST method.
6 $_REQUEST: An associative array consisting of the contents of $_GET,

$_POST, and
$_COOKIE.
7 $_COOKIE: An associative array of variables passed to the current script via

HTTP cookies.
8 $_SESSION: An associative array containing session variables available to the

current script.
9 $_PHP_SELF: A string containing PHP script file name in which it is called.
10 $php_errormsg: $php_errormsg is a variable containing the text of the last error

message generated by PHP.
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Variable Variables
On occasion, you may want to use a variable whose content can be treated dynamically as a
variable in itself. Consider this typical variableassignment
$recipe = "spaghetti";
Interestingly, you can treat the value spaghetti as a variable by placing a second dollar sign in
front of the original variable name and again assigning another value
$$recipe = "& meatballs";
This in effect assigns & meatballs to a variable named spaghetti. Therefore, the following two
snippets of code produce the same result
echo $recipe $spaghetti; echo $recipe ${$recipe}; The
result of both is the string spaghetti & meatballs.
Constants
A constant is a value that cannot be modified throughout the execution of a program. Constants
are particularly useful when working with values that definitely will not require modification, such
as Pi (3.141592) or the number of feet in a mile (5,280). Once a constant has been defined, it
cannot be changed (or redefined) at any other point of the program. Constants are defined using
the define()function.
Defining a Constant
The define() function defines a constant by assigning a value to a name. Its prototype follows:
boolean define(string name, mixed value [, bool case_insensitive])If the optional parameter
case_insensitive is included and assigned TRUE, subsequent references to the constant will be case
insensitive. Consider the following example in which the mathematical constant Pi is
defined:define("PI", 3.141592);The constant is subsequently used in thefollowing listing:
printf("The value of Pi is %f", PI);
$pi2 = 2 * PI;
printf("Pi doubled equals %f", $pi2); This
code produces the following results:
The value of pi is 3.141592. Pi doubled equals 6.283184.
Expressions
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An expression is a phrase representing a particular action in a program. All expressions consist
of at least one operand and one or more operators.
A few examples follow:
$a = 5; // assign integer value 5 to the variable $a
$a = "5"; // assign string value "5" to the variable $a
$sum = 50 + $some_int; // assign sum of 50 + $some_int to $sum
$wine = "Zinfandel"; // assign "Zinfandel" to the variable $wine

$inventory++; // increment the variable $inventory by 1
Operands
Operands are the inputs of an expression. You might already be familiar with the manipulation
and use of operands not only through everyday mathematical calculations, but also through prior
programming experience. Some examples of operands follow:
$a++; // $a is the operand
$sum = $val1 + val2; // $sum, $val1 and $val2 are operands
Operators
An operator is a symbol that specifies a particular action in an expression. Many operators may be
familiar to you. Regardless, you should remember that PHP’s automatic type conversion will
convert types based on the type of operator placed between the two operands, which is not always
the case in other programming languages. The precedence and associativity of operators are
significant characteristics of a programming language. Operator Precedence, Associativity,
andPurpose.
Operator Associativity Purpose
New NA Object instantiation
() NA Expression sub grouping
[] Right Index enclosure
! ~ ++ -- Right Boolean NOT, bitwise NOT, increment,
@ Right Error suppression
/*% Left Division, multiplication, modulus
+-. Left Addition, subtraction, concatenation
<<>> Left Shift left, shift right (bitwise)
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<<= >>= NA Less than, less than or equal to, greater than,
== != === <> NA Is equal to, is not equal to, is identical to, is
&^| Left Bitwise AND, bitwise XOR, bitwise OR
&& || Left Boolean AND, Boolean OR
?: Right Ternary operator
= += *= /= .= Right Assignment operators
%=&=
AND XOR OR Left Boolean AND, Boolean XOR, Boolean OR

, Left Expression separation
Operator Precedence
Operator precedence is a characteristic of operators that determines the order in which they
evaluate the operands surrounding them. PHP follows the standard precedence rules used in
elementary school math class. Consider a few examples:
$total_cost = $cost + $cost * 0.06;
This is the same as writing
$total_cost = $cost + ($cost * 0.06);
Because the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition operator.
Operator Associativity
The associativity characteristic of an operator specifies how operations of the same precedence are
evaluated as they are executed. Associativity can be performed in two directions, left-toright or
right-to-left. Left-to-right associativity means that the various operations making up the expression
are evaluated from left toright.
Consider the following example:
$value = 3 * 4 * 5 * 7 * 2;
The preceding example is the same as the following:
$value = ((((3 * 4) * 5) * 7) * 2);
Arithmetic Operators
There are following arithmetic operators supported by PHP language − Assume variable A
holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then
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Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30
- Subtracts second operand from A - B will give -10
* Multiply both operands A * B will give 200
/ Divide numerator by de- B / A will give 2
% Modulus Operator and B % A will give 0
remainder of after an
++ Increment operator, A++ will give 11

increases integer valueby
-- Decrement operator, A-- will give 9
decreases integer value by
one
Assignment Operators
There are following assignment operators supported by PHP language

Simple assignment
= operator, Assigns values C = A + B will assign value of A + B
from right sideoperands into C
to left side operand
Add AND assignment
+= operator, It adds right C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
operand to the left
operand and assignthe
result to left operand
Subtract AND assignment
-= operator, It subtracts right C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
operand from the left
operand and assign the
Multiply AND assignment

*= operator, It multiplies C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
right operand with the left
operand and assignthe
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Divide AND assignment
/= operator, It divides left C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A
operand with the right
operand and assign the
Modulus AND
%= assignment operator, It C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A
takes modulus using two
operands and assign the
result to leftoperand
String Operators
PHP’s string operators provide a convenient way in which to concatenate strings together. There
are two such operators, including the concatenation operator (.) and the concatenation assignment
operator (.=).
Example Label Outcome
$a = "abc"."def"; Concatenation $a is assigned the string

"abcdef"
$a .= "ghijkl"; Concatenation-assignment $a equals its currentvalue
concatenated with "ghijkl"
Increment and Decrement Operators

The increment (++) and decrement (--) operators present a minor convenience in terms of code
clarity, providing shortened means by which you can add 1 to or subtract 1 from the current value
of avariable.
++$a, $a++ Increment Increment $a by 1

--$a, $a-- Decrement Decrement $a by 1
Logical Operators
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There are following logical operators supported by PHP language Assume variable A holds 10
and variable B holds 20 then

Called Logical AND operator. If
and both the operands are true then (A and B) is true.
condition becomes true.
or Called Logical OR Operator. If

any of the two operands are non (A or B) is true.
zero then condition becomes
true.
Called Logical AND operator. If
&& both the operands are non (A && B) is true.
zerothen condition becomes true.
Called Logical OR Operator. If

|| any of the two operands are non (A || B) is true.
zero then condition becomes
true.
Called Logical NOT Operator.
! Use to reverses the logical state !(A && B) is false.
of its operand. If a condition is
true then Logical NOT operator
Equality Operators
Equality operators are used to compare two values, testing for equivalence.
$a == $b Is equal to True if $a and $b are equivalent
$a != $b Is not equal to True if $a is not equal to $b
$a === Is identical to True if $a and $b are equivalent
Comparison Operators
There are following comparison operators supported by PHP language Assume variable A holds
10 and variable B holds 20 then −
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Operatorr Description Example
Checks if the value of two
== operands are equal or not, if yes (A == B) is not true.
then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of two
!= operands are equal or not, if (A != B) is true.
values are not equal then
Checks if the value of leftoperand

> is greater than the value of right (A > B) is not true.
operand, if yes then condition
becomes true.

< is less than the value of right (A < B) is true.
operand, if yes then condition
becomes true.

>= is greater than or equalto the (A >= B) is not true.
value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomestrue.

<= is less than or equal to the value (A <= B) is true.
of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true.
Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators examine and manipulate integer values on the level of individual bits that
make up the integer value (thus the name).
$a & $b AND And together each bit contained in $a and $b
$a | $b OR Or together each bit contained in $a and $b
$a ^ $b XOR Exclusive—or together each bit contained in $a

and$b
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~ $b NOT Negate each bit in $b
$a << $b Shift left $a will receive the value of $b shifted left two bits
$a >> $b Shift right $a will receive the value of $b shifted right two bits
String Interpolation
To offer developers the maximum flexibility when working with string values, PHP offers a means
for bth literal and figurative interpretation. For example, consider the following string
The $animal jumped over the wall.\n

You might assume that $animal is a variable and that \n is a newline character, and therefore both
should be interpreted accordingly. However, what if you want to output the string exactly as it is
written, or perhaps you want the newline to be rendered but want the variable to display in its literal
form ($animal), or vice versa? All of these variations are possible in PHP, depending on how the
strings are enclosed and whether certain key characters are escaped through a predefined sequence.
Double Quotes Strings enclosed in double quotes are the most commonly used in PHP scripts
because they offer the most flexibility. This is because both variables and escape sequences will be
parsed accordingly. Consider the following example
<?php
$sport = "boxing";
echo "Jason's favorite sport is $sport.";
?>
This example returns the following: Jason's favorite sport is boxing.
Escape Sequences
Escape sequences are also parsed. Consider this example:
<?php
$output = "This is one line.\nAnd this is another line."; echo $output;
?>
This returns the following (as viewed from within the browser source): This is one line.
And this is another line.
Single Quotes
Enclosing a string within single quotes is useful when the string should be interpreted exactly as
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stated. This means that both variables and escape sequences will not be interpreted when the string
is parsed.
For example, consider the following single-quoted string: print 'This string will $print exactly as it\'s
\n declared.';
This produces the following:
This string will $print exactly as it's \n declared.
Curly Braces
find that variables representing complex data types such as arrays or objects cannot be so easily
parsed when embedded in an echo() or print() string. You can solve this issue by delimiting the
variable in curly braces, like this:
echo "The capital of Ohio is {$capitals['ohio']}.";
Heredoc
Heredoc syntax offers a convenient means for outputting large amounts of text. Rather than
delimiting strings with double or single quotes, two identical identifiers are employed. An example
follows:
<?php
$website = "http://www.romatermini.it"; echo <<<EXCERPT
<p>Rome's central train station, known as <a href = "$website">Roma Termini</a>, was built in
1867. Because it had fallen into severe disrepair in the late 20th century, the government knew that
considerable resources were required to rehabilitate the station prior to the 50-year
<i>Giubileo</i>.</p>
EXCERPT;
?>
Several points are worth noting regarding thisexample:
The opening and closing identifiers (in the case of this example, EXCERPT) must be identical.The
opening identifier must be preceded with three left-angle brackets (<<<).Heredoc syntax follows the
same parsing rules as strings enclosed in double quotes. That is, both variables and escape sequences
are parsed. The only difference is that double quotes do not need to be escaped.The closing
identifier must begin at the very beginning of a line. It cannot be preceded with spaces or any other
extraneouscharacter.
Nowdoc
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Introduced in PHP 5.3, nowdoc syntax operates identically to heredoc syntax, except that none of
the text delimited within a nowdoc is parsed. If you would like to display, for instance, a snippet of
code in the browser, you could embed it within a nowdoc statement; when subsequently outputting
the nowdoc variable, you can be sure that PHP will not attempt to interpolate any of the string
ascode.
Control Structures
Control structures determine the flow of code within an application, defining execution
characteristics such as whether and how many times a particular code statement will execute, as
well as when a code block will relinquish execution control.

Conditional Statements
Conditional statements make it possible for your computer program to respond accordingly to a wide
variety of inputs, using logic to discern between various conditions based on input value. You can
use conditional statements in your code to make your decisions. PHP supports following three
decision making statements
➢ if...else statement − use this statement if you want to execute a set of code when a
condition is true and another if the condition is nottrue
➢ elseif statement − is used with the if...else statement to execute a set of code if one of the
several condition istrue
➢ switch statement − is used if you want to select one of many blocks of code to be
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executed, use the Switch statement. The switch statement is used to avoid long blocks of
if..elseif..elsecode.
The If...Else Statement

If you want to execute some code if a condition is true and another code if a condition is false, use
theif. ..........else statement.
Syntax
if (condition)
code to be executed if condition is true;

else
code to be executed if condition is false;
Example
The following example will output "Have a nice weekend!" if the current day is Friday,
Otherwise, it will output "Have a nice day!":
<html>
<body>
<?php
$d =date("D");
if ($d =="Fri")
echo "Have a nice weekend!"; else
echo "Have a nice day!";
?>
</body>
</html>
It will produce the following result − Have a nice day!
The ElseIf Statement
If you want to execute some code if one of the several conditions are true use the elseif statement
Syntax
if (condition)
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elseif (condition)
else
code to be executed if condition is false;
Example
The following example will output "Have a nice weekend!" if the current day is Friday, and "Have a
nice Sunday!" if the current day is Sunday. Otherwise, it will output "Have a niceday!"
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<html>
<body>
<?php
$d =date("D");
if ($d =="Fri")
echo "Have a nice weekend!";
elseif ($d == "Sun")
echo "Have a nice Sunday!"; else
echo "Have a nice day!";
?>
</body>
</html>
It will produce the following result − Have a nice day!
The Switch Statement
If you want to select one of many blocks of code to be executed, use the Switch statement. The switch
statement is used to avoid long blocks of if..elseif..else code.
Syntax
switch (expression)
{
caselabel1:
code to be executed if expression = label1;
break;
case label2:
code to be executed if expression = label2;
break;
default:code to be executed
if expression is different from both label1 and label2;
}
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Example
The switch statement works in an unusual way. First it evaluates given expression then seeks a label
to match the resulting value. If a matching value is found then the code associated with the matching
label will be executed or if none of the label matches then statement will execute any specified
default code.
<html>
<body>
<?php
$d = date("D");
switch ($d)
{
case "Mon":
echo "Today is Monday"; break;
case "Tue":
echo "Today is Tuesday"; break;
case "Wed":
echo "Today is Wednesday"; break;
case "Thu":
echo "Today is Thursday";
break;
case"Fri":
echo "Today is Friday"; break; case
"Sat":
echo "Today is Saturday"; break;
case "Sun":
echo "Today is Sunday"; break;
default:
echo "Wonder which day is this ?";
}
?>
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</body>
</html>
It will produce the following result−
Today isWednesday
LoopingStatements
Loops in PHP are used to execute the same block of code a specified number of times. PHP
supports following four loop types.
➢ for − loops through a block of code a specified number oftimes.
➢ while − loops through a block of code if and as long as a specified condition is true.
do...while loops through a block of code once, and then repeats the loop as long as a
special condition istrue.
➢ foreach − loops through a block of code for each element in anarray.
The for loop statement

The for statement is used when you know how many times you want to execute a statement or a
block ofstatements.
Syntax
for (initialization; condition; increment)
{
code to be executed;
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}
The initializer is used to set the start value for the counter of the number of loop iterations. A variable
may be declared here for this purpose and it is traditional to name it $i.
Example
The following example makes five iterations and changes the assigned value of two variables
on each pass of the loop
<html>
<body>
<?php
$a =0;
$b =0;
for( $i = 0; $i<5; $i++ )
{
$a += 10;
$b += 5;
}
echo ("At the end of the loop a = $a and b = $b" );
?>
</body>
</html>
This will produce the following result – At
the end of the loop a = 50 and b = 25
The while loop statement
The while statement will execute a block of code if and as long as the test expression is true. If
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the test expression is true then the code block will be executed. After the code has executed the test
expression will again be evaluated and the loop will continue until the test expression is found to be
false.
Syntax
while (condition)
{
}
Example
This example decrements a variable value on each iteration of the loop and the counter
increments until it reaches 10 when the evaluation is false and the loop ends.
<html>
<body>
<?php
$i = 0;
$num = 50; while(
$i < 10)
{
$num--;
$i++;
}
echo ("Loop stopped at i = $i and num = $num" );
?>
</body>
</html>
This will produce the following result –
Loop stopped at i = 10 and num = 40 The
do...while loop statement
The do...while statement will execute a block of code at least once it then will repeat the loop as
long as a condition istrue.
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Syntax
do
{
}
while (condition);
Example
The following example will increment the value of i at least once, and it will continue
incrementing the variable i as long as it has a value of less than 10
<html>
<body>
<?php
$i = 0;
$num = 0; do
{
$i++;
}
while( $i < 10 );
echo ("Loop stopped at i = $i" );
?>
</body>
</html>
Loop stopped at i = 10
The foreach loop statement
The foreach statement is used to loop through arrays. For each pass the value of the current array
element is assigned to $value and the array pointer is moved by one and in the next pass next
element will be processed.
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Syntax
foreach (array as value)
{
}
Example
Try out following example to list out the values of an array.
<html>
<body>
<?php
$array = array( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
foreach( $array as $value )
{
echo "Value is $value <br />";
}
?>
</body>
</html>
Value is1
Value is2
Value is3
Value is4
Value is5
BREAK statement :The PHP break keyword is used to terminate the execution of a loop prematurely.
The break statement is situated inside the statement block. If gives you full control and whenever you
want to exit from the loop you can come out. After coming out of a loop immediate statement to the
loop will be executed.
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Example
In the following example condition test becomes true when the counter value reaches 3 and loop
terminates.
<html>
<body>
<?php
$i = 0;
while( $i < 10)
{
$i++;
if( $i == 3 )break;
}
echo ("Loop stopped at i = $i" );
?>
</body>
</html>
Loop stopped at i = 3
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Continue statement The PHP continue keyword is used to halt the current iteration of a loop but it
does not terminate the loop. Just like the break statement the continue statement is situated inside
the statement block containing the code that the loop executes, preceded by a conditional test. For
the pass encountering continue statement, rest of the loop code is skipped and next pass starts.
Example
In the following example loop prints the value of array but for which condition becomes true it
just skip the code and next value is printed.
<html>
<body>
<?php
$array = array( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
foreach( $array as $value )
{
if( $value == 3 )continue; echo
"Value is $value <br />";
}
?>
</body>
</html>
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Value is1
Value is2
Value is4
Value is5
File Inclusion statements
You can include the content of a PHP file into another PHP file before the server executes it.
There are two PHP functions which can be used to included one PHP file into another PHP file.
The include() Function The require() Function This is a strong point of PHP which helps in
creating functions, headers, footers, or elements that can be reused on multiple pages. This will
help developers to make it easy to change the layout of complete website with minimal effort. If
there is any change required then instead of changing thousand of files just change included file.
The include() Function The include() function takes all the text in a specified file and copies it into
the file that uses the include function. If there is any problem in loading a file then the include()
function generates a warning but the script will continue execution. Assume you want to create a
common menu for your website. Then create a file menu.php with the followingcontent.
<a href="http://www.tutorialspoint.com/index.htm">Home</a> -
<a href="http://www.tutorialspoint.com/ebxml">ebXML</a> -
<a href="http://www.tutorialspoint.com/ajax">AJAX</a> -
<a href="http://www.tutorialspoint.com/perl">PERL</a><br />
Now create as many pages as you like and include this file to create header. For example now
your test.php file can have following content.
<html>
<body>
<?php include("menu.php"); ?>
<p>This is an example to show how to include PHP file!</p>
</body>
</html>
It will produce the following result –
Home - ebXML - AJAX - PERL
Ensuring a File is included only once:
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The include_once() function verified whether the file has already been included.
include_once(filename);
If a file has already been included; include_once will not execute. Otherwise, it will include the
file asnecessary.
The require() Function
The require() function takes all the text in a specified file and copies it into the file that uses the
include function. If there is any problem in loading a file then the require() function generates a
fatal error and halt the execution of the script. So there is no difference in require() and include()
except they handle error conditions. It is recommended to use the require() function instead of
include(), because scripts should not continue executing if files are missingor misnamed. You can
try using above example with require() function and it will generate same result. But if you will try
following two examples where file does not exist then you will get differentresults.
<html>
<body>
<?php include("xxmenu.php"); ?>
<p>This is an example to show how to include wrong PHP file!</p>
</body>
</html>
This will produce the following result
This is an example to show how to include wrong PHP file!
<html>
<body>
<?php require("xxmenu.php"); ?>
<p>This is an example to show how to include wrong PHP file!</p>
</body>
</html>
Ensuring a File Is Required Only Once
As your site grows, you may find yourself redundantly including certain files. Although this might
not always be a problem, sometimes you will not want modified variables in the included file to be
overwritten by a later inclusion of the same file. Another problem that arises is the
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clashing of function names should they exist in the inclusion file. You can solve these problems
with the require_once() function. Its prototype follows:
require_once (filename)
The require_once() function ensures that the inclusion file is included only once in your script.
After require_once() is encountered, any subsequent attempts to include the same file will be
ignored.
Functions
Creating a Function
Although PHP’s vast assortment of function libraries is a tremendous benefit to anybody seeking
to avoid reinventing the programmatic wheel, sooner or later you’ll need to go beyond what is
offered in the standard distribution, which means you’ll need to create custom functions or even
entire function libraries. To do so, you’ll need to define a function using PHP’s supported syntax,
which when written in pseudo code looks likethis:
function function Name(parameters)
{
function-body
}
For example, consider the following function, generateFooter(), which outputs a page footer:
function generateFooter()
{
echo "Department of Computer Science and Engineering";
}
Once defined, you can call this function like so:
<?php generateFooter();
?>
This yields the following result:
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Passing Arguments by Value
You‘ll often find it useful to pass data into a function. As an example, let’s create a function that
calculates an item’s total cost by determining its sales tax and then adding that amount to the
price
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function calcSalesTax($price, $tax)
{
$total = $price + ($price * $tax); echo "Total cost: $total";
}
This function accepts two parameters, aptly named $price and $tax, which are used in the
calculation. Although these parameters are intended to be floating points, because of PHP’s weak
typing, nothing prevents you from passing in variables of any datatype, but the outcome might
not be what you expect. In addition, you’re allowed to define as few or as many parameters as
you deem necessary; there are no language-imposed constraints in this regard.Once defined, you
can then invoke the function as demonstrated
calcSalesTax() function would be called like so: calcSalesTax(15.00, .075);
Passing Arguments by Reference
On occasion, you may want any changes made to an argument within a function to be reflected
outside of the function’s scope. Passing the argument by reference accomplishes this. Passing
an argument by reference is done by appending an ampersand to the front of the
argument.Here’s an example:
<?php
$cost =20.99;
$tax = 0.0575;
function calculateCost(&$cost, $tax)
{
// Modify the $cost variable
$cost = $cost + ($cost * $tax);
// Perform some random change to the $tax variable.
$tax += 4;
}
calculateCost($cost, $tax); printf("Tax is %01.2f%% ", $tax*100); printf("Cost is:
$%01.2f", $cost);
?>
Here’s the result: Tax is 5.75%
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Cost is $22.20
Default Argument Values
Default values can be assigned to input arguments, which will be automatically assigned to
theargumentifnoothervalueisprovided.Youcouldthenassign$taxthedefaultvalueof
percent, likethis
function calcSalesTax($price, $tax=.0675)
{
$total = $price + ($price * $tax); echo "Total cost: $total";
}
You can still pass $tax another taxation rate; 6.75 percent will be used only if calcSalesTax() is
invoked without the second parameter like this:
$price = 15.47; calcSalesTax($price);
Using Type Hinting
PHP 5 introduced a new feature known as type hinting, which gives you the ability to force
parameters to be objects of a certain class or to be arrays. Unfortunately, type hinting using scalar
data types such as integers and strings is not supported. If the provided parameter is not of the
desired type, a fatal error will occur.
Returning Values from a Function
Often, simply relying on a function to do something is insufficient; a script’s outcome might
depend on a function’s outcome or on changes in data resulting from its execution. Yet variable
scoping prevents information from easily being passed from a function body back to its caller, so
how can we accomplish this? You can pass data back to the caller by way of the return()
statement.
The return Statement
The return() statement returns any ensuing value back to the function caller, returning program
control back to the caller’s scope in the process. If return() is called from within the global scope,
the script execution isterminated.
function calcSalesTax($price, $tax=.0675)
{
$total = $price + ($price * $tax); return $total;
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}
Returning Multiple Values

It’s often convenient to return multiple values from a function. For example, suppose that you’d like
to create a function that retrieves user data from a database (say the user’s name, e-mail address, and
phone number) and returns it to the caller. Accomplishing this is much easier than you might think,
with the help of a very useful language construct, list(). The list() construct offers a convenient means
for retrieving values from an array, likeso
<?php
function retrieveUserProfile()
{
$user[] = "Arifa Tehseen";
$user[] = "arifa@jbiet.edu.in";
$user[] = "English"; return $user;
}
list($name, $email, $language) = retrieveUserProfile(); echo
"Name: $name, email: $email, language: $language";
?>
Executing this script returns the following:
Name: Arifa Tehseen, email:arifa@jbiet.edu.in, language: English
Function Libraries
Great programmers are lazy, and lazy programmers think in terms of reusability. Functions offer a
great way to reuse code and are often collectively assembled into libraries and subsequently
repeatedly reused within similar applications. PHP libraries are created via the simple aggregation
of function definitions in a single file, like this:
<?php
function localTax($grossIncome, $taxRate)
{
// function body here
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function stateTax($grossIncome, $taxRate, $age)
{
}
function medicare($grossIncome, $medicareRate)
{
}
?>
ARRAYS
PHP takes this definition a step further, forgoing the requirement that the items share the same data
type. For example, an array could quite possibly contain items such as state names, ZIP codes,
exam scores, or playing card suits. Each item consists of two components: the aforementioned key
and a value. The key serves as the lookup facility for retrieving its counterpart, the value. Keys can
be numerical or associative. Numerical keys bear no real relation to the value other than the value’s
position in the array.
$states = array(0 => "Alabama", 1 => "Alaska"...49 => "Wyoming");
$states = array("OH" => "Ohio", "PA" => "Pennsylvania", "NY" => "New York")
Creating an Array
Unlike other languages, PHP doesn’t require that you assign a size to an array at creation time. In
fact, because it’s a loosely typed language, PHP doesn’t even require that you declare the array
before using it.
$state[0] = "Delaware";
Interestingly, if you intend for the index value to be numerical and ascending, you can
omit the index value at creation time:
$state[] = "Pennsylvania";
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$state[] = "New Jersey";
...
$state[] = "Hawaii";
Creating Arrays with array()
The array() construct takes as its input zero or more items and returns an array consisting of
these input elements. Its prototype looks like this:
array array([item1 [,item2 ... [,itemN]]])
Extracting Arrays with list()

The list() construct is similar to array(), though it’s used to make simultaneous variable
assignments from values extracted from an array in just one operation. Its prototype looks
likethis:
void list(mixed...)This construct can be particularly useful when you’re extracting information
from a database orfile.
Populating Arrays with a Predefined Value Range
The range() function provides an easy way to quickly create and fill an array consisting of a range
of low and high integer values. An array containing all integer values in this range is returned. Its
prototype looks like this:
array range(int low, int high [, int step])
For example, suppose you need an array consisting of all possible face values of a die:
$die = range(1, 6);
// Same as specifying $die = array(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Testing for an Array
When you incorporate arrays into your application, you’ll sometimes need to know whether a
particular variable is an array. A built-in function, is_array(), is available for accomplishing this
task. Its prototype follows
boolean is_array(mixed variable)
The is_array() function determines whether variable is an array, returning TRUE if it is and
FALSE otherwise.
An example follows:
$states = array("Florida");
$state = "Ohio";
printf("\$states is an array: %s <br />", (is_array($states) ? "TRUE" : "FALSE"));
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printf("\$state is an array: %s <br />", (is_array($state) ? "TRUE" : "FALSE"));
Executing this example produces the following:
$states is an array: TRUE
$state is an array: FALSE

Outputting an Array
The most common way to output an array’s contents is by iterating over each key and echoing the
corresponding value. For instance, a foreach statement does the trick nicely:
$states = array("Ohio", "Florida", "Texas"); foreach ($states AS $state) {
echo "{$state}<br />";
}
Printing Arrays for Testing Purposes
The array contents in most of the previous examples have been displayed using comments. While
this works great for instructional purposes, in the real world you’ll need to know how to easily
output their contents to the screen for testing purposes. This is most commonly done with the
print_r() function. Its prototypefollows:
boolean print_r(mixed variable [, boolean return])
The print_r() function accepts a variable and sends its contents to standard output, returning TRUE
on success and FALSE otherwise.
Adding and Removing ArrayElements
PHP provides a number of functions for both growing and shrinking an array. Some of these
functions are provided as a convenience to programmers who wish to mimic various queue
implementations (FIFO, LIFO, etc.), as reflected by their names (push, pop, shift, and unshift).
Adding a Value to the Front of an Array
The array_unshift() function adds elements to the front of the array. All preexisting numerical
keys are modified to reflect their new position in the array, but associative keys aren’t affected.
Its prototype follows:
int array_unshift(array array, mixed variable [, mixed variable...])
The following example adds two states to the front of the $states array:
$states = array("Ohio", "New York");
array_unshift($states, "California", "Texas");
// $states = array("California", "Texas", "Ohio", "New York"); Adding a
Value to the End of an Array
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The array_push() function adds a value to the end of an array, returning the total count of elements in the array
after the new value has been added. You can push multiple variables onto the array simultaneously by passing
these variables into the function as input parameters. Its prototype follows:
int array_push(array array, mixed variable [, mixedvariable...])

The following example adds two more states onto the $statesarray:
$states = array("Ohio", "New York");
array_push($states, "California", "Texas");
// $states = array("Ohio", "New York", "California", "Texas");
Removing a Value from the Front of an Array

The array_shift() function removes and returns the first item found in an array. If numerical keys
are used, all corresponding values will be shifted down, whereas arrays using associative keys
will not be affected. Its prototype follows
mixed array_shift(array array)

The following example removes the first state from the $states array:
$states = array("Ohio", "New York", "California", "Texas");
$state = array_shift($states);
// $states = array("New York", "California", "Texas")
// $state = "Ohio"
Removing a Value from the End of an Array
The array_pop() function removes and returns the last element from an array. Its prototype
follows:
mixed array_pop(array array)

The following example removes the last state from the $states array:
$states = array("Ohio", "New York", "California", "Texas");
$state = array_pop($states);
// $states = array("Ohio", "New York", "California"
// $state = "Texas"
Locating Array Elements
The ability to efficiently sift through data is absolutely crucial in today’s information-driven
society.
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Searching an The in_array() function searches an array for a specific value,
Array returning TRUE if the value is found and FALSE otherwise. Its
prototype follows:
boolean in_array(mixed needle, array haystack [, boolean strict])
Searching The function array_key_exists() returns TRUE if a specified key is

Associative found in an array and FALSE otherwise. Its prototype follows:
Array Keys boolean array_key_exists(mixed key, array array)
Searching The array_search() function searches an array for a specified value,

Associative returning its key if located and FALSE otherwise. Its prototype
Array Values follows:
mixed array_search(mixed needle, array haystack [, boolean strict])
Retrieving Array The array_keys() function returns an array consisting of all keys located
Keys in an array. Its prototype follows:
array array_keys(array array [, mixed search_value [, boolean
preserve_keys]])
Retrieving Array The array_values() function returns all values located in an array,
Values automatically providing numeric indexes for the returned array. Its
prototype follows:
array array_values(array array)
Traversing Arrays
The need to travel across an array and retrieve various keys, values, or both is common, so it’s not
a surprise that PHP offers numerous functions suited to this need. Many of these functions do
double duty: retrieving the key or value residing at the current pointer location, and moving the
pointer to the next appropriate location.
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Retrieving the The key() function returns the key located at the current pointer
Current Array position of the provided array. Its prototype follows:
Key mixed key(array array)
Retrieving the The current() function returns the array value residing at the current
Current Array pointer position of the array. Its prototype follows:
Value mixed current(array array)
Retrieving the The each() function returns the current key/value pair from the array
Current Array and advances the pointer one position. Its prototype follows:
Key and Value array each(array array)
Moving the The next() function returns the array value residing at the position
Pointer to the immediately following that of the current array pointer. Its
Next Array prototype follows:
Position mixed next(array array)
Moving the The prev() function returns the array value residing at the location
Pointer to the preceding the current pointer location, or FALSE if the pointer
Previous Array resides at the first position in the array. Its prototype follows: mixed
Position prev(array array)
Moving the The reset() function serves to set an array pointer back to the
Pointer to the beginning of the array. Its prototype follows:
First Array mixed reset(array array)
Position
Moving the The end() function moves the pointer to the last position of an array,
Pointer to the returning the last element. Its prototype follows:
Last Array mixed end(array array)
Position
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Moving the Array Pointer
Several functions are available for moving the array pointer.
Passing Array Values to a Function

The array_walk() function will pass each element of an array to the user-defined function. This is
useful when you need to perform a particular action based on each array element. If you intend to
actually modify the array key/value pairs, you’ll need to pass each key/value to the function as a
reference.
Its prototype follows

boolean array_walk(array &array, callback function [, mixed userdata])
Determining Array Size and Uniqueness
A few functions are available for determining the number of total and unique array values.
Determining The count() function returns the total number of values found in an
the Size of an array. Its prototype follows:
Array integer count(array array [, int mode])
Counting The array_count_values() function returns an array consisting of

Array Value associative key/value pairs. Its prototype follows:
Frequency array array_count_values(array array)
Determining The array_unique() function removes all duplicate values found in an

Unique Array array, returning an array consisting of solely unique values. Itsprototype
Values follows:
array array_unique(array array [, int sort_flags = SORT_STRING])
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Reversing The array_reverse() function reverses an array’s element order. Its
Array Element prototype follows: Sorting
Arrays
Order array array_reverse(array array [, boolean preserve_keys])
Flipping Array The array_flip() function reverses the roles of the keys and their
Keys and corresponding values in an array. Its prototype follows:
Values array array_flip(array array)
Sorting an The sort() function sorts an array, ordering elements from lowest
Array to highest value. Its prototype follows:
void sort(array array [, int sort_flags])
Sorting an Array The asort() function is identical to sort(), sorting an array in
While ascending order, except that the key/value correspondence is
Maintaining maintained. Its prototype follows:
Key/Value Pairs void asort(array array [, integer sort_flags])
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Sorting an Array The rsort() function is identical to sort(), except that it sorts array items
in Reverse Order in reverse (descending) order.Its prototype follows:
void rsort(array array [, int sort_flags])
Sorting an Array Like asort(), arsort() maintains key/value correlation. However, it

in Reverse Order sorts the array in reverse order. Its prototypefollows:
While void arsort(array array [, int sort_flags])
Maintaining
Sorting an array The natsort() function is intended to offer a sorting mechanism
Naturally comparable to the mechanisms that people normally use. Its prototype
follows:void natsort(array array)
Case- The function natcasesort() is functionally identical to natsort(), except

Insensitive that it is case insensitive:
Natural void natcasesort(array array)
Sorting
Sorting an The ksort() function sorts an array by its keys, returning TRUE on
Array by Key success and FALSE otherwise. Its prototype follows:
Values integer ksort(array array [, int sort_flags])
Sorting Array The krsort() function operates identically to ksort(), sorting by key,
Keys in Reverse except that it sorts in reverse (descending) order. Its prototype
Order follows:
integer krsort(array array [, int sort_flags])
Sorting The usort() function offers a means for sorting an array by using a
According to user-defined comparison algorithm, embodied within a function.
User-Defined This is useful when you need to sort data in a fashion not offered
Criteria by one of PHP’s built-in sorting functions. Its prototypefollows:
void usort(array array, callback function_name)
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Merging, Slicing, Splicing, and Dissecting Arrays
Merging Arrays The array_merge() function merges arrays together, returning a single,
unified array. The resulting array will begin with the first input array
parameter, appending each subsequent array parameter in the order of
appearance. Its prototype follows:
array array_merge(array array1, array array2 [, array arrayN])
Recursively The array_merge_recursive() function operates identically to

Appending array_merge(), joining two or more arrays together to form a single,
Arrays unified array. The difference between the two functions lies in the
way that this function behaves when a string key located in one of
the input arrays already exists within the resulting array. Note that
array_merge() will simply overwrite the preexisting key/value pair,
replacing it with the one found in the current input array, while
array_merge_recursive() will instead merge the values together,
forming a new array with the preexisting key as its name. Its
prototype follows:
array array_merge_recursive(array array1, array array2 [, array
arrayN])
Combining Two The array_combine() function produces a new array
Arrays consisting of a submitted set of keys and corresponding
values. Its prototype follows:
array array_combine(array keys, array values)
Both input arrays must be of equal size, and neither can be empty.
Slicing an Array The array_slice() function returns a section of an array based on a

starting and ending offset value. Its prototype follows:
array array_slice(array array, int offset [, int length [, boolean
preserve_keys]])
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Splicing an The array_splice() function removes all elements of an array found
Array within a specified range, returning those removed elements in the
form of an array. Its prototype follows:
array array_splice(array array, int offset [, int length [, array
replacement]])
Calculating an The array_intersect() function returns a key-preserved array

Array consisting only of those values present in the first array that arealso
Intersection present in each of the other input arrays. Its prototype follows:
array array_intersect(array array1, array array2 [,arrayN])
Calculating The function array_intersect_assoc() operates identically to

Associative array_intersect(), except that it also considers array keys in the
Array comparison. Therefore, only key/value pairs located in the first array
Intersections that arealso found in all other input arrays will be returned in the
resulting array. Its prototype follows:
array array_intersect_assoc(array array1, array array2 [, arrayN])
Calculating Essentially the opposite of array_intersect(), the function

Array array_diff() returns those values located in the first array that are
Differences not located in any of the subsequent arrays:
array array_diff(array array1, array array2 [, arrayN])
Calculating The function array_diff_assoc() operates identically to

Associative array_diff(), except that it also considers array keys in the
Array comparison. Therefore, only key/value pairs located in the first
Differences array but not appearing in any of the other input arrays will be
returned in the result array. Its prototype follows:
array array_diff_assoc(array array1, array array2 [, array arrayN])
Strings and Regular Expressions

PHP has long supported two regular expression implementations known as Perl and POSIX.
136
Regular Expressions
Regular expressions provide the foundation for describing or matching data according to defined
syntax rules. A regular expression is nothing more than a pattern of characters itself, matched
against a certain parcel of text. This sequence may be a pattern with which you are already familiar,
such as the word dog, or it may be a pattern with specific meaning in the context of the world of
pattern matching, <(?)>.*<\ /.?>
Regular Expression Syntax (POSIX)

POSIX stands for Portable Operating System Interface for Unix and is representative of a set of
standards originally intended for Unix-based operating systems. POSIX regular expression syntax is
an attempt to standardize how regular expressions are implemented in many programming
languages.
Brackets: Brackets ([]) are used to represent a list, or range, of characters to be matched. For
instance, contrary to the regular expression php, which will locate strings containing the explicit
string php, the regular expression [php] will find any string containing the character p or h. Several
commonly used character ranges follow:
➢ [a-z] matches any character from lowercase a through lowercasez.
➢ [A-Z] matches any character from uppercase A through uppercaseZ.
➢ [A-Za-z] matches any character from uppercase A through lowercasez.
➢ [0-9] matches any decimal digit from 0 through9.
Quantifiers
Sometimes you might want to create regular expressions that look for characters based on their
frequency or position
• p+ matches any string containing at least onep.
• p* matches any string containing zero or morep’s.
• p? matches any string containing zero or onep.
• p{2} matches any string containing a sequence of twop’s.
• p{2,3} matches any string containing a sequence of two or threep’s.
• p{2,} matches any string containing a sequence of at least twop’s.
• p$ matches any string with p at the end of it.
Predefined Character Ranges (CharacterClasses)
For reasons of convenience, several predefined character ranges, also known as character
classes, are available. Character classes specify an entire range of characters—for example,
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the alphabet or an integer set. Standard classes include the following:
[:alpha:]: Lowercase and uppercase alphabetical characters. This can also be specified as [A-
Za-z].
[:alnum:]: Lowercase and uppercase alphabetical characters and numerical digits. This can also
be specified as [A-Za-z0-9].
[:cntrl:]: Control characters such as tab, escape, or backspace.
[:digit:]: Numerical digits 0 through 9. This can also be specified as [0-9].
[:graph:]: Printable characters found in the range of ASCII 33 to 126.
[:lower:]: Lowercase alphabetical characters. This can also be specified as [a-z].
[:punct:]: Punctuation characters, including ~ ` ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) - _ + = { } [ ] : ; '<> , . ? and
/.
[:upper:]: Uppercase alphabetical characters. This can also be specified as [A-Z].
[:space:]:
Whitespace characters, including the space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, new line, form feed, or
carriage return.
[:xdigit:]: Hexadecimal characters. This can also be specified as [a-fA-F0-9].
PHP’s Regular Expression Functions (POSIX Extended)
PHP offers seven functions for searching strings using POSIX-style regular expressions:
ereg(),ereg_replace(), eregi(), eregi_replace(), split(), spliti(), and sql_regcase().
Performing a The ereg() function executes a case-sensitive search of a string for a
Case- Sensitive defined pattern, returning the length of the matched string if the
Search pattern is found and FALSE otherwise. Its prototype follows:
int ereg(string pattern, string string [, array regs])
Performing a The eregi() function searches a string for a defined pattern in a
Case- case-insensitive fashion. Its prototype
Insensitive follows:
Search int eregi(string pattern, string string, [array regs])
Replacing Text in The ereg_replace() function operates much like ereg(), except that its
a Case-Sensitive power is extended to finding and replacing a pattern with a
Fashion replacement string instead of simply locating it. Its prototype follows:
string ereg_replace(string pattern, string replacement, string string)
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Replacing Text The eregi_replace() function operates exactly like ereg_replace(),
in a except that the search for pattern in string is not case sensitive. Its
Case-Insensitive prototype follows:
Fashion string eregi_replace(string pattern, string replacement, string string)
Splitting a String The split() function divides a string into various elements, with
into Various the boundaries of each element based on the occurrence of a
Elements Based on a defined pattern within the string. Its prototype follows: array
Case-Sensitive split(string pattern, string string [, int limit])
Pattern
Splitting a String The spliti() function operates exactly in the same manner as its
into Various sibling, split(), except that its pattern is treated in a case-insensitive
Elements Based on a fashion. Its prototype follows:
Case-Insensitive array spliti(string pattern, string string [, int limit])
Pattern
Accommodating The sql_regcase() function converts each character in a string into a
Products bracketed expression containing two characters. If the character is
Supporting Solely alphabetical, the bracket will contain both forms; otherwise, the
Case-Sensitive original character will be left unchanged. Its prototype follows:
Regular string sql_regcase(string string)
Expressions
Regular Expression Syntax (Perl)

Modifiers
Often you’ll want to tweak the interpretation of a regular expression; for example, you may want
to tell the regular expression to execute a case-insensitive search or to ignore comments embedded
within its syntax. These tweaks are known as modifiers, and they go a long way toward helping
you to write short and concise expressions.
Ex:
I: Perform a case-insensitive search.
G: Find all occurrences (perform a global search).
Meta characters
Perl regular expressions also employ meta characters to further filter their searches. A meta
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character is simply an character or character sequence that symbolizes special meaning. A list of
useful meta characters follows

\A: Matches only at the beginning of the string.
\b: Matches a word boundary.
\B: Matches anything but a word boundary.
\d: Matches a digit character. This is the same as [0-9].
\D: Matches a nondigit character.
\s: Matches a whitespace character.
\S: Matches a nonwhite space character []:
Encloses a character
(): Encloses a character grouping or defines a back reference.
$: Matches the end of a line.
^: Matches the beginning of a line.
^: Matches any character except for the newline.
\: Quotes the next metacharacter.
\w: Matches any string containing solely underscore and alphanumeric characters. This
is the same as [a-zA-Z0-9_].
W: Matches a string, omitting the underscore and alphanumeric characters.
PHP’s Regular Expression Functions (Perl Compatible)
PHP offers eight functions for searching and modifying strings using Perl-compatible regular
expressions: preg_filter(), preg_grep(), preg_match(), preg_match_all(), preg_quote(),
preg_replace(), preg_replace_callback(), and preg_split().
Searching an Array The preg_grep() function searches all elements of an array,

returning an array consisting of all elements matching a certain
pattern. Its prototype follows:
array preg_grep(string pattern, array input [, int flags])
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Searching for a The preg_match() function searches a string for a specific pattern,
Pattern returning TRUE if it exists and FALSE otherwise. Its prototype
follows:
int preg_match(string pattern, string string [, array matches] [,
int flags [, int offset]]])
Matching All The preg_match_all() function matches all occurrences of a pattern in

Occurrences of a string, assigning each occurrence to an array in the order you specify
a Pattern via an optional input parameter. Its prototype follows:
int preg_match_all(string pattern, string string, array matches [, int
flags] [, int offset]))
Delimiting The function preg_quote() inserts a backslash delimiter before every
Special Regular character of special significance to regular expression syntax. These
Expression special characters include $ ^ * ( ) + = { } [ ] | \\ : <>. Its prototype
Characters follows:
string preg_quote(string str [, string delimiter])
Replacing All The preg_replace() function replaces all occurrences of pattern with
Occurrences of replacement, and returns the modified result. Its prototype follows:
a Pattern mixed preg_replace(mixed pattern, mixed replacement, mixed
str [, int limit [, int count]])
Creating a Consider a situation where you want to scan some text for acronyms
Custom such as IRS and insert the complete name directly following the
Replacement acronym. To do so, you need to create a custom function and then use
Function the function
Splitting a String The preg_split() function operates exactly like split(), except that
into Various pattern can also be defined in terms of a regular expression. Its
Elements Based on a prototype follows:
Case- Insensitive array preg_split(string pattern, string string [, int limit [, int
Pattern lags]])
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UNIT-4
TCL:
TCL stands for “Tool Command Language” and is pronounced “tickle”; is a simple scripting
language for controlling and extending applications. TCL is a radically simple open-source
interpreted programming language that provides common facilities such as variables, procedures,
and control structures as well as many useful features that are not found in any other major language.
TCL runs on almost all modern operating systems such as Unix, Macintosh, and Windows
(including Windows Mobile). While TCL is flexible enough to be used in almost any application
imaginable, it does excel in a few key areas, including: automated interaction with external
programs, embedding as a library into application programs, language design, and general scripting.
TCL was created in 1988 by John Ousterhout and is distributed under a BSD style license (which
allows you everything GPL does, plus closing your source code).
The current stable version, in February 2008, is 8.5.1 (8.4.18 in the older 8.4 branch). The
first major GUI extension that works with TCL is TK, a toolkit that aims to rapid GUI development.
That is why TCL is now more commonly called TCL/TK. The language features far-reaching
introspection, and the syntax, while simple2, is very different from the Fortran/Algol/C++/Java
world. Although TCL is a string based language there are quite a few object-oriented extensions for
it like Snit3, incr Tcl4, and XOTcl5 to name a few. TCL is embeddable: its interpreter is
implemented as a library of C procedures that can easily be incorporated into applications, and each
application can extend the core TCL features with additional commands specific to that application.
Tcl was originally developed as a reusable command language for experimental computer
aided design (CAD) tools. The interpreter is implemented as a C library that could be linked into any
application. It is very easy to add new functions to the TCL interpreter, so it is an ideal reusable
"macro language" that can be integrated into many applications. However, TCL is a programming
language in its own right, which can be roughly described as a cross-breed between
➢ LISP/Scheme (mainly for its tail-recursioncapabilities)
➢ C (control structure keywords, expr syntax)and
➢ Unix shells (but with more powerfulstructuring).
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TCL Structure
The TCL language has a tiny syntax - there is only a single command structure, and a set of rules to
determine how to interpret the commands. Other languages have special syntaxes for control
structures (if, while, repeat...) - not so in TCL. All such structures are implemented as commands.
There is a runtime library of compiled ’C’ routines, and the ’level’ of the GUI interface is quite high.
Comments: If the first character of a command is #, it is a comment.
TCL commands: TCL commands are just words separated by spaces. Commands return strings, and
arguments are just further words.
command argument command
argument
Spaces are important
expr5*3has a single argument
expr 5*3has three arguments
TCL commands are separated by a new line, or a semicolon, and arrays are indexed by text set
a(a\ text\ index) 4
Syntax
Syntax is just the rules how a language is structured. A simple syntax of English could
say(Ignoring punctuation for the moment) A text consists of one or more sentences A sentence
consists of one or more words' Simple as this is, it also describes Tcl's syntax very well - if you say
"script" for "text", and "command" for "sentence". There's also the difference that a Tcl word can
again contain a script or a command. So if {$x < 0} {set x 0} is a command consisting of three
words: if, a condition in braces, a command (also consisting of three words) in braces. Take this
for example is a well-formed Tcl command: it calls Take (which must have been defined before)
with the three arguments "this", "for", and "example". It is up to the command how it interprets its
arguments, e.g. puts acos(-1) will write the string "acos(-1)" to the stdout channel, and return the
empty string "", while expr acos(-1) will compute the arc cosine of -1 and return 3.14159265359
(an approximation of Pi), or string length acos(-1) will invoke the string command, which again
dispatches to its length sub-command, which determines the length of the second argument and
returns 8.A Tcl script is a string that is a sequence of commands, separated by newlines or
semicolons. A command is a string that is a list of words, separated by blanks. The first word is the
name of the command; the other words
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are passed to it as its arguments.
In Tcl, "everything is a command" - even what in other languages would be called declaration,
definition, or control structure. A command can interpret its arguments in any way it wants - in
particular, it can implement a different language, like expression. A word is a string that is a
simple word, or one that begins with { and ends with the matching } (braces), or one that begins
with " and ends with the matching ". Braced words are not evaluated by the parser. In quoted
words, substitutions can occur before the command is called: $[A-Za-z0-9_]+ substitutes the
value of the given variable. Or, if the variable name contains characters outside that regular
expression, another layer of bracing helps the parser to get itright
puts "Guten Morgen, ${Schuler}!"
If the code would say $Schuler, this would be parsed as the value of variable $Sch, immediately
followed by the constant string üler.(Part of) a word can be an embedded script: a string in []
brackets whose contents are evaluated as a script (see above) before the current command is
called.In short: Scripts and commands contain words. Words can again contain scripts and
commands. (This can lead to words more than a pagelong...)
Arithmetic and logic expressions are not part of the Tcl language itself, but the language of the
expr command (also used in some arguments of the if, for, while commands) is basically
equivalent to C's expressions, with infix operators and functions.
Rules of TCL
The following rules define the syntax and semantics of the Tcl language:
(1) Commands A Tcl script is a string containing one or more commands. Semi-colons and
newlines are command separators unless quoted as described below. Close brackets are command
terminators during command substitution (see below) unlessquoted.
(2) Evaluation A command is evaluated in two steps. First, the Tcl interpreter breaks the command
into words and performs substitutions as described below. These substitutions are performed in the
same way for all commands. The first word is used to locate a command procedure to carry out the
command, then all of the words of the command are passed to the command procedure. The
command procedure is free to interpret each of its words in any way it likes, such as an integer,
variable name, list, or Tcl script. Different commands interpret their wordsdifferently.
(3) Words of a command are separated by white space (except for newlines, which are command
separators).
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(4) Double quotes If the first character of a word is double-quote (") then the word is terminated by
the next double-quote character. If semi-colons, close brackets, or white space characters (including
newlines) appear between the quotes then they are treated as ordinary characters and included in the
word. Command substitution, variable substitution, and backslash substitution are performed on the
characters between the quotes as described below. The double-quotes are not retained as part of
theword.
(5) Braces If the first character of a word is an open brace ({) then the word is terminated by the
matching close brace (}). Braces nest within the word: for each additional open brace there must be
an additional close brace (however, if an open brace or close brace within the word is quoted with a
backslash then it is not counted in locating the matching close brace). No substitutions are performed
on the characters between the braces except for backslash-newline substitutions described below, nor
do semi-colons, newlines, close brackets, or white space receive any special interpretation. The word
will consist of exactly the characters between the outer braces, not including the bracesthemselves.
(6) Command substitution If a word contains an open bracket ([) then Tcl performs command
substitution. To do this it invokes the Tcl interpreter recursively to process the characters following
the open bracket as a Tcl script. The script may contain any number of commands and must be
terminated by a close bracket (``]). The result of the script (i.e. the result of its last command) is
substituted into the word in place of the brackets and all of the characters between them. There may
be any number of command substitutions in a single word. Command substitution is not performed
on words enclosed inbraces.
(7) Variable substitution If a word contains a dollar-sign ($) then Tcl performs variable substitution:
the dollar-sign and the following characters are replaced in the word by the value of a variable.
Variable substitution may take any of the followingforms:
$name
Tcl: the Tool Command language
Name is the name of a scalar variable; the name is a sequence of one or more characters that are a
letter, digit, underscore, or namespace separators (two or more colons).
$name(index)
Name gives the name of an array variable and index gives the name of an element within that array.
Name must contain only letters, digits, underscores, and namespace separators, and may be an
emptystring.
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Command substitutions, variable substitutions, and backslash substitutions are performed on the
characters of index.
${name}
Name is the name of a scalar variable. It may contain any characters whatsoever except for close
braces. There may be any number of variable substitutions in a single word. Variable substitution
is not performed on words enclosed in braces.
(8) Backslash substitution If a backslash (\) appears within a word then backslash substitution
occurs. In all cases but those described below the backslash is dropped and the following
character is treated as an ordinary character and included in the word. This allows characters such
as double quotes, close brackets, and dollar signs to be included in words without triggering
special processing. The following table lists the backslash sequences that are handled specially,
along with the value that replaces eachsequence.
\a
Audible alert (bell) (0x7).
\b
Backspace (0x8).
\f
Form feed (0xc).
\n
Newline (0xa).
\r
Carriage-return (0xd).
\t
Tab (0x9).
\v
Vertical tab (0xb).
\<newline>whitespace
A single space character replaces the backslash, newline, and all spaces and tabs after the
newline. This backslash sequence is unique in that it is replaced in a separate pre-pass before the
command is actually parsed. This means that it will be replaced even when it occurs between
braces, and the resulting space will be treated as a word separator if it isn't in braces or quotes.
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contents
Literal backslash (\), no special effect.
\ooo
The digits ooo (one, two, or three of them) give an eight-bit octal value for the Unicode
character that will be inserted. The upper bits of the Unicode character will be 0.
\xhh
The hexadecimal digits hh give an eight-bit hexadecimal value for the Unicode character that will
be inserted. Any number of hexadecimal digits may be present; however, all but the last two are
ignored (the result is always a one-byte quantity). The upper bits of the Unicode character will be
0.
\uhhhh
The hexadecimal digits hhhh (one, two, three, or four of them) give a sixteen-bit hexadecimal
value for the Unicode character that will be inserted. Backslash substitution is not performed on
words enclosed in braces, except for backslash newline as described above.
(9) Comments If a hash character (#) appears at a point where Tcl is expecting the first character
of the first word of a command, then the hash character and the characters that follow it, up
through the next newline, are treated as a comment and ignored. The comment character only has
significance when it appears at the beginning of acommand.
(10) Order of substitution Each character is processed exactly once by the Tcl interpreter as part
of creating the words of acommand.
For example, if variable substitution occurs then no further substitutions are performed on the
value of the variable; the value is inserted into the word verbatim. If command substitution occurs
then the nested command is processed entirely by the recursive call to the Tcl interpreter; no
substitutions are performed before making the recursive call and no additional substitutions are
performed on the result of the nested script. Substitutions take place from left to right, and each
substitution is evaluated completely before attempting to evaluate the next. Thus, a sequence like
set y [set x 0][incr x][incr x] will always set the variable y to the value, 012.
(11) Substitution and word boundaries Substitutions do not affect the word boundaries of a
command. For example, during variable substitution the entire value of the variable becomes part
of a single word, even if the variable's value containsspaces.
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Variables and Data in TCL
As noted above, by default, variables defined inside a procedure are "local" to that procedure.
And, the argument variables of the procedure contain local "copies" of the argument data used to
invoke theprocedure.
These local variables cannot be seen elsewhere in the script, and they only exist while the
procedure is being executed. In the "getAvg" procedure above, the local variables created in the
procedure are "n" "r" and "avg". TCL provides two commands to change the scope of a variable
inside a procedure, the "global" command and the "upvar" command. The "global" command is
used to declare that one or more variables are not local to any procedure. The value of a global
variable will persist until it is explicitly changed. So, a variable which is declared with the
"global" command can be seen and changed from inside any procedure which also declares that
variable with the "global" command. Variables which are defined outside of any procedure are
automatically global by default. The TCL "global" command declares that references to a given
variable should be global rather than local. However, the "global" command does not create or set
the variable … this must be done by other means, most commonly by the TCL "set" command.
For example, here is an adjusted version of our averaging procedure which saves the input list
length in the global variable "currentLength" so that other parts of the script can access this
information after "getAvgN" is called:
proc getAvgN { rList } \
{
global currentLength
set currentLength [llength $rList] if
{!$currentLength} {return 0.0} set
avg 0.0
foreach r $rList \
{
set avg [expr $avg + $r]
}
set avg [expr $avg/double($currentLength)]
return $avg
}
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Then, this adjusted version "getAvgN" could be used elsewhere as follows
global currentLength
set thisList "1.0 2.0 3.0" set
a [getAvgN $thisList]
puts "List: $thisList Length: $currentLength Avg: $a"
We can also use global variables as an alternative to procedure arguments. For example, we can
make a version of our averaging application which assumes that the input list is stored in a global
variable called "currentList"
proc getCurrentAvg { } \
{
global currentList currentLength set
currentLength [llength $rList] if
{!$currentLength} {return 0.0} set
avg 0.0
foreach r $currentList \
{
}
set avg [expr $avg/double($currentLength)]
return $avg
}
Then, this adjusted version "getCurrentAvg" could be used elsewhere as follows

global currentList currentLength
set currentList "1.0 2.0 3.0" set
a [getCurrentAvg]
puts "List: $currentList Len: $currentLength Avg: $a"
A procedure can use global variables for persistent storage of information, including the
possibility to test whether the procedure has been called previously; this is useful for procedures
that might need to perform a one-time initialization. In these cases, a procedure will use a global
variable which is not set anywhere else. This means, the first time the procedure is called, the
global variable will not yet exist (recall that the "global" statement declares that a variable will be
accessed as a global variable, but it does not define or create the variableitself).
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The TCL command "info exists" will evaluate to true if the given variable exists. For example,
suppose we wanted to make a version of our procedure "getAvg" which keeps an internal count of
how many times it has been called. In this version, we use a global variable named
"callCount_getAvg" to keep track of the number of times "getAvg" is called. Because this global
variable will actually be used to store information for the specific use of the "getAvg" procedure,
we need to choose a global variable name which will not be used for a similar purpose in some
other procedure. The first time "getAvg" is called, the global variable does not yet exist, and must
be set tozero.
proc getAvg { rList } \
{
global callCount_getAvg
if {![info exists callCount_getAvg]} \
{
set callCount_getAvg 0
}
incr callCount_getAvg
puts "getAvg has been called $callCount_getAvg times" set
n [llength $rList]
if {!$n}
{return 0.0}
set avg 0.0 foreach r
$rList \
{
}
set avg [expr $avg/double($n)]
return $avg
}
A more flexible way to manipulate persistent data is to use global arrays rather than scalar
variables. For example, instead of the procedure-specific scalar variable "callCount_getAvg" used
above, we can use a general-purpose array "callCount()" which could be used to record the call
counts of any number of procedures, by using the procedure name as the array index. Many
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nmrWish TCL scripts use global arrays in this fashion, to simplify the sharingof many data
values between procedures. Here is a version of the "getAvg" procedure with the call count tallied
in a global array location … note that an array is declared global simply by listing its name in a
"global" command, exactly as for a scalar variable; no ( ) parenthesis or index values are used.
proc getAvg { rList } \

{
global callCount
if {![info exists callCount(getAvg)]} \

{
set callCount(getAvg) 0
}
incr callCount(getAvg)
puts "getAvg has been used $callCount(getAvg) times" set
n [llength $rList]
if {!$n} {return 0.0} set
avg 0.0
foreach r $rList \
{
}
return $avg
}
TCL Variable Scope and the upvar Command

We have already seen that TCL procedures can generate a return value as a way to pass
information back to their caller. And, we have also seen that global variables can be used to share
information between parts of a TCL script, and so these also serve as a mechanism for returning
information to a caller. TCL includes the "upvar" command as a method for a given procedure to
change the values of variables in the scope of its caller. This provides a way for a procedure to
provide additional information to the caller, besides by using the procedure's returnvalue.
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In the "upvar" scheme, a procedure's caller provides the names of one or more of its own
variables as arguments to the procedure. The procedure then uses the "upvar" command to map
these variables from the caller onto variables in the procedure. For example, here the caller passes
its variable name "count" as the first argument to procedure"getNAvg":
set count 0
set a [getNAvg count "1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0"]
Then, in this version of procedure "getNArg" the "upvar" command is used to map the first
argument value "$nPtr" onto the procedure's variable called "n" … this means that whenever the
procedure gets or changes the value of variable "n" it will actually be using the caller's variable
"count".
proc getNAvg { nPtr rList } \
{
upvar $nPtr n
set n [llength $rList] if
{!$n} {return 0.0} set
avg 0.0
foreach r $rList \
{
}
return $avg
}
Control Flow:In Tcl language there are several commands that are used to alter the flow of a
program. When a program is run, its commands are executed from the top of the source file to the
bottom. One by one. This flow can be altered by specific commands. Commands can be executed
multiple times. Some commands are conditional. They are executed only if a specific condition
ismet.
The ifcommand
The if command has the following general form:
if expr1 ?then? body1 elseif expr2 ?then? body2 elseif ... ?else? ?bodyN?
The if command is used to check if an expression is true. If it is true, a body of command(s) is
152
then executed. The body is enclosed by curly brackets.
The if command evaluates an expression. The expression must return a boolean value. In Tcl, 1, yes, true mean true
and 0, no, false mean false.
!/usr/bin/tclsh
if yes {
puts "This message is always shown"
}
In the above example, the body enclosed by { } characters is always executed.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
if true then {
puts "This message is always shown"
}
The then command is optional. We can use it if we think, it will make the code more clear. We
can use the else command to create a simple branch. If the expression inside the square brackets
following the if command evaluates to false, the command following the else
command is automaticallyexecuted.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set sex female
if {$sex == "male"}
{
puts "It is a boy"
} else
{
puts "It is a girl"
}
We have a sex variable. It has "female" string. The Boolean expression evaluates to false and we
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get "It is a girl" in the console.
$ ./girlboy.tcl
It is a girl
We can create multiple branches using the elseif command. The elseif command tests for another
condition, if and only if the previous condition was not met. Note that we can use multiple elseif
commands in our tests.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
# nums.tcl
puts -nonewline "Enter a number: "
flush stdout
set a [gets stdin]
if {$a < 0}
{
puts "the number is negative"
} elseif { $a == 0 }
{
puts "the numer is zero"
} else
{
puts "the number is positive"
}
In the above script we have a prompt to enter a value. We test the value if it is a negative number
or positive or if it equals to zero. If the first expression evaluates to false, the second expression is
evaluated. If the previous conditions were not met, then the body following the else commands
would beexecuted.
$ ./nums.tcl
Enter a number: 2
the number is positive
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$ ./nums.tcl
Enter a number: 0
the numer is zero
$ ./nums.tcl
Enter a number: -3
the number is negative
Running the example multiple times.
Switch command
The switch command matches its string argument against each of the pattern arguments in order.
As soon as it finds a pattern that matches the string it evaluates the following body argument by
passing it recursively to the Tcl interpreter and returns the result of that evaluation. If the last
pattern argument is default then it matches anything. If no pattern argument matches string and no
default is given, then the switch command returns an empty string.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
# switch_cmd.tcl
puts -nonewline "Select a top level domain name:"
flush stdout
gets stdin domain
switch $domain
{
us { puts "United States" }
de { puts Germany }
sk { puts Slovakia }
hu { puts Hungary }
default { puts "unknown" }
}
In our script, we prompt for a domain name. There are several options. If the value equals for
example to us the "United States" string is printed to the console. If the value does not match to
any given value, the default body is executed and unknown is printed to the console.
$ ./switch_cmd.tcl
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Select a top level domain name:sk
Slovakia
We have entered sk string to the console and the program responded with Slovakia.
While command: The while command is a control flow command that allows code to be executed
repeatedly based on a given Boolean condition. The while command executes the commands inside
the block enclosed by curly brackets. The commands are executed each time the expression is
evaluated to true.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
# whileloop.tcl
set i 0
set sum 0
while { $i < 10 }
{
incr i
incr sum $i
}
puts $sum
In the code example, we calculate the sum of values from a range of numbers. The while loop has
three parts: initialization, testing, and updating. Each execution of the command is called a cycle.
seti0
We initiate the i variable. It is used as acounter.
while { $i < 10 }
{
...
}
The expression inside the curly brackets following the while command is the second phase, the
testing. The commands in the body are executed, until the expression is evaluated tofalse.
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incri
The last, third phase of the while loop is the updating. The counter is incremented. Note that improper
handling of the while loops may lead to endless cycles.
FOR command:When the number of cycles is know before the loop is initiated, we can use the
for command. In this construct we declare a counter variable, which is automatically increased or
decreased in value during each repetition of the loop.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
for {set i 0} {$i < 10} {incr i}
{
puts $i
}
In this example, we print numbers 0..9 to the console.
for {set i 0} {$i < 10} {incr i}

{
puts $i
}
There are three phases. First, we initiate the counter i to zero. This phase is done only once. Next
comes the condition. If the condition is met, the command inside the for block is executed. Then
comes the third phase; the counter is increased. Now we repeat phases 2 and 3 until the condition is
not met and the for loop is left. In our case, when the counter i is equal to 10, the for loop
stopsexecuting.
$ ./forloop.tcl 0
1
2
3
4
5
157
6
7
8
9
Here we see the output of the forloop.tcl script.
The foreach command:The foreach command simplifies traversing over collections of data. It has
no explicit counter. It goes through a list element by element and the current value is copied to a
variable defined in the construct.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set planets { Mercury Venus Earth MarsJupiterSaturn Uranus Neptune }
foreach planet$planets
{
puts $planet
}
In this example, we use the foreach command to go through a list of planets.
foreach planet $planets

{
puts $planet
}
The usage of the foreach command is straightforward. The planets is the list that we iterate
through. The planet is the temporary variable that has the current value from the list. The for
each command goes through all the planets and prints them to the console.
$ ./planets.tcl
Mercury
Venus
Earth Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
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Running the above Tcl script gives this output.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set actresses { Rachel Weiss Scarlett Johansson Jessica Alba \
Marion Cotillard Jennifer Connelly}
foreach {first second} $actresses
{
puts "$first $second"
}
In this script, we iterate througn pairs of values of a list.
foreach {first second} $actresses

{
puts "$first $second"
}
We pick two values from the list at each iteration.
$ ./actresses.tcl
Rachel Weiss Scarlett
Johansson Jessica
Alba Marion
Cotillard Jennifer
Connelly
This is the output of actresses tcl script
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
foreach i { one two three } item {car coins rocks}
{
puts "$i $item"
}
159
We can iterate over two lists in parallel.
$ ./parallel.tcl
one car
two coins
three rocks
This is the output of the parallel.tcl script.
The break and continue commands: The break command can be used to terminate a block
defined by while, for, or switch commands.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
while true
{
set r [expr 1 + round(rand()*30)]
puts -nonewline "$r "
if {$r == 22} { break }
}
puts ""
We define an endless while loop. We use the break command to get out of this loop. We choose a
random value from 1 to 30 and print it. If the value equals to 22, we finish the endless whileloop.
set r [expr 1 +round(rand()*30)]
Here we calculate a random number between 1..30. The rand() is a built-in Tcl procedure. It returns
a random number from 0 to 0.99999. The rand()*30 returns a random number between 0 to
29.99999. The round() procedure rounds the final number.$ ./breakcommand.tcl 28 20 8 8 12 22
.We might get something like this.The continue command is used to skip a part of the loop and
continue with the next iteration of the loop. It can be used in combination with for and
while commands. In the following example, we will print a list of numbers that cannot be divided
by 2 without aremainder.
160
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set num 0
while { $num < 100 }
{
incr num
if {$num % 2 == 0} { continue }
puts "$num "
}
puts ""
We iterate through numbers 1..99 with the while loop.
if {$num % 2 == 0} { continue}
If the expression num % 2 returns 0, the number in question can be divided by 2. The continue
command is executed and the rest of the cycle is skipped. In our case, the last command of the loop
is skipped and the number is not printed to the console. The next iteration is started.
Data Structures
The list is the basic Tcl data structure. A list is simply an ordered collection of stuff; numbers,
words, strings, or other lists. Even commands in Tcl are just lists in which the first list entry is the
name of a proc, and subsequent members of the list are the arguments to the proc. Lists can be
created in several way by setting a variable to be a list of values set lst {{item 1} {item 2}
{item 3}} with the split command set lst [split "item 1.item 2.item 3" "."] with the
list command. set lst [list "item 1" "item 2" "item 3"] An individual list member can be accessed
with the index command. The brief description of these commandsis
list ?arg1? ?arg2? ... ?argN?
makes a list of the arguments split
string ?splitChars?
Splits the string into a list of items wherever thesplitCharsoccur in the
161
code. SplitChars defaults to being whitespace. Note that if there are two or more
splitChars then each one will be used individually to split the string. In other words: split
"1234567" "36" would return the following list: {12 45 7}.lindex listindex
Returns the index'th item from the list.
Note: lists start from 0, not 1, so the first item is at index 0, the second item is at index 1, and so
on.llength list.Returns the number of elements in a list.The items in list can be iterated through
using the foreach command.foreach varname list body The foreach command will execute the
body code one time for each list item in list. On each pass, varname will contain the value of the
next list item.In reality, the above form of foreach is the simple form, but the command is quite
powerful. It will allow you to take more than one variable at a time from the list: foreach
{a b} $listofpairs { ... }. You can even take a variable at a time from multiple lists! For xample:
foreach a $listOfA b $listOfB { ...}
Examples
set x "a b c"

puts "Item at index 2 of the list {$x} is: [lindex $x 2]\n"
set y [split 7/4/1776 "/"]
puts "We celebrate on the [lindex $y 1]'th day of the [lindex $y 0]'th month\n"
set z [list puts "arg 2 is $y" ]
puts "A command resembles: $z\n"
set i 0
foreach j $x
{
puts "$j is item number $i in list x"
incr i
}
Adding and deleting members of a list
The commands for adding and deleting list members are

concat ?arg1 arg2 ... argn?
162
Concatenates the args into a single list. It also eliminates leading and trailing spaces in the args and adds a
single separator space between args. The argsto concat may be either individualelements,orlists.Ifanarg
isalreadyalist,thecontentsofthatlistisconcatenated with the other args.
lappendlist Name?arg1 arg2 ... argn?Appends the args to the list listName treating
each arg as a list element.
linsert list Name index arg1 ?arg2 ... argn?Returns a new list with the new list elements inserted
just before the index th element of listName. Each element argument will become a separate
element of the new list. If index is less than or equal to zero, then the new elements are inserted at
the beginning of the list. If index has the value end , or if it is greater than or equal to the number
of elements in the list, then the new elements are appended to the list. lreplacelist Name first
last?arg1 ... argn?Returns a new list with N elements of
listName replaced by the args. If first is less than or equal to 0, lreplace starts replacing from the
first element of the list.If first is greater than the end of the list, or the word end, then lreplace
behaves like lappend. If there are fewer args than the number of positions between first and
last, then the positions for which there are no args aredeleted.
lset varName index newValue
The lset command can be used to set elements of a list directly, instead of using lreplace. Lists in
Tcl are the right data structure to use when you have an arbitrary number of things, and you'd like
to access them according to their order in the list. In C, you would use an array. In Tcl, arrays are
associated arrays - hash tables, as you'll see in the coming sections. If you want to have a
collection of things, and refer to the Nth thing (give me the 10th element in this group of
numbers), or go through them in order via foreach. Take a look at the example code, and pay
special attention to the way that sets of characters are grouped into single list elements.
Example
set b [list a b {c d e} {f {g h}}]

puts "Treated as a list: $b\n"
set b [split "a b {c d e} {f {g h}}"]
puts "Transformed by split: $b\n"
set a [concat a b {c d e} {f {g h}}]
puts "Concated: $a\n"
lappend a {ijKlm} ;
# Note: {ij K lm} is a single element
puts "After lappending:$a\n" 163
set b [linsert $a 3 "1 2 3"] ;
# "1 2 3" is a single element
puts "After linsert at position 3: $b\n"
set b [lreplace $b 3 5 "AA" "BB"]
puts "After lreplacing 3 positions with 2 values at position 3: $b\n"
More list commands - lsearch, lsort, lrange
Lists can be searched with the lsearch command, sorted with the lsort command, and a range of list
entries can be extracted with the lrange command.
lsearch list pattern

Searches list for an entry that matches pattern, and returns the index for the first match, or a -1 if
there is no match. By default, lsearch uses "glob" patterns for matching. See the section
onglobbing.
lsort list
Sorts list and returns a new list in the sorted order. By default, it sorts the list into alphabetic
order. Note that this command returns the sorted list as a result, instead of sorting the list in place.
If you have a list in a variable, the way to sort it is like so: set lst [lsort $lst] lrange list
firstlast
Returns a list composed of the first through last entries in the list. If first is less than or equal to 0, it
is treated as the first list element. If last is end or a value greater than the number of elements in
the list, it is treated as the end. If first is greater than last then an empty list is returned.
Example
set list [list {Washington 1789} {Adams 1797} {Jefferson 1801} \

{Madison 1809} {Monroe 1817} {Adams 1825} ]
set x [lsearch $list Washington*]
set y [lsearch $list Madison*]
incr x
incry-1 ;# Set range to benot-inclusive
164
set subsetlist [lrange $list $x $y]
puts "The following presidents served between Washington and Madison"
foreach item $subsetlist {
puts "Starting in [lindex $item 1]: President [lindex $item 0] "
}
set x [lsearch $list Madison*]
set srtlist [lsort $list]
set y [lsearch $srtlist Madison*]
puts "\n$x Presidents came before Madison chronologically"
puts "$y Presidents came before Madison alphabetically"
Input / Output
Tcl uses objects called channels to read and write data. The channels can be created using the
open or socket command. There are three standard channels available to Tcl scripts without
explicitly creating them. They are automatically opened by the OS for each new application. They
are stdin, stdout and stderr. The standard input, stdin, is used by the scripts to read data. The
standard output, stdout, is used by scripts to write data. The standard error, stderr, is used by
scripts to write error messages.In the first example, we will work with the puts command. It has
the followingsynopsis:
puts ?-nonewline? ?channelId? string
The channelId is the channel where we want to write text. The channelId is optional. If not
specified, the default stdout is assumed.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
puts "Message 1"
puts stdout "Message 2"
puts stderr "Message 3"
The puts command writes text to the channel.
puts "Message 1"
puts stdout "Message 2"
165
puts stderr "Message 3"
If we do not specify the channelId, we write to stdout by default. This line does the same thing
as the previous one. We only have explicitly specified the channelId.
We write to the standard error channel. The error messages go to the terminal by default.
$ ./printing.tcl
Message1
Message2
Message 3 Example
output.
The read command: The read command is used to read data from a channel. The optional
argument specifies the number of characters to read. If omitted, the command reads all of the data
from the channel up to the end.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set c [read stdin 1]
while {$c !="q"}
{
puts -nonewline "$c"
}
The script reads a character from the standard input channel and then writes it to the standard
output until it encounters the q character.
We read one character from the standard input channel (stdin).
while {$c !="q"}{
We continue reading characters until the q ispressed.
166
The gets command
The gets command reads the next line from the channel, returns everything in the line up to(but
not including) the end-of-line character.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
puts -nonewline "Enter your name: "
flush stdout
set name [gets stdin]
puts "Hello $name"
The script asks for input from the user and then prints a message. The puts command is used to
print messages to the terminal. The -no newline option suppresses the new line character. Tcl
buffers output internally, so characters written with puts may not appear immediately on the output
file or device. The flush command forces the output to appear immediately.
puts -no newline "Enter your name: "

flush stdout
set name [gets stdin]
The gets command reads a line from a channel.
$ ./hello.tcl
Enter your name: Jan
Hello Jan
Sample output of the script.
The pwd and cd commands
Tcl has pwd and cd commands, similar to shell commands. The pwd command returns the current
working directory and the cd command is used to change the working directory.
167
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set dir [pwd]
puts $dir
cd ..
set dir [pwd]
puts $dir
In this script, we will print the current working directory. Then we change the working directory and print the
working directory again.
set dir [pwd]
The pwd command returns the current working directory. cd ..
We change the working directory to the parent of the current directory. We use the
cdcommand.
$ ./cwd.tcl
/home/janbodnar/prog/tcl/io
/home/janbodnar/prog/tcl
Sample output.
The glob command
Tcl has a glob command which returns the names of the files that match a pattern.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set files [glob *.tcl]
foreach file $files
{
puts $file
}
The script prints all files with the .tcl extension to the console. The glob command returns a list of
files that match the *.tcl pattern.
168
set files [glob *.tcl]
foreach file $files
{
puts $file
}
We go through the list of files and print each item of the list to the console.
$ ./globcmd.tcl
attributes.tcl
169
allfiles.tcl
printing.tcl
hello.tcl read.tcl
files.tcl
globcmd.tcl
write2file.tcl
cwd.tcl readfile.tcl
isfile.tcl
addnumbers.tcl
This is a sample output of the globcmd.tcl script.
Procedures
A procedure is a code block containing a series of commands. Procedures are called functions in
many programming languages. It is a good programming practice for procedures to do only one
specific task. Procedures bring modularity to programs. The proper use of procedures brings the
following advantages
• Reducing duplication ofcode

• Decomposing complex problems into simplerpieces
• Improving clarity of thecode
• Reuse ofcode
• Informationhiding
There are two basic types of procedures: built-in procedures and user defined ones. The built- in
procedures are part of the Tcl core language. For instance, the rand(), sin() and exp() are built-in
procedures. The user defined procedures are procedures created with the proc
keyword.The proc keyword is used to create new Tcl commands. The term procedures and
commands are often used interchangeably. We start with a simpleexample.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc tclver {}
{
170
set v [info tclversion]
puts "This is Tcl version $v"
}
tclver
Inthis script, we createa simple tclver procedure. The procedure prints the version of Tcl
language. proc tclver {}
{
The new procedure is created with the proc command. The {} characters reveal that the
procedure takes no arguments.
{
set v [info tclversion]
puts "This is Tcl version $v"
}
tclver
This is the body of the tclver procedure. It is executed when we execute the tclver command. The
body of the command lies between the curly brackets.The procedure is called by specifying its
name.
$ ./version.tcl
This is Tcl version 8.6
Sample output.
Procedure arguments: An argument is a value passed to the procedure. Procedures can take one
or more arguments. If procedures work with data, we must pass the data to the procedures. In the
following example, we have a procedure which takes oneargument.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc ftc {f}
{
return [expr $f * 9 / 5 + 32]
}
171
puts [ftc 100]
puts [ftc 0]
puts [ftc 30]
We create a ftc procedure which transforms Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius temperature. The
procedure takes one parameter. Its name f will be used in the body of the procedure.
proc ftc {f} {

return [expr $f * 9 / 5 + 32]
puts [ftc 100]
We compute the value of the Celsius temperature. The return command returns the value to the
caller. If the procedure does not execute an explicit return, then its return value is the value of the
last command executed in the procedure's body.The ftc procedure is executed. It takes 100 as a
parameter. It is the temperature in Fahrenheit. The returned value is used by the puts
command, which prints it to the console. Output of theexample.
$ ./fahrenheit.tcl
212
32
86
Next we will have a procedure which takes two arguments.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc maximum {x y}
{
if {$x > $y}
{
return $x
}
else
{
172
return $y
}
}
set a23
set b32
set val [maximum $a $b]
puts "The max of $a, $b is $val"
The maximum procedure returns the maximum of two values. The method takes two arguments.
proc maximum {x y}
{
if {$x > $y}
{
return $x
}
else
{
return $y
}
Here we compute which number is greater. We define two variables which are to be compared.
set a23
set b32
set val [maximum $a $b]
We calculate the maximum of the two variables. This is the output of the maximum.tcl script.
$ ./maximum.tcl
The max of 23, 32 is 32
Variable number of arguments A procedure can take and process variable number of
arguments. For this we use the special arguments and parameter.
173
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc sum {args} {
set s 0
foreach arg $args {
incr s $arg
}
return $s
}
puts [sum 1 2 3 4]
puts [sum 1 2]
puts [sum 4]
We define a sum procedure which adds up all its arguments. The sum procedure has a special
args argument. It has a list of all values passed to the procedure.
proc sum {args}

{
foreach arg $args
{
incr s $arg
}
We go through the list and calculate the sum.
puts [sum 1 2 3 4]
puts [sum 1 2]
puts [sum 4]
We call the sum procedure three times. In the first case, it takes 4 arguments, in the second case 2,
in the last case one. Output of the variable tcl script
174
$ ./variable.tcl
10
4.Implicit arguments
The arguments in Tcl procedures may have implicit values. An implicit value is used if no
explicit value is provided.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc power {a {b 2}}
{
if {$b == 2}
{
return [expr $a * $a]
}
set value 1
for {set i 0} {$i<$b} {incr i}
{
set value [expr $value * $a]
}
return $value
}
set v1 [power 5]
set v2 [power 5 4]
puts "5^2 is $v1"
puts "5^4 is $v2"
Here we create a power procedure. The procedure has one argument with an implicit value. We can
call the procedure with one and two arguments.
proc power {a {b 2}} {

set v1 [power 5]
set v2 [power 5 4]
175
The second argument b, has an implicit value 2. If we provide only one argument, the power
procedure then returns the value of a to the power 2.We call the power procedure with one and two
arguments. The first line computes the value of 5 to the power 2. The second line value of 5 to the
power 4. Output of the example.
$ ./implicit.tcl
5^2 is 25
5^4 is 625
Returning multiple values
The return command passes one value to the caller. There is often a need to return multiple values.
In such cases, we can return a list.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc tworandoms {}
{
set r1 [expr round(rand()*10)]
return [list $r1 $r2]
}
puts [two randoms]
puts [two randoms]
puts [two randoms]
puts [two randoms]
We have a two randoms procedure. It returns two random integers between 1 and 10. A random integer
is computed and set to the r1 variable.

return [list $r1 $r2]
Two values are returned with the help of the list command. A sample output.
176
$ ./tworandoms.tcl
37
13
87
99
Recursion
Recursion, in mathematics and computer science, is a way of defining functions in which the
function being defined is applied within its own definition. In other words, a recursive function calls
itself to do its job. Recursion is a widely used approach to solve many programming tasks.
Recursion is the fundamental approach in functional languages like Scheme, OCalm, or Clojure.
Recursion calls have a limit in Tcl. There cannot be more than 1000 recursion calls. A typical
example of recursion is the calculation of a factorial. Factorial n! is the product of all positive
integers less than or equal to n.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc factorial n
{
if {$n==0}
{
return 1
}
else
{
return [expr $n * [factorial [expr $n - 1]]]
}
}
# Stack limit between 800 and 1000 levels
puts [factorial 4]
puts [factorial10]
puts [factorial18]
177
In this code example, we calculate the factorial of three numbers.
return [expr $n * [factorial [expr $n -1]]]
Inside the body of the factorial procedure, we call the factorial procedure with a modified
argument. The procedure calls itself.
$ ./recursion.tcl 24
3628800
6402373705728000
These are the results. If we tried to compute the factorial of 100, we would receive "too many
nested evaluations" error.
Scope
A variable declared inside a procedure has a procedure scope. The scope of a name is the region of
a program text within which it is possible to refer to the entity declared by the name without
qualification of the name. A variable which is declared inside a procedure has a procedure scope; it
is also called a local scope. The variable is then valid only in this particularprocedure.
178
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc test {}
{
puts "inside procedure"
#puts "x is $x"
set x 4
puts "x is $x"
}
set x 1
puts "outside procedure"
puts "x is $x"
test
puts "x is $x"
In the preceding example, we have an x variable defined outside and inside of the test procedure.
Inside the test procedure, we define an x variable. The variable has local scope, valid only inside
thisprocedure.
179
set x 4
puts "x is $x"
set x1
puts "x is $x"
We define an x variable outside the procedure. It has a global scope. The variables do not conflict
because they have different scopes.
$ ./scope.tcl outside
procedure x is1
inside procedure x
is4
outside procedure x
is1
It is possible to change the global variable inside a procedure.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc test {}
{
upvar x y
puts "inside procedure"
puts "y is $y"
set y 4
puts "y is $y"
}
set x 1
puts "x is $x"
test
puts "x is $x"
180
We define a global x variable. We change the variable inside the test procedure. We refer to the global
x variable by the name y with the upvar command.
upvar x y
set y 4
We assign a value to the local y variable and also change the value of the global x variable.
$ ./scope2.tcl outside
procedure x is1
inside procedure y
is1
y is4
outside procedure x
is4
From the output we can see the test procedure has changed the x variable. With the
global command, we can refer to global variables fromprocedures.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
proc test {}
{
global x
puts "inside test procedure x is $x"
proc nested {}
{
global x
puts "inside nested x is $x"
}
}
set x 1
test
nested
181
puts "outside x is $x"
In the above example, we have a test procedure and a nested procedure defined within the test
procedure. We refer to the global x variable from both procedures.
global x
puts "inside test procedure x is $x"
With the global command, we refer to the global x variable, defined outside the test procedure.
proc nested {}
{
global x
puts "inside nested x is $x"
}
It is possible to create nested procedures. These are procedures defined inside other procedures. We
refer to the global x variable with the global command.
test
nested
We call the test procedure and its nested procedure.
$./scope3.tcl
inside test procedure x is 1
inside nested x is 1 outside x
is1
Strings patterns
Files
The file command manipulates file names and attributes. It has plenty of options.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
puts [file volumes]

[file mkdir new]
182
The script prints the system's mounted values and creates a new directory. The file volumes
command returns the absolute paths to the volumes mounted on thesystem.
puts [file volumes]

[file mkdir new]
The file mkdir creates a directory called new.
$ ./voldir.tcl
/
$ ls -d */
doc/ new/tmp/
On a Linux system, there is one mounted volume—the root directory. The ls command confirms the
creation of the new directory.In the following code example, we are going to check if a file name is
a regular file or a directory.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set files [glob *]
foreach fl $files
{
if {[file isfile $fl]}
{
puts "$fl is a file"
}
elseif
{ [file isdirectory $fl]}
{
puts "$fl is a directory"
}
}
We go through all file names in the current working directory and print whether it is a file or a
183
directory.
Using the glob command we create a list of file and directory names of a current directory. We execute the body of the if
command if the file name in question is a file.
set files [glob *]

if {[file isfile $fl]}
{
} elseif { [file isdirectory $fl]} {
The file is directory command determines, whether a file name is a directory. Note that on Unix, a
directory is a special case of a file. The puts command can be used to write tofiles.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set fp [open days w]
set days {Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday}
puts $fp $days
close $fp
In the script, we open a file for writing. We write days of a week to a file. We open a file named
days for writing. The open command returns a channel id. This data is going to be written to the file.
We used the channel id returned by the open command to write to the file.
set fp [open days w]

set days {Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday}
puts $fp $days
close $fp
We close the opened channel.
$ ./write2file.tcl
$ cat days
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
We run the script and check the contents of the days file. In the following script, we are going to
184
read data from a file.
$ cat languages Python

Tcl
Visual Basic
Perl
Java C
C#
Ruby
Scheme
We have a simple file called languages in a directory.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set fp [open languages r]
set data [read $fp]
puts -nonewline $data
close $fp
We read data from the supplied file, read its contents and print the data to the terminal. We create
a channel by opening the languages file in a read-only mode. If we do not provide a second
parameter to the read command, it reads all data from the file until the end of the file.
set fp [open languages r]

set data [read $fp]
puts -nonewline $data
We print the data to the console.
$ ./readfile.tcl
Python
Tcl
Visual Basic
Perl
185
Java C
C#
Ruby
Scheme
Sample run of the readfile.tcl script.
The eof command checks for end-of-line of a supplied channel.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set fp [open languages]
while {![eof $fp]}
{
puts [gets $fp]
}
close $fp
We use the eof command to read the contents of a file.
while {![eof $fp]}

{
puts [gets $fp]
}
The loop continues until the eof returns true if it encounters the end of a file. Inside the body, we
use the gets command to read a line from the file.
$ ./readfile2.tcl
Python
Tcl
Visual Basic
Perl
Java C
C#
186
Ruby
Scheme
Sample run of the readfile2.tcl script.The next script performs some additional file operations.
#!/usr/bin/tclsh
set fp [open newfile w]
puts $fp "this is new file"
flush $fp
file copy newfile newfile2
file delete newfile
close $fp
We open a file and write some text to it. The file is copied. The original file is then deleted.
The file copy command copies a file.
file copy newfile newfile2

file delete newfile
The original file is deleted with the file delete command. In the final example, we will work
with file attributes.
#!/usr
/bin/t
clsh
set
files
[glob
*] set
mx 0
forea
ch
fl$fil
es 187
{
puts [format $fstr Name Size]
set fstr "%-$mx\s %d bytes"

foreach fl $files
{
set size [file size $fl]
puts [format $fstr $fl $size]
}
The script creates two columns. In the first column, we have the name of the file. In the second
column, we display the size of thefile.
foreach fl $files
{
set len [string length $fl]
if { $len > $mx}
{
set mx $len
}
}
set fstr "%-$mx\s %-s"

puts [format $fstr Name Size]
In this loop, we find out the most lengthy file name. This will be used when formatting the
output columns.Here we print the headers of the columns. To format the data, we use the format
command.
set fstr "%-$mx\s

%d bytes" foreach
188
fl $files
{
set size [file size $fl]
puts [format $fstr $fl $size]
}
We go through the list of files and print each file name and its size. The file size command
determines the size of the file.
$ ./attributes.tcl
Name Size
attributes.tcl 337 bytes
newfile2 17 bytes
allfiles.tcl 75 bytes
printing.tcl 83 bytes
languages 51 bytes
hello.tcl 109bytes
days 57 bytes
read.tcl 113 bytes
files.tcl 140bytes
globcmd.tcl 82bytes
write2file.tcl 134bytes
doc 4096bytes
cwd.tcl 76bytes
tmp 4096bytes
readfile.tcl 98 bytes
isfile.tcl 219byte
Eval
One difference between Tcl and most other compilers is that Tcl will allow an executing program
to create new commands and execute them while running. A tcl command is defined as a list of
strings in which the first string is a command or proc. Any string or list which meets this criteria
can be evaluated and executed. The eval command will evaluate a list of strings as though they
were commands typed at the % prompt or sourced from a file. The eval command normally
returns the final value of the commands being evaluated.If the
189
commands being evaluated throw an error (for example, if there is a syntax error in one of the
strings), then eval will will throw an error.Note that either concat or list may be used to create the
command string, but that these two commands will create slightly different command strings.
eval arg1 ??arg2?? ... ??argn??
Evaluates arg1 - argn as one or more Tcl commands. The args are concatenated into a
string, and passed to tcl_Eval to evaluate and execute.
Eval returns the result (or error code) of that evaluation.
Example
set cmd {puts "Evaluating a puts"}
puts "CMD IS: $cmd"
eval $cmd
if {[string match [info procs newProcA] ""] } {
puts "\nDefining newProcA for this invocation"
set num 0;
set cmd "proc newProcA "
set cmd [concat $cmd "{} {\n"]
set cmd [concat $cmd "global num;\n"]
set cmd [concat $cmd "incr num;\n"]
set cmd [concat $cmd " return \"/tmp/TMP.[pid].\$num\";\n"]
set cmd [concat $cmd "}"]
eval$cmd
puts "\nThe body of newProcA is: \n[info body newProcA]\n"
puts "newProcA returns: [newProcA]"
190
puts "newProcA returns: [newProcA]"
# Define a proc using lists
if {[string match [info procs newProcB] ""] } {
puts "\nDefining newProcB for this invocation"
set cmd "proc newProcB "
lappend cmd {}
lappend cmd {global num; incr num; return $num;}
eval$cmd
puts "\nThe body of newProcB is: \n[info body newProcB]\n"
puts "newProcB returns: [newProcB]"
Source
This command takes the contents of the specified file or resource and passes it to the Tcl
interpreter as a text script. The return value from source is the return value of the last
command executed in the script. If an error occurs in evaluating the contents of the script
then the source command will return that error. If a return command is invoked from
within the script then the remainder of the file will be skipped and the source command
will return normally with the result from the return command.
The -rsrc and -rsrcid forms of this command are only available on Macintosh computers.
These versions of the command allow you to source a script from a TEXT resource. You
may specify what TEXT resource to source by either name or id. By default Tcl searches
191
all open resource files, which include the current application and any loaded C extensions.
Alternatively, you may specify the fileName where the TEXT resource can be found.
source fileName
source -rsrc resourceName ?fileName?
source -rsrcid resourceId ?fileName?

Tk
Wish - the windowing shell, is a simple scripting interface to the Tcl/Tk language. The language
Tcl (Tool Command Language) is an interpreted scripting language, with useful inter-
application communication methOds, and is pronounced ’tickle’. Tk originally was an X-
window toolkit implemented as extensions to ’tcl’. However, now it is available native on all
platforms.The program xspin is an example of a portable program in which the entire user
interface is written in wish. The program also runs on PCs using NT or Win95, and as well on
Macintoshes.
A first use of wish could be the following

manu> wish
wish> button .quit -text "Hello World!" -command {exit}
.quit
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wish> pack .quit wish>
You can encapsulate this in a script:
CODELISTING HelloWorld.tcl
#!/usr/local/bin/wish8.1 −f
button .quit −text "Hello World!" −command {exit}

pack .quit
If you create this as a file, and make it executable, you should be able to run this simple
graphical program.
Structure of Tcl/Tk
The Tcl language has a tiny syntax - there is only a single command structure, and a set of
rules to determine how to interpret the commands. Other languages have special syntaxes for
control structures (if, while, repeat...) - not so in Tcl. All such structures are implemented as
commands.
There is a runtime library of compiled ’C’ routines, and the ’level’ of the GUI interface is quite
high.
Comments: If the first character of a command is #, it is a comment
Tcl commands: Tcl commands are just words separated by spaces. Commands return strings,
and arguments are just further words.
command argument argument
command argument
Spaces are important
expr5*3 has a single
193
argument expr 5*3 has three
arguments
Tcl commands are separated by a new line, or a semicolon, and arrays are indexed by text
set a(a\ text\ index) 4 Tcl/Tk quoting rules

The "quoting" rules come in to play when the " or { character are first in the word. ".." disables
a few of the special characters - for example space, tab, newline and semicolon, and {..}
disables everything except \{, \} and \nl. This facility is particularly useful for the control
structures - they end up looking very like ’C’
While
{a==10}
{ set b [tst a]
}
Tcl/Tk substitution rules
Variable substitution: The dollar sign performs the variable value substitution. Tcl variables are
strings.
seta 12b a will be"12b"
setb 12$a b will be
"1212b"
Command substitution: The []’s are replaced by the value returned by executing the Tcl
command ’doit’.
set a [doit param1 param2]
Backslash substitution:
set a a\ string\ with\ spaces\ \ and\ a\
new\ line
Tcl/Tk command examples:
Procedures FileAccess Miscellaneous

source<NameOfFile>
proc name{parameters}{body} open<name>
read <fileID> close global <varname>
<fileID> catch<command>
cd<directoryname> format <formatstring><value>

exec<process>
return<value>
194
split <string> ?splitcharacters?
List operators
concat <list><list>
lindex <list><index>
... + lots more
Control structures
if {test} {thenpart} {elsepart}1while {test} {body} for {init}
{test} {incr} {body}
continue
case $x in a {a-part} b {b-part}

1The Tcl/Tk words then and else are noise words, which may be used to increase
readability.
Widget creation commands

The first parameter to each is a ’dotted’ name. The dot hierarchy indicates the relationships
between the widgets.
%label <name> - optional parameter pairs ...
Tcl/Tk example software

Here is a very small Tcl/Tk application, which displays the date in a scrollable window:
195
The code for this is
CODELISTING SimpleProg.tcl
#!/usr/local/bin/wish8.1 −f
text .log −width 60 −height 5 −bd 2 −relief raised

pack .log
button .buttonquit −text "Quit" −command exit
pack .buttonquit
button .buttondate −text "date" −command
getdate pack .buttondate
proc getdate {} {
set result [exec date]
.log insert end $result
.log insert end \n
}
Here is tkpaint - a drawing/painting program written in Tcl/Tk
The mainline of the source just creates the buttons, and packs the frame: Routines for dragging,
CODELISTING tkpaint1.tcl
#! /usr/local/bin/wish −f
set thistool rectangle

set thisop grow
set thiscolour black
button.exitbtn −bitmap@exit.xbm
−commandexit
button .squarebtn−bitmap@square.xbm −command setsquaretool
button .circlebtn−bitmap@circle.xbm −command setcircletool
button .shrnkbtn−bitmap@shrink.xbm −command "set thisop shrnk"
button.growbtn −bitmap@grow.xbm −command "set thisop grow"
button .printbtn−bitmap@print.xbm −command printit
button .colorbtn −bitmap @newcolour.xbm −commandsetanewcolour
canvas .net −width 400 −height 400 −background white −relief sunken
canvas .status −width 40 −height 40 −background white −relief sunken
pack .net −side bottom

pack .status −side right
pack .squarebtn .circlebtn −side left −ipadx 1m −ipady 1m −expand 1
pack .exitbtn .printbtn −side right −ipadx 1m −ipady 1m −expand 1
pack .colorbtn .shrnkbtn .growbtn −side right −ipadx 1m −ipady 1m −expand 1
bind .net <ButtonPress−1> {makenode %x %y}
.status create rectangle 10 10 37 37 −tag statusthingy −fill $thiscolour
set nodes 0; set oldx 0; set oldy 0;
196
scaling and printing
Node operations for tkpaint
proc makenode {x y} {
global nodes oldx oldy thistool thiscolor
set nodes [expr "$nodes+1"]
set x1 [expr "$x−20"]; set y1 [expr "$y−20"]
set x2 [expr "$x+20"]; set y2 [expr "$y+20"] if
{[string compare $thistool "oval"] == 0} {
.net create oval $x1 $y1 $x2 $y2 −tag node$nodes −fill $thiscolor
}
if {[string compare $thistool "rectangle"] == 0} {
.net create rectangle $x1 $y1 $x2 $y2 −tag node$nodes −fill $thiscolor
}
.net bind node$nodes <Enter> ".net itemconfigure node$nodes −width5"
.net bind node$nodes <Leave> ".net itemconfigure node$nodes −width1"
.net bind node$nodes <ButtonPress−3> "beginmove %x %y"
.net bind node$nodes <B3−Motion> "domove node$nodes %x %y"
.net bind node$nodes <ButtonPress−2> "dothisop node$nodes %x %y"
}
proc dothisop {item x y} {
global thisop
if {[string compare $thisop "shrink"] == 0} {
altersize $item $x $y0.5
}
if {[string compare $thisop "grow"] == 0} {
altersize $item $x $y2.0
}
}
More routines
proc setcircletool {} {
global thistool
thiscolor set
thistooloval
.status delete statusthingy
.status create oval 10 10 37 37 −tag statusthingy −fill $thiscolor
}
proc setsquaretool {} {
global thistool
thiscolor set
thistoolrectangle
.status delete statusthingy
.status create rectangle 10 10 37 37 −tag statusthingy −fill $thiscolor
}
proc setanewcolor {} {
global thiscolor
if {[string compare $thiscolor "black"] == 0} {
set thiscolor green
} { if {[string compare $thiscolor "green"] == 0} {
set thiscolor blue
} { if {[string compare $thiscolor "blue"] == 0} {
set thiscolor red
} { if {[string compare $thiscolor "red"] == 0} {
set thiscolor orange
} { set thiscolor black }
}
}
}
.status itemconfigure statusthingy −fill $thiscolor
}{
197
gcc -o CplusTclTk CplusTclTk.c -mwindows -ltcl80 -ltk80
On a UNIX system we use:
gcc -o CplusTclTk CplusTclTk.c -ltk -ltcl -lX11 -lm -ldl
And the result is a simple viewer for GIF images. The total code size is 57 lines. The
application looks like this when running .This section includes some extra material related to
the use of Tcl/Tk for developing GUI applications. In particular - constructing menu items,
using the Tk Canvas and structured data items. There are pointers to some supplied reference
material. Note the following points related to trying out Tcl/Tk:If you are using cygwin-b20,
the wish interpreter is called cygwish80.exe. This file is found in the directory /cygnus/cygwin-
b20/H-i586- cygwin32/cygwish80.exe. Make a copy of this file in the same directory, and call
it wish8.0.exe for compatibility with UNIX Tcl/Tk scripts.In the first line of your tcl files, you
shouldput#!wish8.0Ifyoudownloadthefile~cs3283/ftp/demos.tarandextractitinto
/cygnus, you will have a series of Tcl/Tk widget examples in /cygnus/Demos. Change into the
directory
/cygnus/Demos, and type ./widget.
There is a Tcl/Tk tutor, and many learn-to-program-Tcl/Tk documents available at many sites
on the Internet - if you continue to have trouble, you may wish to try them.
There is no substitute for just trying to program - set yourself a small goal, and discover
how to do it in Tcl/Tk.
Tcl/Tk menus
The menu strategy is fairly simple

1. Make up a frame for the menu
2. Add in the top level menu items
3. For each top level item, add in the drop-menu items
4. For each nested item, add in any cascaded menus.
198
5. Remember to pack it.
As an example, the following code creates a fairly conventional application with menus, a
help dialog, and cascaded menu items.
CODELISTING Menus.tcl
#!/usr/bin/wish
frame .mbar −relief raised −bd 2

pack .mbar −side top −fill x
frame .dummy −width 10c −height 100

pack .dummy
menubutton .mbar.file −text File −underline 0 −menu .mbar.file.menu

menu .mbar.file.menu −tearoff 0
.mbar.file.menu add command −label "New..." −command "newcommand"
.mbar.file.menu add command −label "Open..." −command "opencommand"
.mbar.file.menu add separator
.mbar.file.menu add command −label Quit −command exit
pack .mbar.file −side left
menubutton .mbar.edit −text Edit −underline 0 −menu .mbar.edit.menu
menu .mbar.edit.menu −tearoff 1
.mbar.edit.menu add command −label "Undo..." −command "undocommand"
.mbar.edit.menu add separator
.mbar.edit.menu add cascade −label Preferences −menu .mbar.edit.menu.prefs
menu .mbar.edit.menu.prefs −tearoff 0
.mbar.edit.menu.prefs add command −label "Load default" −command "defaultprefs"
.mbar.edit.menu.prefs add command −label "Revert" −command
"revertprefs" pack .mbar.edit −side left
menubutton .mbar.help −text Help −underline 0 −menu .mbar.help.menu

menu .mbar.help.menu −tearoff 0
.mbar.help.menu add command −label "About ThisApp..." −command "aboutcommand"
pack .mbar.help −side right
proc aboutcommand {} {
tk_dialog .win {About this program} "Hugh wrote it!" {} 0 OK
}
Tk canvas
The Tk canvas widget allows you to draw items on a pane of the application. Items may be
tagged when created, and then these tagged items may be bound to events, which may be used to
manipulate the items at a later stage.This process is described in detail in Robert Biddle’s “Using
the Tk Canvas Facility”, a copy of which is found at ~cs3283/ftp/CS-TR-94- 5.pdf.Note also the
use of dynamically created variable names(node$nodes).
199
UNIT-5
Introduction to Python:
Python is a powerful modern computer programming language. It bears some similarities to

Fortran, one of the earliest programming languages, but it is much more powerful than Fortran.
Python allows you to use variables without declaring them (i.e., it determines types implicitly),
and it relies on indentation as a control structure. You are not forced to define classes in Python
(unlike Java) but you are free to do so when convenient. Python was developed by Guido van
Rossum, and it is free software. Free as in “free beer,” in that you can obtain Python without
spending any money. But Python is also free in other important ways, for example you are free
to copy it as many times as you like, and free to study the source code, and make changes to it.
There is a worldwide movement behind the idea of free software, initiated in 1983 by Richard
Stallman.
1.This document focuses on learning Python for the purpose of doing mathematical
calculations. We assume the reader has some knowledge of basic mathematics, but we try not to
assume any previous exposure to computer programming, although some such exposure would
certainly be helpful. Python is a good choice for mathematical calculations, since we can write
code quickly, test it easily, and its syntax is similar to the way mathematical ideas are expressed
in the mathematical literature. By learning Python you will also be learning a major tool used by
many web developers. Installation and documentation If you use Mac OS X or Linux, then
Python should already be installed on your computer by default. If not, you can download the
latest version by visiting the Python home page, athttp://www.python.org
where you will also find loads of documentation and other useful information. Windows users can
also download Python at this website. Don’t forget this website; it is your first point of reference
for all things Python. You will find there, for example, reference [1], the excellent Python
Tutorial by Guido van Rossum. You may find it useful to read along in the Tutorial as a
supplement to thisdocument.
2 Running Python as a calculator
The easiest way to get started is to run Python as an interpreter, which behaves similar to the way
one would use a calculator. In the interpreter, you type a command, and Python produces the
200
answer. Then you type another command, which again produces an answer, and so on.In OS X
or Linux, to start the Python interpreter is as simple as typing the command python on the
command line in a terminal shell. In Windows, assuming that Python has already been installed,
you need to find Python in the appropriate menu. Windows users may choose to run Python in a
command shell (i.e., a DOS window) where it will behave very similarly to Linux or OS X. For
all three operating systems (Linux, OS X, Windows) there is also an integrated development
environment for Python namedIDLE.
Once Python starts running in interpreter mode, using IDLE or a command shell, it
produces a prompt, which waits for your input. For example, this is what I get when I start
Python in a command shell on my Linuxbox:
doty@ brauer:~ python

Python 2.5.2 ( r252 :60911 , Apr 21 2008 , 11 :12 :42 )
[ GCC 4.2.3 ( Ubuntu 4.2.3 -2 ubuntu 7 )] onlinux2
Type " help", " copyright", " credits" or " license" for more information.
>>> where the three symbols >>> indicates the prompt awaiting my input.
So experiment, using the Python interpreter as a calculator. Be assured that you cannot harm
anything, so play with Python as much as you like. For example:
>>> 2*1024 2048

>>> 3+ 4+ 9
16
>>> 2**100
1267650600228229401496703205376 L
In the above, we first asked for the product of 2 and 1024, then we asked for the sum of 3, 4, and
9andfinallyweaskedforthevalueof2100.NotethatmultiplicationinPythonisrepresentedby
∗ , addition by +, and exponents by **; you will need to remember this syntax. The L appended to
the last answer is there to indicate that this is a long integer; more on this later. It is also worth
noting that Python does arbitrary precision integer arithmetic, by default
>>> 2 ** 1000 1071508607186267320948425049060001810561404811705533607443750

3883703510511249361224931983788156958581275946729175531468251
8714528569231404359845775746985748039345677748242309854210746
201
0506237114187795418215304647498358194126739876755916554394607
7062914571196477686542167660429831652624386837205668069376L
Here is another example, where we print a table of perfect squares:
>>> for n in [1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6]:

... print n**2
.
.
.
1
4
9
16
25
36
3.Both Python and IDLE should be already preinstalled on all Loyola Windows computers. This
illustrates several points. First, the expression [1,2,3,4,5,6] is a list, and we print the values of n2
for n varying over the list. If we prefer, we can print horizontally instead of vertically:
>>> for n in [1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6]:
... print n**2 ,
...
1 4 9 16 25 36
Simply by adding a comma at the end of the print command, which tells Python not to move to a
new line before the next print. These last two examples are examples of a compound command,
where the command is divided over two lines (or more). That is why you see ... on the second line
instead of the usual >>>,which is the interpreter’s way of telling us it awaits the rest of the
command. On the third line we entered nothing, in order to tell the interpreter that the command
was complete at the second line. Also notice the colon at the end of the first line, and the
indentation in the second line. Both are required in compound Python commands.
Quitting the interpreter: In a terminal you can quit a Python session by CTRL-D. (Hold down the
CTRL key while pressing the D key.) In IDLE you can also quit from the menu. If the interpreter
202
gets stuck in an infinite loop, you can quit the current execution by CTRL-C. Loading commands
from the library Python has a very extensive library of commands, documented in the Python
Library Reference Manual [2]. These commands are organized into modules. One of the available
modules is especially useful for us: the math module. Let’s see how it may be used.
>>> from math import sqrt , exp
>>> exp(-1)
0 .36787944117144233
>>> sqrt(2)
1 .4142135623730951
We first import the sqrt and exp functions from the math module, then use them to
compute
e−1 = 1/e and √2.
Once we have loaded a function from a module, it is available for the rest of that session. When
we start a new session, we have to reload the function if we need it. Note that we could have
loaded both functions sqrt and exp by using a wildcard *:>>> from math import * which
tells Python to import all the functions in the math module. What would have happened if we
forgot to import a needed function? After starting a new session, if wetype
>>> sqrt(2)
Traceback ( most recent call last): File "< stdin >", line 1 , in < module > N am
eError: name ’ sqrt’ is not defined we see an example of an error message, telling us that
Python does not recognizesqrt.
Defining functions
It is possible, and very useful, to define our own functions in Python. Generally speaking, if you
need to do a calculation only once, then use the interpreter. But when you or others have need to
perform a certain type of calculation many times, then define a function. For a simple example,
the compoundcommand
>>> deff(x):
... return x* x
...
203
defines the squaring function f (x) = x2, a popular example used in elementary math courses. In
the definition, the first line is the function header where the name, f, of the function is specified.
Subsequent lines give the body of the function, where the output value is calculated. Note that
the final step is to return the answer; without it we would never see any results. Continuing the
example, we can use the function to calculate the square of any giveninput:
>>> f(2) 4
>>>f(2.5)
6.25
The name of a function is purely arbitrary. We could have defined the same function as above,
but with the name square instead of f; then to use it we use the new function name instead of the
old:
>>> def square(x):

... return x* x
...
>>> square (3)
9
>>> square (2.5)
6.25
Actually, a function name is not completely arbitrary, since we are not allowed to use a reserved
word as a function name. Python’s reserved words are: and, def, del, for, is, raise, assert, elif,
from, lambda, return, break, else, global, not, try, class, except, if, or, while, continue,
exec, import, pass,yield.
By the way, Python also allows us to define functions using a format similar to the Lambda
Calculus in mathematical logic. For instance, the above function could alternatively be defined in
the following way:
>>> square = lambda x: x* x

Here lambda x: x*x is known as a lambda expression. Lambda expressions are useful when
you need to define a function in just one line; they are also useful in situations where you need a
function but don’t want to nameit.
Usually function definitions will be stored in a module (file) for later use. These are
204
indistinguishable from Python’s Library modules from the user’s perspective.
Files
Python allows us to store our code in files (also called modules). This is very useful for more
serious programming, where we do not want to retype a long function definition from the very
beginning just to change one mistake. In doing this, we are essentially defining our own
modules, just like the modules defined already in the Python library. For example, to store our
squaring function example in a file, we can use any text editor3 to type the code into a file, such
as
def
square(x)
: return
x* x
Notice that we omit the prompt symbols >>>, ... when typing the code into a file, but the
indentation is still important. Let’s save this file under the name “SquaringFunction.py” and then
open a terminal in order to run it:
doty@ brauer:~ python
Python 2.5.2 ( r252 :60911 , Apr 21 2008 , 11 :12 :42 )
[ GCC 4.2.3 ( Ubuntu 4.2.3 -2 ubuntu 7 )] on
linux2 Type " help", " copyright", " credits" or "
license" for more inform ation.
>>> from Squaring Function importsquare
>>> square (1.5)
2.25
Notice that I had to import the function from the file before I could use it. Importing a command
from a file works exactly the same as for library modules. (In fact, some people refer to Python
files as “modules” because of this analogy.) Also notice that the file’s extension (.py) is
omitted in the importcommand.
Testing code
As indicated above, code is usually developed in a file using an editor. To test the code, import it
205
into a Python session and try to run it. Usually there is an error, so you go back to the file, make
a correction, and test again. This process is repeated until you are satisfied that the code works.
The entire process is known as the development cycle. There are two types of errors that you will
encounter. Syntax errors occur when the form of some command is invalid. This happens when
you make typing errors such as misspellings, or call something by the wrong name, and for many
other reasons. Python will always give an error message for a syntaxerror.
Scripts
If you use Mac OS X or some other variant of Unix (such as Linux) then you may be interestedin
running Python commands as a script. Here’s an example. Use an editor to create a file name SayHi
containing the following lines
#! / usr/ bin/ python
print " Hello World!"
print "- From your friendly Pythonprogram"
4.Most developers rely on emacs for editing code. Other possible choices are Notepad for
Windows, gedit for Linux/Gnome, and TextEdit for OS X. IDLE comes with its own editor, by
the way.The first line tells Python that this is a script. After saving the file, make it executable by
typing chmod 755 SayHi in the terminal. To run the script, type ./SayHi in the terminal. Note
that if you move the script someplace in your search path, then you can run it simply by typing
SayHi. Type echo $PATH to see what folders are in your search path, and type which python to
see where your python program is — this should match the first line in your script. As far as I
know, it is impossible to run Python scripts in a similar way on a Windowsmachine.
206
Python commands
Comments
In a Python command, anything after a # symbol is a comment. For example: print " Hello
world" # this is silly Comments are not part of the command, but rather intended as
documentation for anyone reading the code. Multiline comments are also possible, and are
enclosed by triple double-quote symbols:""" This is an example of a long comment that
goes on and on and on.""" Numbers and other datatypes
Python recognizes several different types of data. For instance, 23 and −75 are integers, while
5.0 and −23.09 are floats or floating point numbers. The type float is (roughly) the same as a
real number in mathematics. The number 12345678901 is a long integer ; Python prints it with
an “L” appended to the end. Usually the type of a piece of data is determinedimplicitly.
The type function
To see the type of some data, use Python’s built-in type function:
>>> type(-75)
< type ’ int’ >
>>> type(5.0)
< type ’ float’ >
>>> type (12345678901 )
< type ’ long’ >
Another useful data type is complex, used for complex numbers. For example:
>>> 2 j
2j
>>> 2j-1 (-1+2 j)
>>> com plex(2 ,3)
(2+ 3 j)
>>> type(-1+2 j)
< type ’ com plex’ >
Notice that Python uses j for the complex unit (such that j2 = −1) just as physicists do, instead
of the letter i preferred by mathematicians.
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Strings
Other useful data types are strings (short for “character strings”); for example "Hello World!".
Strings are sequences of characters enclosed in single or double quotes
>>> " This is a string " ’ This is a string ’

>>> ’ This is a string , too’ ’ This is a string , too’
>>> type(" This is a string ")
< type ’ str’ >
Strings are an example of a sequence type.
Lists and Tuples
Other important sequence types used in Python include lists and tuples. A sequence type is
formed by putting together some other types in a sequence. Here is how we form lists and tuples:
>>> [1 ,3 ,4 ,1 ,6]
[1 , 3 , 4 , 1 , 6]
>>> type( [1 ,3 ,4 ,1 ,6] )
< type ’ list’ >
>>> (1 ,3 ,2)
(1 , 3 , 2)
>>> type( (1 ,3 ,2) )
< type ’ tuple’ >
Notice that lists are enclosed in square brackets while tuples are enclosed in parentheses. Also
note that lists and tuples do not need to be homogeneous; that is, the components can be of
different types:
>>> [1 ,2 ," Hello" ,(1 ,2)]

[1 , 2 , ’ Hello ’ , (1 ,2)]
Here we created a list containing four components: two integers, a string, and a tuple. Note that
components of lists may be other lists, and so on:
>>> [1 , 2 , [1 ,2], [1 ,[1 ,2]], 5]

[1 , 2 , [1 , 2], [1 , [1 , 2]], 5]
By nesting lists within lists in this way, we can build up complicated structures.
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Sequence types such as lists, tuples, and strings are always ordered, as opposed to a set in
mathematics, which is always unordered. Also, repetition is allowed in a sequence, but not in a
set.
Range function
The range function is often used to create lists of integers. It has three forms. In the simplest
form, range(n) produces a list of all numbers 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 starting with 0 and ending with
n − 1. Forinstance,
>>> range (17)
[0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16]
You can also specify an optional starting point and an increment, which may be negative. For
instance, we have
>> range(1 ,10)
[1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9]
>>> range(-6 ,0)
[-6 , -5 , -4 , -3 , -2 , -1]
>>> range (1 ,10 ,2)
[1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9]
>>> range(10 ,0 ,-2)
[10 , 8 , 6 , 4 , 2]
Note the use of a negative increment in the last example.
Boolean values
Finally, we should mention the Boolean type. This is a value which is either True or False.
>>> True True

>>> type( True)
< type ’ bool’>
>>> FalseFalse
>>> type( False)
< type ’ bool’ >
Boolean types are used in making decisions.
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Expressions
Python expressions are not commands, but rather form part of a command. An expression is
anything which produces a value. Examples of expressions are: 2+2, 2**100, f((x-
1)/(x+1)). Note that in order for Python to make sense of the last one, the variable x must have a
value assigned and f should be a previously defined function. Expressions are formed from
variables, constants, function evaluations, and operators. Parentheses are used to indicate order
of operations and grouping, as usual.
Operators
The common binary operators for arithmetic are + for addition, - for subtraction, * for multi-
plication, and / for division. As already mentioned, Python uses ** for exponentiation. Integer
division is performed so that the result is always another integer (the integer quotient):
>>> 25/3 8
>>> 5/2
2
This is a wrinkle that you will always have to keep in mind when working with Python. To get a
more accurate answer, use the float type:
>>> 25.0/3 8 3333333333333339

>>> 5/2.0 2.5
If just one of the operands is of type float, then the result will be of type float. Here is another
example of this pitfall:
>>> 2 **(1 /2 )
1
>>> 2**0.5 1
.4142135623730951
Another usefuloperatoris , which is read as ”mod”. This gives the remainder of an integer
division, asin
>>>5 2
1
>>>25 3
1
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which shows that 5 mod 2 = 1, and 25 mod 3 = 1. This operator is useful in number theory and
cryptography. Besides the arithmetic operators we need comparison operators: <, >, <=, >=, ==,
!=, <>. In order these are read as: is less than, is greater than, is less than or equal to, is greater
than or equal to, is equal to, is not equal to, is not equal to. The result of a comparison is always
a Booleanvalue
True or False.
>>> 2 <3
True
>>> 3 <2
False
>>> 3 <=2
False
Note that != and <> are synonymous; either one means not equal to. Also, the operator == means
is equal to.
>>>2 <> 3
True
!= 3
True
>>>0 != 0
False
>>> 0 ==0
True
Variables and assignment
An assignment statement in Python has the form variable = expression. This has the following
effect. First the expression on the right hand side is evaluated, then the result is assigned to the
variable. After the assignment, the variable becomes a name for the result. The variable retains the
same value until another value is assigned, in which case the previous value is lost. Executing the
assignment produces no output; its purpose it to make the association between the variable and its
value.
>>> x = 2+ 2
>>> print x 4
In the example above, the assignment statement sets x to 4, producing no output. If we want to see
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the value of x, we must print it. If we execute another assignment to x, then the previous value is
lost.
>>> x =380.5
>>> print
x 380.5
>>> y = 2* x
>>> print
y 761.0
Remember: A single = is used for assignment, the double == is used to test for equality. In
mathematics the equation x = x + 1 is nonsense; it has no solution. In computer science, the
statement x = x + 1 is useful. Its purpose is to add 1 to x, and reassign the result to x. In short, x is
incremented by 1.
>>> x =10
>>> x = x + 1
>>>
print
x11
>>> x = x + 1
>>>
print
x12
Variable names may be any contiguous sequence of letters, numbers, and the underscore (_) char-
acter. The first character must not be a number, and you may not use a reserved word as a variable
name. Case is important; for instance Sum is a different name than sum. Other examples of
legal variable names are: a, v1, v_1, abc, Bucket, monthly_total, pi , TotalAssets.
Decisions
The if–else is used to make choices in Python code. This is a compound statement. The simplest
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form is
if c o n d i t i o n :
a c t i o n −1
else:
a c t i o n −2
The indentation is required. Note that the else and its action are optional. The actions action-1 and
action-2 may consist of many statements; they must all be indented the same amount. The
condition is an expression which evaluates to True or False.
Of course, if the condition evaluates to True then action-1 is executed, otherwise action-2 is
executed. In either case execution continues with the statement after the if-else. For example, the
code,
x=1
if x > 0:
print " Friday is wonderful"
else:
print " Mondaysucks"
print " Have a good weekend"
results in the output
Friday is
wonderful Have
a good weekend
Note that the last print statement is not part of the if-else statement (because it isn’t indented), so
if we change the first line to say x = 0 then the output would be
Mondaysucks
Have a good weekend
More complex decisions may have several alternatives depending on several conditions. For
these the elif is used. It means “else if” and one can have any number of elif clauses between the
if and the else. The usage of elif is best illustrated by anexample:
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if x >= 0 and x < 10: digits = 1
elif x >= 10 and x < 100: digits =2
elif x >= 100 and x < 1000:digits = 3
elif x >= 1000 and x < 10000: digits = 4
else:
digits = 0# more than 4

In the above, the number of digits in x is computed, so long as the number is 4 or less. If x is
negative or greater than 10000, then digits will be set to zero.
Loops
Python provides two looping commands: for and while. These are compound commands.
for loop
The syntax of a for loop is

for i te m in l i s t :
action
As usual, the action consists of one or more statements, all at the same indentation level. These
statements are also known as the body of the loop. The item is a variable name, and list is a list.
Execution of the for loop works by setting the variable successively to each item in the list, and
then executing the body each time. Here is a simple example (the comma at the end of the print
makes all printing occur on the same line):
for i in [2 , 4 , 6 , 0]:
print i,
This produces the output
2 4 60
whileloop
The syntax of the while loop is
while c o n d i t i o n :
action
Of course, the action may consist of one or more statements all at the same indentation level. The
statements in the action are known as the body of the loop. Execution of the loop works as follows.
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First the condition is evaluated. If True, the body is executed and the condition evaluated again,
and this repeats until the condition evaluates to False. Here is a simpleexample:
n = 0
while n
<10:
print n,
n=n+3
This produces the following output
0369
Note that the body of a while loop is never executed if the condition evaluates to False the first
time. Also, if the body does not change the subsequent evaluations of the condition, an infinite
loop may occur. For example
whileTrue:
print "
Hello",
will print Hellos endlessly. To interrupt the execution of an infinite loop, use CTRL-C.else in
loopsA loop may have an optional else which is executed when the loop finishes. For example,
the loop
for n in [10 ,9 ,8 ,7 ,6 ,5 ,4 ,3 ,2 ,1]:

print n,
else:
print " blastoff"
results in the output
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 32 1 blastoff
and theloop
n= 10
whilen
> 0: print
n,
n=n-1
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else:
print " blastoff"
has the same effect (it produces identical output).
Break, Continue, And Pass
The break statement ,like in C, breaks out of the smallest enclosing for or whileloop.
The continue statement, also borrowed from C, continues with the next iteration of the loop. The pass statement
does nothing. It can be used when a statement is required syntactically but the program requires no action.
Here is an example of the use of a break statement and an else clause in a loop.
for n in range(2 , 10):

for x in range(2 , n):
ifn x == 0:
print n, ’ equals ’ , x, ’*’ , n/x break
else:
# loop fell through without finding a factor
print n, ’ is a prime number ’
The above code searches for prime numbers between 2 and 10, and produces the following output.
2 is a prime number
3 is a prime number
4 equals 2 *2
5 is a primenumber
6 equals 2 *3
7 is a primenumber
8 equals 2 *4
9 equals 3 *3
Lists: As already mentioned, a list is a finite sequence of items, and one could use the range
function to create lists of integers. In Python, lists are not required to be homogeneous, i.e., the
items could be of different types. For example,
a = [2 , " Jack", 45 , " 23 WentworthAve"]
is a perfectly valid list consisting of two integers and two strings. One can refer to the entire list
using the identifier a or to the i-th item in the list usinga[i].
>>> a = [2 , " Jack", 45 , " 23 W entw orth Ave"]
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>>> a
[2 , ’ Jack’ , 45 , ’ 23 W entw orthAve’]
>>> a[0] 2
>>> a[1]
’ Jack’
>>> a[2] 45
>>> a[3]
’ 23 W entw orthAve’
Note that the numbering of list items always begins at 0 in Python. So the four items in the above
list are indexed by the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3.List items may be assigned a new value; this of course
changes the list. For example, with a as above:
>>> a
>>> a[0] = 2002
>>> a
Of course, the entire list may be assigned a new value, which does not have to be a list. When this
happens, the previous value is lost:
>>> a
>>> a = ’ gobbletygook’
>>> a
’ gobbletygook’
Length of a list; empty list
Every list has a length, the number of items in the list, obtained using the len function:
>>> x = [9 , 4 , 900 , -45]

>>> len(x) 4
Of special importance is the empty list of length 0. This is created as follows:
>>> x = []
>>> len(x)0
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Sublists (slicing)
Sublists are obtained by slicing, which works analogously to the range function discussed
before.Ifxisanexistinglist,thenx[start:end]isthesublistconsistingofallitemsinthe
original list at index positions i such that
start ≤ i < end.
Of course, we must remember that indexing items always starts at 0 in Python. For example,
>>> x= range(0 ,20 ,2)
>>>x
[0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14 , 16 , 18]
>>> x[2:5]
[4 , 6 , 8]
>>> x[0:5]
[0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8]
When taking a slice, either parameter start or end may be omitted: if start is omitted then the
slice consists of all items up to, but not including, the one at index position end, similarly, if end
is omitted the slice consists of all items starting with the one at position start. For instance, with
the list x as defined above we have
>>> x[:5]
[0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8]
>>> x[2:]
[4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14 , 16 , 18]
In this case, x[:5] is equivalent to x[0:5] and x[2:] is equivalent to x[2:len(x)].
There is an optional third parameter in a slice, which if present represents an increment, just as in
the range function. For example,
>>> list = range (20)
>>> list
[0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17]
>>> list [0 :16 :2 ]
[0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14]
>>> list [0 :15 :2 ]
[0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14]
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Notice that one may cleverly use a negative increment to effectively reverse a list, as in
>>>list[18::-1]
[17 , 16 , 15 , 14 , 13 , 12 , 11 , 10 , 9 , 8 , 7 , 6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0]
In general, the slice x[len(x)::-1] reverses any existing list x. Joining two lists Two existing lists
may be concatenated together to make a longer list, using the + operator
>>> [2 ,3 ,6 ,10] + [4 ,0 ,0 ,5 ,0]

[2 , 3 , 6 , 10 , 4 , 0 , 0 , 5 , 0]
List methods
If x is the name of an existing list, we can append an item to the end of the list using x. append(
item )
For example,
>>> x = [3 , 6 , 8 , 9]
>>> x. append (999)
>>>x
[3 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 999]
A similar method is called insert, which allows an element to be inserted in the list at a specified
position:
>>> x = [’ a’ , ’ c’ , ’ 3 ’ , ’ d’ , ’ 7 ’]
>>> x. insert (0 ,100)
>>>x
[100 , ’ a’ , ’ c’ , ’ 3 ’ , ’ d’ , ’ 7 ’]
>>> x. insert(3 ,’ junk’)
>>>x
[100 , ’ a’ , ’ c’ , ’ junk’ , ’ 3 ’ , ’ d’ , ’ 7 ’]
One can also delete the first occurrence of some item in the list (if possible) using
remove asfollows:
>>> x. remove(’ a’)
>>>x
[100 , ’ c’ , ’ junk’ , ’ 3 ’ , ’ d’ , ’ 7 ’]
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To delete the item at index position i use x.pop(i), as in:
>>> x. pop(0) 100

>>>x
[’ c’ , ’ junk’ , ’ 3 ’ , ’ d’ , ’ 7 ’]
Notice that pop not only changes the list, but it also returns the item that was deleted. Also, by
default x.pop() pops off the last item:
>>> x. pop()
’7’
>>>x
[’ c’ , ’ junk’ , ’ 3 ’ , ’ d’]
Many more methods exist for manipulating lists; consult the Python Tutorial [1] or Python
Library Reference [2] for moredetails.
Strings
A string in Python is a sequence of characters. In some sense strings are similar to lists, however,
there are important differences. One major difference is that Python strings are immutable, mean-
ing that we are not allowed to change individual parts of them as we could for a list. So if x is an
existing string, then x[i] gets the character at position i, but we are not allowed to reassign that
character, as in x[5] = ’s’.
>>> x = ’ gobbletygook’
>>> x[2]
’ b’
>>> x[5]
’ e’
>>> x[5] = ’ s’
Traceback ( most recent call last): File "< stdin >", line 1 , in < module >
TypeError: ’ str’ object does not support item assignment Just as for lists, string items are
indexed starting at 0. Slicing for strings works exactly the same as for lists. The length function len
is the same as for lists, and concatenation is the same too. But the list methods append, insert,
delete, and pop are not available for strings, because strings are immutable. If you need to change
an existing string, you must make a new, changed, one.There are many string methods for
manipulatingstrings,documentedinthePythonLibraryReferenceManual[2].Forexample,you
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an capitalize an existing string x using x.capitalize(); this returns a new copy of the string in
which the first character has beencapitalized.
>>> a = ’ gobbletygook isrefreshing’

>>> a. capitalize()
’ G obbletygook isrefreshing’
Other useful methods are find and index, which are used to find the first occurrence of a substring
in a given string.
MODULES
A module allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code into a module
makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python object with arbitrarily named
attributes that you can bind and reference.
Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes and
variables. A module can also include runnable code.
Example
The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file named aname.py. Here's an
example of a simple module, support.py
def print_func( par ):
print "Hello : ", par
return
The import Statement
You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in some other Python
source file. The import has the following syntax −
import module1[, module2[,... moduleN]
When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the module is present in
the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter searches before importing a
module. For example, to import the module support.py, you need to put the following command at the
top of the script −
#!/usr/bin/python
# Import module support
import support
# Now you can call defined function that module as follows
support.print_func("Zara")
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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result –
Hello : Zara
A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is imported. This prevents the
module execution from happening over and over again if multiple imports occur.
The from...import Statement
Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the current namespace.
The from...import has the following syntax −
from modname import name1[, name2[, ... nameN]]
For example, to import the function fibonacci from the module fib, use the following statement −
from fib import fibonacci
This statement does not import the entire module fib into the current namespace; it just introduces the
item fibonacci from the module fib into the global symbol table of the importing module.
The from...import * Statement
It is also possible to import all names from a module into the current namespace by using the following
import statement −
from modname import *
This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module into the current namespace; however,
this statement should be used sparingly.
Locating Modules
When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module in the following sequences −
• The current directory.
• If the module isn't found, Python then searches each directory in the shell variable
PYTHONPATH.
• If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is normally
/usr/local/lib/python/.
The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path variable. The sys.path
variable contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH, and the installation-dependent default.
The PYTHONPATH Variable
The PYTHONPATH is an environment variable, consisting of a list of directories. The syntax of
PYTHONPATH is the same as that of the shell variable PATH.
Here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a Windows system −
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set PYTHONPATH = c:\python20\lib;
And here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a UNIX system −
set PYTHONPATH = /usr/local/lib/python
Namespaces and Scoping
Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a dictionary of variable names
(keys) and their corresponding objects (values).
A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in the global namespace. If a local
and a global variable have the same name, the local variable shadows the global variable.
Each function has its own local namespace. Class methods follow the same scoping rule as ordinary
functions.
Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It assumes that any variable
assigned a value in a function is local.
Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function, you must first use the global
statement.
The statement global VarName tells Python that VarName is a global variable. Python stops searching
the local namespace for the variable.
For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the function Money, we
assign Money a value, therefore Python assumes Money as a local variable. However, we accessed the
value of the local variable Money before setting it, so an UnboundLocalError is the result.
Uncommenting the global statement fixes the problem.
#!/usr/bin/python
Money = 2000
def AddMoney():
# Uncomment the following line to fix the code:
# global Money
Money = Money + 1
print Money
AddMoney()
print Money
The dir( ) Function
The dir() built-in function returns a sorted list of strings containing the names defined by a module.
The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that are defined in a module.
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Following is a simple example −
#!/usr/bin/python
# Import built-in module math

import math
content = dir(math)
print content
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
['__doc__', '__file__', '__name__', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan',
'atan2', 'ceil', 'cos', 'cosh', 'degrees', 'e', 'exp',
'fabs', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'hypot', 'ldexp', 'log',
'log10', 'modf', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'sin', 'sinh',
'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh']
Here, the special string variable __name__ is the module's name, and __file__ is the filename from
which the module was loaded.
The globals() and locals() Functions
The globals() and locals() functions can be used to return the names in the global and local namespaces
depending on the location from where they are called.
If locals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be accessed locally from
that function.
If globals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be accessed globally
from that function.
The return type of both these functions is dictionary. Therefore, names can be extracted using the keys()
function.
The reload() Function
When the module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion of a module is executed only
once.
Therefore, if you want to reexecute the top-level code in a module, you can use the reload() function.
The reload() function imports a previously imported module again. The syntax of the reload() function is
this −
reload(module_name)
Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not the string containing the
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module name. For example, to reload hello module, do the following −
reload(hello)
Packages in Python
A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python application environment
that consists of modules and subpackages and sub-subpackages, and so on.
Consider a file Pots.py available in Phone directory. This file has following line of source code −
#!/usr/bin/python
def Pots():
print "I'm Pots Phone"
Similar way, we have another two files having different functions with the same name as above −
• Phone/Isdn.py file having function Isdn()
• Phone/G3.py file having function G3()
Now, create one more file __init__.py in Phone directory −
• Phone/__init__.py
To make all of your functions available when you've imported Phone, you need to put explicit import
statements in __init__.py as follows −
from Pots import Pots
from Isdn import Isdn
from G3 import G3
After you add these lines to __init__.py, you have all of these classes available when you import the
Phone package.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Now import your Phone Package.
import Phone
Phone.Pots()
Phone.Isdn()
Phone.G3()
I'm Pots Phone
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I'm 3G Phone
I'm ISDN Phone
In the above example, we have taken example of a single functions in each file, but you can keep
multiple functions in your files. You can also define different Python classes in those files and then you
can create your packages out of those classes.
EXCEPTIONS
Python provides two very important features to handle any unexpected error in your Python programs
and to add debugging capabilities in them −
• Exception Handling .
• Assertions.
List of Standard Exceptions −
Sr.No. Exception Name & Description
1 Exception
Base class for all exceptions
2 StopIteration
Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not point to any object.
3 SystemExit
Raised by the sys.exit() function.
4 StandardError
Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration and SystemExit.
5 ArithmeticError
Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation.
6 OverflowError
Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a numeric type.
7 FloatingPointError
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Raised when a floating point calculation fails.
8 ZeroDivisionError
Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all numeric types.
9 AssertionError
Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement.
10 AttributeError
Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or assignment.
11 EOFError
Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input() or input() function and the end of
file is reached.
12 ImportError
Raised when an import statement fails.
13 KeyboardInterrupt
Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually by pressing Ctrl+c.
14 LookupError
Base class for all lookup errors.
15 IndexError
Raised when an index is not found in a sequence.
16 KeyError
Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary.
17 NameError
Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global namespace.
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18 UnboundLocalError
Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or method but no value has been
assigned to it.
19 EnvironmentError
Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python environment.
20 IOError
Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the print statement or the open()
function when trying to open a file that does not exist.
21 IOError
Raised for operating system-related errors.
22 SyntaxError
Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.
23 IndentationError
Raised when indentation is not specified properly.
24 SystemError
Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but when this error is encountered
the Python interpreter does not exit.
25 SystemExit
Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the sys.exit() function. If not handled in the
code, causes the interpreter to exit.
26 TypeError
Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is invalid for the specified data
type.
27 ValueError
Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid type of arguments, but the
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arguments have invalid values specified.
28 RuntimeError
Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category.
29 NotImplementedError
Raised when an abstract method that needs to be implemented in an inherited class is not
actually implemented.
Assertions in Python
An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are done with your testing of the
program.
The easiest way to think of an assertion is to liken it to a raise-if statement (or to be more accurate, a
raise-if-not statement). An expression is tested, and if the result comes up false, an exception is raised.
Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to Python, introduced in version
1.5.
Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for valid input, and after a function
call to check for valid output.
The assert Statement
When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying expression, which is
hopefully true. If the expression is false, Python raises an AssertionError exception.
The syntax for assert is −
assert Expression[, Arguments]
If the assertion fails, Python uses ArgumentExpression as the argument for the AssertionError.
AssertionError exceptions can be caught and handled like any other exception using the try-except
statement, but if not handled, they will terminate the program and produce a traceback.
Example
Here is a function that converts a temperature from degrees Kelvin to degrees Fahrenheit. Since zero
degrees Kelvin is as cold as it gets, the function bails out if it sees a negative temperature −
#!/usr/bin/python
def KelvinToFahrenheit(Temperature):
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
return ((Temperature-273)*1.8)+32
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print KelvinToFahrenheit(273)
print int(KelvinToFahrenheit(505.78))
print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)
32.0
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Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)
File "test.py", line 4, in KelvinToFahrenheit
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
AssertionError: Colder than absolute zero!
What is Exception?
An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts the normal flow
of the program's instructions. In general, when a Python script encounters a situation that it cannot cope
with, it raises an exception. An exception is a Python object that represents an error.
When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception immediately otherwise it
terminates and quits.
Handling an exception
If you have some suspicious code that may raise an exception, you can defend your program by placing
the suspicious code in a try: block. After the try: block, include an except: statement, followed by a
block of code which handles the problem as elegantly as possible.
Syntax
Here is simple syntax of try....except...else blocks −
try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is Exception II, then execute this block.
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......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
Here are few important points about the above-mentioned syntax −
• A single try statement can have multiple except statements. This is useful when the try block
contains statements that may throw different types of exceptions.
• You can also provide a generic except clause, which handles any exception.
• After the except clause(s), you can include an else-clause. The code in the else-block executes if
the code in the try: block does not raise an exception.
• The else-block is a good place for code that does not need the try: block's protection.
Example
This example opens a file, writes content in the, file and comes out gracefully because there is no
problem at all −
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
except IOError:
print "Error: can\'t find file or read data"
else:
print "Written content in the file successfully"
fh.close()
This produces the following result −
Written content in the file successfully
Example
This example tries to open a file where you do not have write permission, so it raises an exception −
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
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fh = open("testfile", "r")
except IOError:
else:
print "Written content in the file successfully"
Error: can't find file or read data
The except Clause with No Exceptions
You can also use the except statement with no exceptions defined as follows −
try:
......................
except:
If there is any exception, then execute this block.
......................
else:
This kind of a try-except statement catches all the exceptions that occur. Using this kind of try-except
statement is not considered a good programming practice though, because it catches all exceptions but
does not make the programmer identify the root cause of the problem that may occur.
The except Clause with Multiple Exceptions
You can also use the same except statement to handle multiple exceptions as follows −
try:
......................
except(Exception1[, Exception2[,...ExceptionN]]]):
If there is any exception from the given exception list,
then execute this block.
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......................
else:
The try-finally Clause
You can use a finally: block along with a try: block. The finally block is a place to put any code that
must execute, whether the try-block raised an exception or not. The syntax of the try-finally statement is
this −
try:
......................
Due to any exception, this may be skipped.
finally:
This would always be executed.
......................
You cannot use else clause as well along with a finally clause.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
finally:
If you do not have permission to open the file in writing mode, then this will produce the following
result −
Error: can't find file or read data
Same example can be written more cleanly as follows −
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
try:
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finally:
print "Going to close the file"
fh.close()
except IOError:
When an exception is thrown in the try block, the execution immediately passes to the finally block.
After all the statements in the finally block are executed, the exception is raised again and is handled in
the except statements if present in the next higher layer of the try-except statement.
Argument of an Exception
An exception can have an argument, which is a value that gives additional information about the
problem. The contents of the argument vary by exception. You capture an exception's argument by
supplying a variable in the except clause as follows −
try:
......................
except ExceptionType, Argument:
You can print value of Argument here...
If you write the code to handle a single exception, you can have a variable follow the name of the
exception in the except statement. If you are trapping multiple exceptions, you can have a variable
follow the tuple of the exception.
This variable receives the value of the exception mostly containing the cause of the exception. The
variable can receive a single value or multiple values in the form of a tuple. This tuple usually contains
the error string, the error number, and an error location.
Example
Following is an example for a single exception −
#!/usr/bin/python
# Define a function here.

def temp_convert(var):
try:
return int(var)
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except ValueError, Argument:
print "The argument does not contain numbers\n", Argument
Call above function here.
temp_convert("xyz");
The argument does not contain numbers
invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'xyz'
Raising an Exceptions
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general syntax for
the raise statement is as follows.
Syntax
raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]
Here, Exception is the type of exception (for example, NameError) and argument is a value for the
exception argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the exception argument is None.
The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice), and if present, is the
traceback object used for the exception.
Example
An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that the Python core raises are
classes, with an argument that is an instance of the class. Defining new exceptions is quite easy and can
be done as follows −
def functionName( level ):
if level < 1:
raise "Invalid level!", level
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception
Note: In order to catch an exception, an "except" clause must refer to the same exception thrown either
class object or simple string. For example, to capture above exception, we must write the except clause
as follows −
try:
Business Logic here...
except "Invalid level!":
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Exception handling here...
else:
Rest of the code here...
User-Defined Exceptions
Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes from the standard built-in
exceptions.
Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is subclassed
from RuntimeError. This is useful when you need to display more specific information when an
exception is caught.
In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except block. The variable e is
used to create an instance of the class Networkerror.
class Networkerror(RuntimeError):
def __init__(self, arg):
self.args = arg
So once you defined above class, you can raise the exception as follows −
try:
raise Networkerror("Bad hostname")
except Networkerror,e:
print e.args
Python Applications
Python is known for its general-purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost every domain of
software development. Python makes its presence in every emerging field. It is the fastest-growing
programming language and can develop any application.
Here, we are specifying application areas where Python can be applied.
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1) Web Applications
We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet protocols such as
HTML and XML, JSON, Email processing, request, beautifulSoup, Feedparser, etc. One of Python web-
framework named Django is used on Instagram. Python provides many useful frameworks, and these
are given below:
o Django and Pyramid framework(Use for heavy applications)

o Flask and Bottle (Micro-framework)
o Plone and Django CMS (Advance Content management)
2) Desktop GUI Applications
The GUI stands for the Graphical User Interface, which provides a smooth interaction to any
application. Python provides a Tk GUI library to develop a user interface. Some popular GUI libraries
are given below.
o Tkinter or Tk
o wxWidgetM
o Kivy (used for writing multitouch applications )
o PyQt or Pyside
3) Console-based Application
Console-based applications run from the command-line or shell. These applications are computer
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program which are used commands to execute. This kind of application was more popular in the old
generation of computers. Python can develop this kind of application very effectively. It is famous for
having REPL, which means the Read-Eval-Print Loop that makes it the most suitable language for the
command-line applications.
Python provides many free library or module which helps to build the command-line apps. The
necessary IO libraries are used to read and write. It helps to parse argument and create console help text
out-of-the-box. There are also advance libraries that can develop independent console apps.
4) Software Development
Python is useful for the software development process. It works as a support language and can be used
to build control and management, testing, etc.
o SCons is used to build control.

o Buildbot and Apache Gumps are used for automated continuous compilation and testing.
o Round or Trac for bug tracking and project management.
5) Scientific and Numeric
This is the era of Artificial intelligence where the machine can perform the task the same as the human.
Python language is the most suitable language for Artificial intelligence or machine learning. It consists
of many scientific and mathematical libraries, which makes easy to solve complex calculations.
Implementing machine learning algorithms require complex mathematical calculation. Python has many
libraries for scientific and numeric such as Numpy, Pandas, Scipy, Scikit-learn, etc. If you have some
basic knowledge of Python, you need to import libraries on the top of the code. Few popular frameworks
of machine libraries are given below.
o SciPy
o Scikit-learn
o NumPy
o Pandas
o Matplotlib
6) Business Applications
Business Applications differ from standard applications. E-commerce and ERP are an example of a
business application. This kind of application requires extensively, scalability and readability, and
Python provides all these features.
Oddo is an example of the all-in-one Python-based application which offers a range of business
applications. Python provides a Tryton platform which is used to develop the business application.
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7) Audio or Video-based Applications
Python is flexible to perform multiple tasks and can be used to create multimedia applications. Some
multimedia applications which are made by using Python are TimPlayer, cplay, etc. The few
multimedia libraries are given below.
o Gstreamer
o Pyglet
o QT Phonon
8) 3D CAD Applications
The CAD (Computer-aided design) is used to design engineering related architecture. It is used to
develop the 3D representation of a part of a system. Python can create a 3D CAD application by using
the following functionalities.
o Fandango (Popular )
o CAMVOX
o HeeksCNC
o AnyCAD
o RCAM
9) Enterprise Applications
Python can be used to create applications that can be used within an Enterprise or an Organization.
Some real-time applications are OpenERP, Tryton, Picalo, etc.
10) Image Processing Application
Python contains many libraries that are used to work with the image. The image can be manipulated
according to our requirements. Some libraries of image processing are given below.
o OpenCV
o Pillow
o SimpleITK
Categories of Web Frameworks in Python:
1. Full-Stack Frameworks
This category of the frameworks provides a complete package that can fulfill the developer’s
requirements like Form validation, form generators, and template layouts. These are the components that
are commonly included in the full-stack frameworks.
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List of Full-Stack Frameworks.
• Django
• CubicWeb
• Giotto
• Pylons Framework
• Pyramid
• Web2Py
• TurboGears
2. Microframeworks
This category of frameworks is very lightweight in nature because they do not offer more components as
a full-stack framework. That’s why developers need to put some extra effort according to the
requirements when he/she is using this framework.
List of Microframeworks Frameworks.
• Bottle
• CherryPy
• Hug
• Dash
• Flask
• MorePath
• Falcon
• Pycnic
3. Asynchronous Framework
This category of the framework allows you to handle a large set of concurrent connections. These
frameworks are also lightweight in nature and used when handling a large no of requests concurrently.
This asynchronous framework is mainly built for Python and it also uses the asyncio library.
List of Asynchronous Frameworks.
• AIOHTTP
• Sanic
• Growler
List of Popular Web Frameworks
Let’s understand the python frameworks in a quick manner.
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1. Django
Django is the most used web application development framework that encourages developers to build
Python applications rapidly. This framework uses a pragmatic design and follows the principle called
Don’t Repeat Yourself (DRY). It comes in the list of top 10 web application development frameworks.
Key Features:
1. Good Community Support

2. Authentication support
3. URL routing
4. web servers
5. Template engine
6. Object-relational mapper (ORM)
7. Database schema migrations
2. CubicWeb
Cubic Web is an open-source, semantic, and free Python web framework. This framework
provides an effective way for developers in building web applications by reusing the components called
cubes. This is considered one of the best solutions in building semantic web app development which
promotes efficiency, reusability, and quality.
Key Features:
• Reusable components
• Support for multiple databases
• Security workflows
• Simplifies data-related queries with RQL (Relational Query Language) embedding
3. Giotto
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This framework is based on the Model View Controller(MVC) design pattern, Giotto is an opensource
application framework for Python. In order to allow web designers, web developers, and system admins
to work independently, Giotto separates Model, View, and Controller elements in order.
Key Features:
• Generic views and models(MV)

• The automatic and in-built URL routing
• RESTful interface to regular CRUD site “Browser Update”
• Multiple pluggable controllers Persistence of the database can be achieved using SQLAlchemy
• Functional CRUD patterns
• Offering RESTful interfaces
• Availability of Jinja2 for HTML templates.
4. Pylons Framework
It is an open-source web-based framework that mainly based on the rapid development of applications.
This framework is mainly designed for incorporating some of the properties and best elements of
popular languages such as Ruby, Perl, and Python.
Key Features:
• Text-based templating
• URL Dispatch
• Routes
• URL mapping based on routes configuration via WebHelpers
• HTML form generation and validation.
5. Pyramid Framework
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The pyramid is one of the most significant Python frameworks, too. The main goal of this Framework is
to accomplish and improve less complex applications.
The most important aspect of this framework is its capacity to work with full and small-scale
applications on an equal footing. In fact, a multitude of tools is available to expand their capabilities in
compliance with the requirements.
Key Features:
• Function decorators
• Renderers
• URL generation
• Single file applications
• Flexible authorization and authentication
• Predicates
• Asset specifications and templating.
6. Web2Py Framework
This is the most commonly used python scalable and open-source platform that enables users to build
Web applications very easily and quickly.
Web2Py supports all of the common OSes. In addition, this framework offers a simple way to simplify
the process of creating web applications through a web-based interface, a web server, and a SQL
database.
This framework allows users to edit, build, manage, and deploy web applications through web browsers.
Key Features:
• Security – It prevents the most common types of vulnerabilities.

• Ability to run on any web hosting platform that provides support for either Python or Java and Python
• Backward compatibility
• Follows MVC-pattern
• Devoid of installation and configuration requirements
• Provides support for internationalization
• Readability of multiple protocols
• Role-based access control
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7. TurboGears
TurboGears is a Python Web application platform for data-oriented, open-source, full-stack applications.
The architecture allows developers to rapidly create extensible, data-driven web applications.
TurboGears come with intelligible templating, in addition to supporting a flexible and powerful ORM.
The full-stack architecture makes use of components such as Genshi, Repoze, SQLAlchemy, and
WebOb to create applications that need connectivity to the database easily and quickly.
Key Features:
• MVC-style architecture
• Multi-database transactions
• It supports SQLAlchemy and SQLObject.
• Uses Pylons as a web server
• Availability of command-line tools and PasteScript templates.
• Highly modular
• Built-in support for database sharing.
8. Bottle
The construction of different applications in Python is one of the most used micro web frameworks by
users. It does not include any dependencies; instead, it only consists of one standard Python library and
is also distributed as a single file module.
One important feature of this design is that it helps developers to interact more closely with the
hardware. Bottle Framework is ideally designed for the production and creation of simple applications
for personal use.
Key Features:
• Allows developers to work closer to the hardware

• Adapter support for 3rd-party template engines and WSGI/HTTP servers
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• Allows simple access from cookies, data, file uploads, and other HTTP-related metadata
• Built-in HTTP server
• Plugin support for different databases
• Provides request-dispatching routes having URL-parameter support
9. CherryPy
CherryPy is a well-known open-source and minimalist platform that uses the object-
oriented paradigm mainly to create web applications within a short time. The applications developed usi
ng this framework are by definition stand-alone and have their own multi-
threaded web server. Such programs can be implemented in an ordinary Python framework that can run
anywhere.
Key Features:
• A robust plugin framework built-in.

• Runs on Android.
• Runs on multiple HTTP servers at once.
• Powerful configuration system.
10. Hug
The Hug is designed to allow developers from Python to create an API once, and then use it anywhere
they wish. The Python framework simplifies the creation of APIs by making several interfaces available.
It’s branded as Python 3 ‘s fastest Web platform. Hug only consumes resources when necessary, and
uses Cython to compile.
Key Features:
• Managed models built-in

• A validation driven by annotations
• Follow script once, using theory anywhere
• Will automated reporting support
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15.Additional Topic
Introduction to Linux shell and shell scripting:
Before Starting Linux Shell Script Programming you must know
● Kernel
● Shell
● Process
● Redirectors, Pipes, Filters etc.
What's Kernel
Kernel is hart of Linux O/S. It manages resource of Linux O/S. Resources means facilities
available in Linux. For eg. Facility to store data, print data on printer,memory, file management etc .
Kernel decides who will use this resource, for howlong and when. It runs your programs (or set up to
execute binary files) It'sMemory resident portion of Linux. It performance following task :-
● I/O management
● Process management
● Device management
● File management
● Memory management
What's Linux Shell
Computer understand the language of 0's and 1's called binary language, In earlydays of
computing, instruction are provided using binary language, which is difficultfor all of us, to read and
write. So in O/s there is special program called Shell. Shellaccepts your instruction or commands in
English and translate it into computersnative binary language.
Its environment provided for user interaction. Shell is an command language interpreter that executes
commands read from the standard input device (keyboard) or from a file. Linux may use one of the
following most popular shells (In MS-DOS, Shell name is COMMAND.COM which is also used for
same purpose, but it's not as powerful as our Linux Shells are!)
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Any of the above shell reads command from user (via Keyboard or Mouse) and tells
Linux O/s what users want. If we are giving commands from keyboard it is called
command line interface ( Usually in-front of $ prompt, This prompt is depend upon
your shell and Environment that you set or by your System Administrator,
therefore you may get different prompt ).
NOTE: To find your shell type following command
$ echo $SHELL
How to use Shell
To use shell (You start to use your shell as soon as you log into your system) you
have to simply type commands. Following is the list of common commands.
Linux Common Commands
NOTE that following commands are for New users or for Beginners only. The purpose is if you use this
command you will be more familiar with your shell and secondly, you need some of these command in
your Shell script. If you want to get more information or help for this command try following commands
For e.g. To see help or options related with date command try,
$ date --help
or To see help or options related with ls command (Here you will screen by screen help, since help of ls
command is quite big that can't fit on single screen )
$ ls --help | more
Syntax: command-name --help
Syntax: man command-name
Syntax: info command-name
See what happened when you type following
$ man ls
$ info bash
NOTE: In MS-DOS, you get help by using /? clue or by typing help command as
C:\> dir /?
C:\> date /?
C:\> help time
C:\> help date
C:\> help
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248
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Introduction to Shell Programming
Shell program is series of Linux commands. Shell script is just like batch file is MS-DOS but have
more power than the MS-DOS batch file. Shell script can take input from user, file and output them
on screen. Useful to create our own commands that can save our lots of time and to automate some
task of day today life.
Variables in Linux
Sometimes to process our data/information, it must be kept in computers RAM memory. RAM
memory is divided into small locations, and each location had unique number called memory
location/address, which is used to hold our data. Programmer can give a unique name to this memory
location/address called memory variable or variable (It’s a named storage location that may take
different values, but only one at a time). In Linux, there are two types of variable,
1) System variables - Created and maintained by Linux itself. This type of variable defined in
CAPITAL LETTERS.
2) User defined variables (UDV) - Created and maintained by user. This type of variable defined in
lower LETTERS.
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16. University question papers of pervious years
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17. QUESTION BANK
UNIT-I
CO1: Apply the concepts of scripting languages for developing Web Scripting.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the modern applications of scripting languages.

2. Discuss the various characteristics of a scripting language.
3. What are the applications of Modern Scripting?
4. Define Visual Scripting concept.
5. Define Web Scripting. Specify the areas used in web scripting.
6. Differentiate between traditional and modern scripting.
7. Define Script.
8. Difference between scripting and programming language.
9. Explain client side scripting languages and server side scripting languages.
10. Explain origin of scripting.
UNIT-II
CO2: Explain the object oriented concepts of PERL.
1. Write a program to process a list of numbers in Perl.

2. Write syntax to add two arrays together in Perl.
3. How many types of operators are used in Perl?
4. List out the data types that Perl can handle?
5. How can you call a subroutine and identify a subroutine?
6. Explain which feature of Perl provides code reusability.
7. Define Polymorphism in Perl.
8. What are string operators available in Perl?
9. Explain input/output and file manipulation functions with an example.
10. Explain Split and join functions with an example.
11. How does the scalar function evaluate an expression if it’s an array?
12. What is meant by the term scope?
13. How can you remove duplicates in an array?
14. What function extracts both keys and values from a hash?
15. How do you sort a numeric array? How do you sort a hash by value?
16. What does the map function do in Perl?
17. What is the difference between splice and slice?
18. What is the difference between chop and chomp?
19. Explain various built-in operators and pattern matching modifiers in Perl.
20. Describe the role of whitespaces in PERL. Describe Perl Subroutines.
21. Explain the different types control statements available in Perl. Discuss about them with
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examples.
22. Explain about accessing, creating and processing of arrays with an example in Perl.
23. Illustrate a brief note on special variable in Perl. Explain about scalar expressions in Perl.
24. Illustrate the characteristics of scripting languages. List the applications of scripting languages.
25. Write a Perl script to find the maximum and minimum numbers in list of arguments?
26. Define regular expression. Explain about Regular Expressions in Perl.
27. Explain in detail about subroutines. Describe at least two subroutines used in Perl.
28. Discuss about scalar data, numeric constants and string constants with examples.
29. Define names and values concept in Perl with examples.
30. Illustrate Control Structures with an example in Perl.
31. Discuss built-in functions available in Perl with an example.
32. Explain the concept of arrays and lists in Perl with an example.
33. How can create hashes, manipulate hashes and invert a hash in Perl.
34. What is “scalar” context, “list” context, “void” context? Would you be able to write an example
to demonstrate how they differ.
35. Explain sysread and syswrite functions with an example in Perl.
36. How can define subroutine and call a subroutine in Perl. Explain it with an example.
37. Explain about local and global variables concept with an example
38. Write regular expression syntax to extract your name and print the same.
39. List out all modes available in Perl and explain them.
40. Explain about seek function in Perl with an example.
41. What are the modifiers available in Perl explain them with an example?
42. Write a Perl script to capture all the prime numbers between 2 and a number the user gives by
the user.
43. Explain the arguments for Perl Interpreter.
44. Explain "grep" function in Perl.
45. How do you connect to database in Perl?
46. Discuss about Last, next and redo commands.
47. What is a filehandle and write the syntax to create filehandle in Perl.
48. List out the file status checks available in Perl.
49. Define eval function and syntax in Perl.
50. Define ref function and syntax in Perl.
51. Explain about Perl Constructor and Destructor.
52. Discuss about the data structures used in Perl scripts. Discuss various security issues in Perl?
UNIT-III
CO3: Illustrate the PHP Authentication and Methodologies
1. Discuss subroutine prototypes. What are the different types of Looping Statements in PHP?
Discuss them?
2. Discuss various File inclusion statements in PHP
3. List out and explain the string functions in PHP.
4. List out the statements that are used to connect PHP with MySQL.
5. What are the different types of errors in PHP?
6. Explain about various data types in PHP.
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7. How can u simulate C structs with pack and unpack functions?
8. Differentiate between shell scripting and Perl.
9. How to validate a form in PHP? Explain it with an example.
10. What are the built-in functions available in PHP?

11. How can you create a user define function in PHP explain it with an example?
12. Describe about the security vulnerability of PHP.
13. What is the actually used PHP version?
14. What is the function file_get_contents () useful for?
15. What is the function mysql_pconnect () useful for?
16. Differentiate between GET and POST methods?
17. How to set cookies in PHP?
18. Write down the code for save an uploaded file in php?
19. Define Object-Oriented Methodology in PHP.
20. Difference between mysql_connect and mysql_pconnect.
21. How can we validate form data in PHP?
22. What are the features of PHP?
23. What is the functionality of the function strstr and stristr?
24. Explain about Arrays in PHP.
25. What type of inheritance that PHP supports.
26. List out the predefined classes in PHP.
27. How will you concatenate two strings in PHP?
28. How to upload error messages in PHP?
29. Discuss about PHP’s File-Upload Functions in PHP.
30. How to determine Whether a File Was Uploaded or not in PHP?
31. Explain the scenario in HTTP authentication in PHP.
32. Explain how to submit form without a submit button.
33. How to build a website by using PHP?
34. How to Move an uploaded file in PHP?
35. Discuss about PHP’s file download functions in PHP.
36. Discuss about parameter passing mechanisms of PHP.
37. List and discuss various data types available in PHP. How toAuthenticate a PHP user?
38. Explain how to create and call a function in PHP. Explain with an example Script.
39. Discuss various file inclusion statements in PHP. Discuss different Authentication Mechanisms.
40. List the procedure for embedding multiple PHP code blocks in web pages with sample example.
41. Explain briefly the four delimitation variants of PHP. Discuss different Methodologies of PHP.
42. What is a web form in PHP? Explain it with an example.
43. Explain the procedure to send a Plain-Text E-mail in PHP.
44. Explain Hard Coded, File Based methodologies in php.
45. Explain Database Based, IP Based methodologies in php.
UNIT IV
CO4: Examine the internet ware application, security issues and frame works for application.
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1. How do you find the length of a string without using string length command in Tcl?
2. How to run a package in Tcl?
3. How to increment each element in a list?
4. How to write a startup script in win runner?
5. How can we create a standalone program in case Tcl isn't installed?
6. How can you create/use association lists or property lists?
7. Explain about append command in Tcl .
8. List out all format conversions in Tcl.
9. Explain about append proc Command in Tcl.

10. List out the file open access arguments in Tcl.
11. Explain about regexp command in Tcl.
12. What is the purpose of expr command in Tcl ?
13. Explain about puts and gets commands in Tcl.
14. List out all format flags in Tcl.
15. What is the purpose of scan command in Tcl?
16. Explain about format Command in Tcl.
17. Describe TCL structure and give a brief note on example of parsing. Explain different input and
output commands in TCL.
18. Explain about integrating TCL into an existing application.
19. What are the different rules of TCL.
20. Discuss the event-model of TCL. How to add and delete members of a list in TCL.
21. Describe briefly about namespaces in TCL. Explain about Recursion and Procedures in TCL.
22. Explain the concept of event driven programming. Discuss security issues in Tcl.
23. Write a short note on TK- Visual tool kits.
24. Explain events and its usage in TK with examples. List out Fundamental Concepts of Tk.
25. Explain the out load feature of TCL. Discuss various modules in Tcl.
26. Describe about integrating TCL into an existing application. Define Exception Handling?
27. Explain about Perl toolkits. Explain how it is different from TCL/TK.
28. Explain about llength, lindex, and lrange commands with example.
29. Write a Tcl program to find a file by name.
30. List out Tcl commands used for file access
31. List out all Tcl file command options.
32. Explain uplevel , eval, global Commands in Tcl with example.
UNIT-V
CO5: Explain the Python object oriented concepts.
1. Explain about the interaction between different components of a web framework.

2. Discuss documenting and testing python code. How to Build Efficient Python Web Systems.
3. Explain the built in functions and methods in python. Explain about Web Application
Framework.
4. Explain how to handle an exception in python? Explain briefly.
5. What are the different types of Lists and List methods in python?
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6. Explain what are Flask and its benefits in Python.
7. Illustrate the classical web server architecture with a neat diagram. Explain type and range
functions Python with example.
8. Describe how data imports from modules into the python programming environment.
9. What are modules? Explain how data imports from modules into the python programming
environment.
10. Explain the distinction between top-down and bottom-up approach in Python.
11. Describe different types of operators supported by python with an example for each.
12. Explain different ways of passing arguments to functions.
13. Draw and explain the namespace relationship between an application and imported modules.
14. Describe Web application framework using Python.
15. Explain how python is compared with other programming languages.
16. List out the sequence types that python supports. Explain in detail about strings.
17. Explain in detail about lists and tuples?
18. Discuss about mutable and immutable types of objects.
19. Explain simple statements in Python.
20. Explain the working of for and while loop.
21. Describe the concept of functions with an example.
22. Explain the features of Python language.
23. Explain built-in functions for numeric types.
24. Discuss about built-in functions and methods for files.
25. Explain Exception Handling mechanism in Python.
18. Assignment Questions

Assignment-I
1. Explain the modern applications of scripting languages.
2. Name and explain various characteristics of a scripting language.
3. List some examples for server side scripting and client side scripting languages.
4. Illustratethe traditional applications of scripting languages.
5. Summarize Dynamic Web pages.
Assignment-II
1. Explain about the two PHP functions that are helpful in file-upload process?
2. List out the predefined classes in PHP.
3. Summarizefiner points of looping concept in PERL.
4. Analyze the substitute for the nth occurrence in PERL?
5. Explain Dirty Hands Internet Programming
Assignment-III
1. List out the statements that are used to connect PHP with MySQL.
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2. Explain about references to arrays and hashes. Illustrate howRegular Expressions are used in
PHP.
3. Illustratethe embedding of multiple code blocks with an example.
4. Demonstrate database connectivity with PHP with suitable example.
5. Elaborate the procedure to ping a server in PHP with an example.
Assignment-IV
1. List out the important widget classes?

2. Discuss with an example how Tk is used for implementing event driven programs.
3. Explain about Mcrypt package?
4. Apply a Tcl program to find a file by name.
5. Outline three forms of substitutions.
Assignment V
1. Explain the namespace relationship between an application and imported modules?
2. Create a python program to find numbers divisible by another number?
3. Categorize ways of passing arguments to functions.
4. Distinguish between top-down and bottom-up approach in Python?
5. Create a Python program to multiply a 5x3 matrix by a 3x2 matrix and create a real matrix
product.
19. Unit wise Quiz Questions

Unit-1
1.What is a set of instructions that automates the execution of tasks which would otherwise be done one-
by-one by a human operator called?
a) Script
b)Program
c)Algorithm
d)Procedure
e)Routine
Answer: a
2.Which of the following is not used as a scripting language?

a)C++
b)JavaScript
c)Perl
d)AppleScript
e)VBScript’
Answer: b
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3.Which of the following scripting languages is the most popular for client-side scripting of dynamic
content of web pages?
a)JavaScript
b)Perl
c)AppleScript
d)Python
e)Ruby
Answer: a
4. Which computer (programming) language (or script) is described here?

a)pascal
b)python
c)perl
d)php
Answer: a
5.Which computer (programming) language (or script) is described here?

a)c++
b)matlab
c)fortan
d)basic
Answer: a
6.Scripting languages are usually characterized as _______ languages ,but it is an over simplication.
a) compiled
b)interpreted
c)integrated
d)simple
Answer: b
7. A shell script could be regarded as an example of automation, in which the command Interpreter is
driven by a script held in a file rather than by a real user. However, we tend to this kind of behaviour as
a)programming extension
b)Application Extension
c) batch languages.
d)Language Extension
Answer: b
8. The applications that comprise modern Scripting include:

a) Visual scripting
b) Using scriptable components
c)Client-side and server-side Web Scripting.
d)all the above
Answer: d
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9. Alternatives to Visual Basic for visual scripting in the Windows environment include
a) Tcl/Tk
b) Perl-Tk
c)perl
d)python
Answer: b
10. A program might be written in a conventional language like C++, but component architectures come
into their own when they are based on ______ components
a)programming components
b)integrated components
c)scripting components
d)all the above
Answer: c
UNIT-II
1. When you’re pattern matching, you describe the pattern using:
A. A string in double quotes
B. A MySQL select statement
C. A regular expression
D. A template
Ans: C
2. Perl is:
A. A type of interactive web page
B. A programming language
C. An application program
D. A relational database
Ans: B
3. The printf format “%6.2f” displays a number …

A. At least six columns wide in total, with two figures after the decimal place
B. Exactly six digits before the decimal place, and two digits after
C. At least six digits before the decimal place, and two digits after
D. Exactly six columns wide in total, with two figures after the decimal place
Ans: A
4. The statement open (FH,”abc.txt”);

A. opens the file abc.txt for overwriting
B. opens the file abc.txt for reading
C. contains an error, so won’t compile
D. opens the file abc.txt for appending
Ans: B
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5. When you create a variable, you may assume it starts off containing:
A. 1
B. You may not make any assumption
C. The boolean value “false”
D. A null string (or 0 arithmetically)
Ans: D
6. Which brackets do you use to change the order of precedence of operations?

A. Curly braces
B. Square brackets
C. Round brackets
D. You don’t use brackets in Perl – you write in RPN (Reverse Polish Notation)
Ans: C
7. Which of the following tests if the string held in $qn includes the word “perl”?
A. if ($qn =~ /perl/) …..
B. if ($qn == “perl”) ….
C. if ($qn = “perl”) …..
D. if ($qn eq “perl”) …..
Ans: B
8. Which of these is NOT available for Perl:

A. Perl, legally, for free
B. Individual and site licenses
C. Full documentation of the language which you can print out yourself
D. A Carribean cruise in 2006 on which you can meet some of the Perl gurus.
Ans: C
9. Perl was first released in:

A. 1978
B. 1998
C. Perl hasn’t yet been released
D. 1988
Ans: D
10. What will be printed by the code below?

58% on 4261 times asked
my $val = ‘x’;
print ref($val);
A. SCALAR
B. empty value
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C. STRING
D. “not a reference”
Ans: B
11. What is a file handle used for?

A. Reading binary data from a file into a scalar variable
B. Finding where a file is on the disc
C. Accessing a disc file or other input/output stream
D. Deleting, moving or renaming a file
Ans: A
12. The “%” operator returns:

A. The larger of two numbers e.g. 200 % 20 would return 200
B. A percentage of a number e.g. 200 % 20 would return 40
C. The remainder when one number is divided by another
D. The remainder when one number is divided by another e.g. 18 % 7 would return 5
Ans: C
13. What is Perl?

A. Practical Extraction and Report Language
B. Practice for Exclusive and Report Language
C. Practical Extraction and Report Learning
D. Practical Exclusive and Report Language
Ans: A
14. Which of the following is used in perl?

A. else if
B. elseif
C. elsif
D. elif
Ans: C
15. The $_ variable

A. holds the last pattern matched.
B. holds the output field separator.
C. identifies the current command line argument.
D. none of the above is correct.
Ans: D
16. The getdir command

A. Reads a single file name from an open directory handle.
B. Reads the rest of the file names from an open directory handle.
C. Only works after anopendir command.
D. Is not a perl command.
Ans: D
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17. The value of the expression $yards += 10
A. is 10.
B. is true.
C. cannot be determined from the information given.
D. relies on which command line arguments were used.
Ans: C
18. $x = @y[2 .. 4]
assigns$x the third, fourth and fifth elements of the y array concatenated together.
A. assigns$y[4] to $x.
B. assigns$y[2] to $x.
C. assigns 3 to$x.
Ans: B
19. Which of the following commands will turn a scalar ($str)into an array of characters?
A. @a = split($str).
B. @a = split(/\s/, $str).
C. This task can be done in Perl but none of the above commands do it.
Ans: C
20.
A. more than one of the above is correct.
B. identifies any command line arguments starting with a-.
C. will read the standard input if no arguments are listed on the command line.
D. can be used to read each line in every file name listed on the command line.
Ans: A
21) In Perl, a/n ________ is a special character or a sequence that will define the number of times the
previous character or sequence appears.
a) character class
b) metacharacter
c) assertion
d) quantifier
Ans: d
22) In Perl, the following will result in which of the following, if the prize is currently “5 dollars” print
‘You won $prize’;
a) You won $5.00
b) You won 5 dollars
c) You won $prize
d) You won $5
Ans: c
23) In Perl, the words function and subroutines are used interchangeably.
a) True
262
b) False
Ans: a
24) In Perl, which of the following are file handles?

a) stdquit
b) stdend
c) stdin
d) stdout
e) C&D
Ans: e
25) In Perl, which switch is used for printing out warnings about typographical errors in your script?
a) -P
b) -W
c) -p
d) -w
Ans: d
26) In Perl, “stat” returns a thirteen element array with which of the following values?
a) Perl version ID
b) Web server ID
c) Last access
d) Inode number
e) C&E
Ans: e
27) CGI is a programming language.

a) True
b) False
Ans: b
28) In Perl, scalar variables always begin with a ________ sign.

a) #
b) @
c) %
d) $
Ans: d

my $val = {};
print ref($val);
A. empty value
B. ARRAY
C. HASH
D. SCALAR
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E. True
Ans: C

my @a = (0, 1, 2);
my $b = @a;
print $b;
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. 0 1 2
Ans: D
Unit-III
1.A script is a
a)Program or sequence of instructions that is interpreted or carried out by processor directly
b)Program or sequence of instruction that is interpreted or carried out by another program
c)Program or sequence of instruction that is interpreted or carried out by web server only
d) None of above
Answer: b
2. mysql_connect( ) does not take following parameter

a)database host
b)user ID
c)password
d)database name
Answer: d
3. When compared to the compiled program, scripts run

a)Faster
b)Slower
c)The execution speed is similar
d) All of above
Answer: b
4.PHP is a widely used ________ scripting language that is especially suited for web development and
can be embedded into html
a)Open source general purpose
b)Proprietary general purpose
c)Open source special purpose
d)Proprietary special purpose
Answer: a
5. Which of the following is not true?

a) PHP can be used to develop web applications.
b)PHP makes a website dynamic.
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c)PHP applications cannot be compiled.
d)PHP cannot be embedded into html.
Answer: d
7. Which of the following variables is not a predefined variable?

a)$get
b) ask
c) $request
d)$post
Answer: b
8. You can define a constant by using the define() function. Once a constant is defined
a)It can never be changed or undefined
b)It can never be changed but can be undefined
c)It can be changed but cannot be undefined
d)It can be changed and can be undefined
Answer: a
9.The following piece of script will output:

<?
$email=’admin@psexam.com’;
$new=strstr($email, ‘@&rs”);
print $new;
?>
a) admin
b) admin@psexam
c) @psexam.com
d) psexam.com
Answer: c
10. Which of the following function returns the number of characters in a string variable?
a) count($variable)
b)len($variable)
c) strcount($variable)
d)strlen($variable)
Answer: d
11. When you need to obtain the ASCII value of a character which of the following function you apply
in PHP?
a)chr( );
b)asc( );
c) ord( );
d) val( );
Answer: c
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12. A variable $word is set to “HELLO WORLD”, which of the following script returns in title case?
a)echo ucwords($word)
b)echo ucwords(strtolower($word)
c)echo ucfirst($word)
d)echo ucfirst(strtolower($word)
Answer: b
13. The difference between include() and require()

a)are different how they handle failure
b)both are same in every aspects
c)is include() produced a Fatal Error while require results in a Warning
d)none of above
Answer: a
14. When a file is included the code it contains, behave for variable scope of the line on which the
include occurs
a)Any variable available at that line in the calling file will be available within the called file from that
point
b)Any variable available at that line in the calling file will not be available within the called file
c)Variables are local in both called and calling files
d)None of above
Answer: a
15. Which of the following method sends input to a script via a URL?
a)Get
b)Post
c)Both
d)None
Answer: a
16. Which of the following method is suitable when you need to send larger form submissions?
a)Get
b)Post
c)Both Get and Post
d)There is no direct way for larger form. You need to store them in a file and retrieve
Answer:b
17. Which of the following mode of fopen() function opens a file only for writing. If a file with that
name does not exist, attempts to create a new file. If the file exist, place the file pointer at the end of the
file after all other data.
a)W
b)W+
c)A
d)A+
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Answer:c
18. The function setcookie( ) is used to
a) Enable or disable cookie support
b)Declare cookie variables
c)Store data in cookie variable
d)All of above
Answer:c
19. To work with remote files in PHP you need to enable

a) allow_url_fopen
b)allow_remote_files
c)both of above
d)none of above
Answer:a
20. fopen($file_doc,”r+&rd”)opens a file for

a) reading
b)writin
c) none of above
d) both of above
Answer:d
21. In mail($param2, $param2, $param3, $param4), the $param2 contains:

a)The message
b)The recipient
c)The header
d)The subject
Answer:d
22. Study following steps and determine the correct order

(1) Open a connection to MySql server
(2) Execute the SQL query
(3) Fetch the data from query
(4) Select database
(5) Close Connection
a)1, 4, 2, 3, 5
b)4, 1, 2, 3, 5
c)1, 5, 4, 2, 1
d)4, 1, 3, 2, 5
Answer:a
23. Which of the following is not a session function?

a) sssion_decode
b) session_destroy
c) session_id
d)session_pw
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Answer:d
24. When uploading a file if the UPLOAD_ERR-OK contains value 0 it means

a)Uplaod is not successful, error occurred
b)The file uploaded with success
c) Uploaded file size is 0
d)File upload progress is 0% completed
Answer:b
25.Which of the following delimiter syntax is PHP's default delimiter syntax

a)<? php ?>
b)<% %>
c)<? ?>
d)<script language="php"></script>
Answer:a
26.Which of the following statement produce different output

a) <?echo "This is php example"; ?>
b) P="This is php example"; ?>
c)<?PHP echo "This is php example"; php?>
d)<script language="php"> print "This is php example";</script>
Answer:c
Unit-IV
1.TCL Full form:

a)Tool complex language
b)Tool component language
c)Tool compiled language
d)Tool command language
Answer: d
2. Tcl was conceived as an embedded interpreter which would

a) command-line interface
b)GUI
C)Scripting
d)All the above
Answer: a
3. 'Pure Tcl' applications have become so common that the recently released a product includes a
wrapper that creates a single executable file containing everything needed to run a Tcl application.
a) Tclets
b)Tclpro
c)glue
d) tclsh
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Answer: b
4.The command is scanned from left to right and broken into a sequence of sub-strings called words as
described this process is described as
a)scripting
b)perl
c)parsing
d)none
Answer: c
5. If a word starts with an opening square bracket, the interpreter is called recursively to process
subsequent characters as
a) Tcl script
b) script terminator
c) backtick
d)All the above
Answer: a
6._____ Used for representing the array of elements that are environmental variables.
a)argv0
b)argv
c)env
d)none
Answer: c
7. ______Used for representing the array of elements with objects including byteOrder, machine,
osVersion, platform, and os.
a)tcl_precision
b)tcl_prompt1
c) tcl_prompt2
d) tcl_platform
Answer: d
8. Tcl is a dynamically typed language

a)True
b)false
Answer: a
9._______ Removes trimcharacters in left end of string.The default trimcharacters is whitespace

a)trimright string ?trimcharacters?
b) trim string ?trimcharacters?
c) trimleft string ?trimcharacters?
d)none
Answer: a
10. An example for procedure with arguments in TCL is shown below –

#!/usr/bin/tclsh
269
proc add {a b} {
return [expr $a+$b]
}
puts [add 10 30]
a)true
b)false
Answer: a
UNIT-V
1. Is Python case sensitive when dealing with identifiers?

a) yes
b) no
c) machine dependent
d) none of the mentioned
Answer: a
2. What is the maximum possible length of an identifier?
a) 31 characters
b) 63 characters
c) 79 characters
Answer: d.
3. Which of the following is invalid?
a) _a = 1
b) __a = 1
c) __str__ = 1
Answer: d
4. Which of the following is an invalid variable?
a) my_string_1
b) 1st_string
c) foo
d) _
Answer: b
5. Why are local variable names beginning with an underscore discouraged?
a) they are used to indicate a private variables of a class
b) they confuse the interpreter
c) they are used to indicate global variables
d) they slow down execution
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Answer: a.
6. Which of the following is not a keyword?
a) eval
b) assert
c) nonlocal
d) pass
Answer: a
7. All keywords in Python are in _________
a) lower case
b) UPPER CASE
c) Capitalized
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: d
8. Which of the following is true for variable names in Python?
a) unlimited length
b) all private members must have leading and trailing underscores
c) underscore and ampersand are the only two special characters allowed
Answer: a
9. Which of the following is an invalid statement?

a) abc = 1,000,000
b) a b c = 1000 2000 3000
c) a,b,c = 1000, 2000, 3000
d) a_b_c = 1,000,000
Answer: b.
10. Which of the following cannot be a variable?
a) __init__
b) in
c) it
d) on
Answer: b
11. Which is the correct operator for power(xy)?

a) X^y
b) X**y
c) X^^y
14. What is the answer to this expression, 22 % 3 is?

a) 7
271
b) 1
c) 0
d) 5
Answer: b
15. Mathematical operations can be performed on a string.

a) True
b) False
Answer: b
16. Operators with the same precedence are evaluated in which manner?
a) Left to Right
b) Right to Left
c) Can’t say
Answer: a
17. What is the output of this expression, 3*1**3?
a) 27
b) 9
c) 3
d) 1
Answer: c
18. Which one of the following has the same precedence level?
a) Addition and Subtraction
b) Multiplication, Division and Addition
c) Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction
d) Addition and Multiplication
Answer: a
19. The expression Int(x) implies that the variable x is converted to integer.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a
20. Which one of the following has the highest precedence in the expression?
a) Exponential
b) Addition
c) Multiplication
d) Parentheses
Answer: d
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21. Is Python case sensitive when dealing with identifiers?
a) yes
b) no
c) machine dependent
Answer: a
22. What is the maximum possible length of an identifier?
a) 31 characters
b) 63 characters
c) 79 characters
Answer: d
23. Which of the following is invalid?

a) _a = 1
b) __a = 1
c) __str__ = 1
Answer: d
24. Which of the following is an invalid variable?

a) my_string_1
b) 1st_string
c) foo
d) _
Answer: b
25. Why are local variable names beginning with an underscore discouraged?
a) they are used to indicate a private variables of a class
b) they confuse the interpreter
c) they are used to indicate global variables
d) they slow down execution
Answer: a
26. Which of the following is not a keyword?

a) eval
b) assert
c) nonlocal
d) pass
Answer: a.
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27. All keywords in Python are in _________
a) lower case
b) UPPER CASE
c) Capitalized
Answer: d
28. Which of the following is true for variable names in Python?

a) unlimited length
b) all private members must have leading and trailing underscores
c) underscore and ampersand are the only two special characters allowed
Answer: a
29. Which of the following is an invalid statement?

a) abc = 1,000,000
b) a b c = 1000 2000 3000
c) a,b,c = 1000, 2000, 3000
d) a_b_c = 1,000,000
Answer: b
30. Which of the following cannot be a variable?

a) __init__
b) in
c) it
d) on
Answer: b
20.Tutorial Problems
-----No Tutorials----
Mapping of Assignment questions and Tutorials with Bloom’s taxonomy

Course Name: SCRIPTING LANGUAGES Course Code: 18CS3107
Class: B.Tech III Year CSE – I SEM - Section: A, B, C, D, E
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Academic Year: 2020-21
Level-1: Remembering Level-2: understanding Level-3: Applying
Level-4: Analyzing Level-5: Evaluating Level-6: Creating
Assignment s Question no. Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6
1 √
Assignment- 1 2 √
3 √
4 √
5 √
1 √
Assignment- 2 2 √
3 √
4 √
5 √
1 √
Assignment- 3 2 √
3 √
4 √
5 √
1 √
Assignment- 4 2 √
3 √
4 √
5 √
1 √
Assignment- 5 2 √
3 √
4 √
5 √
21.Known gaps
-No-
22. Discussion Topics
1. Linux shell.
2. Shell scripting.
3. Linux Operating system basic commands.
4. Server side scripting and Client side scripting languages.
5. PHP and Perl scripting advanced concept
23. References, Journals, websites and E-links

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REFERRENCE BOOKS:
1. Perl Power, J.RFlynt, Cengage Learning.
2. PHP 6 Fast and Easy Web Development, Julie Meloni and Matt Telles, Cengage Learning
Publications.
3. PHP and MySQL by Example, E.Quigley, Prentice HalI(Pearson).
4. Tcl and the Tk Tool kit, John K Ousterhout, Pearson Education.
5. Programming Python,M.Lutz.
JOURNALS ,WEB SITES

https://learn.perl.org/books/beginning-perl/
https://www.w3schools.com/php/
https://www.w3schools.com/python/
https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/online-compiler/
https://www.python.org/about/gettingstarted/
http://perl-begin.org/tutorials/
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/perl
24.Quality Measurement sheets
a. Course End Survey

b. Teaching Evaluation
276
25. Student List
GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M). R.R.Dist, TS 501 301
AUTONOMOUS
STUDENT NOMINAL ROLL
No. Admin/B.Tech/SR/12 Rev No: 0
Academic Year 2021-22 Date: 07.08.2021
Class & Branch : B.Tech (CSE) III Year I Sem Section: A Batch : 2019
Sl.No. Admn No. Student Name Sl.No. Admn No. Student Name
1 19R11A0501 Mr. ADIT S KUMAR 27 19R11A0528 Mr. NUNE SAI ANIKETH

2 19R11A0502 Mr. AKULA RAVI PRAKASH 28 19R11A0529 Miss PAMMI SESHU MANASA
3 19R11A0503 Mr. ALIMI UDAYKIRAN 29 19R11A0530 Mr. PEESARI DILEEP REDDY
4 19R11A0504 Mr. CHAMAKURA DINESH 30 19R11A0531 Mr. POLISETTY ANDREW BALA ABHILASH
5 19R11A0505 Mr. DUGGIRALA HIMAA SAMIIRR 31 19R11A0532 Mr. POTHUGANTI DHEERAJ REDDY
6 19R11A0507 Miss DEVULAPALLI SREE NAGA BHAVYA 32 19R11A0533 Mr. R MADHAVA SAI
7 19R11A0508 Miss ESLAVATH AKHILA 33 19R11A0534 Mr. ROHIT ACHYUTUNI
8 19R11A0509 Mr. G EESHWAR 34 19R11A0535 Mr. SAMBARI MANIKANTA
9 19R11A0510 Miss GANTAA JHANSI LAKSHMI 35 19R11A0536 Mr. SHAIK AASIM
10 19R11A0511 Mr. GATTIGORLA DINESH 36 19R11A0537 Mr. SHIVALINGALA SAI TEJA GOUD
11 19R11A0512 Mr. GOVARDHANAM SREEMANT 37 19R11A0538 Mr. SRIRANGAM VENKATA KRISHNA NAGA SAI
12 19R11A0513 Mr. GOUTE BHANU PRAKASH 38 19R11A0539 Mr. T SHAILENDRA SAINATH
13 19R11A0514 Miss GOUTE BHARGAVI 39 19R11A0540 Mr. TAMMALI SAKETH SAI
14 19R11A0515 Miss GUNDAMALLA BHAVANA 40 19R11A0541 Mr. V ARUN VALLIAPPAN
15 19R11A0516 Miss JATOTHU MAIBU 41 19R11A0542 Miss V JEESHITHA
16 19R11A0517 Mr. KAMUJU NOVA 42 19R11A0543 Miss VALLURU POOJA
17 19R11A0518 Miss KEMSARAM SOWMYA SREE 43 19R11A0544 Miss VANKAYALAPATI VINITHA
18 19R11A0519 Miss KORAPOLU SRIYA 44 19R11A0545 Mr. VANAMALA TEJA
19 19R11A0520 Mr. KUNCHE RAVI KUMAR 45 19R11A0546 Mr. VARKUTI DINESH REDDY
20 19R11A0521 Mr. BYRAGOUNI KUSHAL SAI 46 19R11A0547 Mr. VATTURI PARITOSH
21 19R11A0522 Miss MAMIDI LIKHITHA 47 19R11A0548 Miss VUDHANTHI NEERAJA
22 19R11A0523 Mr. MADISHETTI RAVINDER 48 20R15A0501 Miss DUPPALI NIKHITA
23 19R11A0524 Miss MAPATI BHANU SRI 49 20R15A0502 Mr. AMRAJ RAJESH KUMAR
24 19R11A0525 Mr. MEESA SUMITH 50 20R15A0503 Mr. BALABADRA SRIKANTH
25 19R11A0526 Mr. MEHAKAR MAHESH 51 20R15A0504 Mr. ORAGANTI ROHITH GOUD
26 19R11A0527 Miss NALAMACHU SHREYA 52 20R15A0506 Mr. VARUSA MAHESH CHANDRA
277
AUTONOMOUS
Class & Branch : B.Tech (CSE) III Year I Sem Section: B Batch : 2019
1 19R11A0549 Mr. ABDUL SUBHAN PASHA 28 19R11A0576 Mr. MOGULLA AKASH REDDY
2 19R11A0550 Miss AQSA ZAREEN 29 19R11A0577 Mr. MOHAMMED MASLIUDDIN
3 19R11A0551 Miss BANDARU VAISHNAVI 30 19R11A0578 Mr. MOOSARAMTHOTA VARUN RAJ
4 19R11A0552 Miss BANURI BHAVANA REDDY 31 19R11A0579 Miss NAGULAPALLI LASYA PRIYA
5 19R11A0553 Mr. BHARATAM SAI SACHIN 32 19R11A0580 Miss NANDINI TRIPATHI
6 19R11A0554 Mr. BINDESH YADAV 33 19R11A0581 Mr. NANDULA ROHAN KAUSIK
7 19R11A0555 Miss BOLLABOINA MADHAVI 34 19R11A0582 Mr. NUNE SAI KRISHNA
8 19R11A0556 Mr. CHINTALA ABHISHEK 35 19R11A0583 Mr. P VIVEKVARDHAN
9 19R11A0557 Mr. CHINTALA HEMANTH KUMAR 36 19R11A0584 Mr. PAMIDITI V N SIDDHARTHA
10 19R11A0558 Miss CHINTHAKINDI BHAVANI 37 19R11A0585 Mr. PARKIBANDA NAREN CHARY
11 19R11A0559 Miss CHINTHAPANDU SRAVYA SRI 38 19R11A0586 Mr. PATTAPU KETHAN
12 19R11A0560 Mr. DASARI KARTHIK REDDY 39 19R11A0587 Miss PEDDURI VEENA VANI
13 19R11A0561 Mr. DHARANGULA DAYAKAR 40 19R11A0588 Mr. RAVULA BALA SUBRAMANYAM
14 19R11A0562 Miss FARANISHATH 41 19R11A0589 Miss RITIKAA KAILAS
15 19R11A0563 Miss G VAISHNAVI 42 19R11A0590 Mr. SAMMETA ASHOK KUMAR
16 19R11A0564 Mr. GANDEM SIVANAGA SAI AKHIL 43 19R11A0591 Mr. SIRISANAGANDLA VENU
17 19R11A0565 Mr. GUMPULA RAJU BABU 44 19R11A0592 Miss TARAKA SANJANA
18 19R11A0566 Miss GURRM SHRUTHI 45 19R11A0593 Mr. THALLA LOKESH REDDy
19 19R11A0567 Miss JONDHALE PALLAVI 46 19R11A0594 Mr. TUMMEDA AMITH PAAVAN
20 19R11A0568 Mr. KATTA SURYA VARDHAN REDDY 47 19R11A0595 Miss V SRIKRUTHI
21 19R11A0569 Mr. KEMIDI BHARATH KUMAR 48 19R11A0596 Miss VEERAMOSU SRI PRIYA
22 19R11A0570 Mr. KHAMBHAMMETTU GUNA 49 20R15A0507 Miss BANDOJU RAVALI
23 19R11A0571 Mr. L SHASHIDHAR 50 20R15A0508 Miss VELLANKI MOUNIKA
24 19R11A0572 Miss MAANIKONDA SWETHA 51 20R15A0509 Mr. DUSARI UDAY KUMAR
25 19R11A0573 Mr. MACHERLA CHANDAN SAI 52 20R15A0510 Mr. KALAVENI ARAVIND KUMAR
26 19R11A0574 Mr. MANNE VINAY REDDY 53 20R15A0511 Mr. NEMURI SHARATH CHANDRA
27 19R11A0575 Miss MARKALA MANASWINI
278
AUTONOMOUS
Section:
Class & Branch : B.Tech (CSE) III Year I Sem B Batch : 2019
1 19R11A0549 Mr. ABDUL SUBHAN PASHA 28 19R11A0576 Mr. MOGULLA AKASH REDDY
2 19R11A0550 Miss AQSA ZAREEN 29 19R11A0577 Mr. MOHAMMED MASLIUDDIN
Mr. MOOSARAMTHOTA VARUN
3 19R11A0551 Miss BANDARU VAISHNAVI 30 19R11A0578 RAJ
4 19R11A0552 Miss BANURI BHAVANA REDDY 31 19R11A0579 Miss NAGULAPALLI LASYA PRIYA
5 19R11A0553 Mr. BHARATAM SAI SACHIN 32 19R11A0580 Miss NANDINI TRIPATHI
6 19R11A0554 Mr. BINDESH YADAV 33 19R11A0581 Mr. NANDULA ROHAN KAUSIK
7 19R11A0555 Miss BOLLABOINA MADHAVI 34 19R11A0582 Mr. NUNE SAI KRISHNA
8 19R11A0556 Mr. CHINTALA ABHISHEK 35 19R11A0583 Mr. P VIVEKVARDHAN
9 19R11A0557 Mr. CHINTALA HEMANTH KUMAR 36 19R11A0584 Mr. PAMIDITI V N SIDDHARTHA
10 19R11A0558 Miss CHINTHAKINDI BHAVANI 37 19R11A0585 Mr. PARKIBANDA NAREN CHARY
11 19R11A0559 Miss CHINTHAPANDU SRAVYA SRI 38 19R11A0586 Mr. PATTAPU KETHAN
12 19R11A0560 Mr. DASARI KARTHIK REDDY 39 19R11A0587 Miss PEDDURI VEENA VANI
Mr. RAVULA BALA
13 19R11A0561 Mr. DHARANGULA DAYAKAR 40 19R11A0588 SUBRAMANYAM
14 19R11A0562 Miss FARANISHATH 41 19R11A0589 Miss RITIKAA KAILAS
15 19R11A0563 Miss G VAISHNAVI 42 19R11A0590 Mr. SAMMETA ASHOK KUMAR
Mr. GANDEM SIVANAGA SAI
16 19R11A0564 AKHIL 43 19R11A0591 Mr. SIRISANAGANDLA VENU
17 19R11A0565 Mr. GUMPULA RAJU BABU 44 19R11A0592 Miss TARAKA SANJANA
18 19R11A0566 Miss GURRM SHRUTHI 45 19R11A0593 Mr. THALLA LOKESH REDDy
19 19R11A0567 Miss JONDHALE PALLAVI 46 19R11A0594 Mr. TUMMEDA AMITH PAAVAN
Mr. KATTA SURYA VARDHAN
20 19R11A0568 REDDY 47 19R11A0595 Miss V SRIKRUTHI
21 19R11A0569 Mr. KEMIDI BHARATH KUMAR 48 19R11A0596 Miss VEERAMOSU SRI PRIYA
22 19R11A0570 Mr. KHAMBHAMMETTU GUNA 49 20R15A0507 Miss BANDOJU RAVALI
23 19R11A0571 Mr. L SHASHIDHAR 50 20R15A0508 Miss VELLANKI MOUNIKA
24 19R11A0572 Miss MAANIKONDA SWETHA 51 20R15A0509 Mr. DUSARI UDAY KUMAR
25 19R11A0573 Mr. MACHERLA CHANDAN SAI 52 20R15A0510 Mr. KALAVENI ARAVIND KUMAR
26 19R11A0574 Mr. MANNE VINAY REDDY 53 20R15A0511 Mr. NEMURI SHARATH CHANDRA
27 19R11A0575 Miss MARKALA MANASWINI
279
AUTONOMOUS
Section:
Class & Branch : B.Tech (CSE) III Year I Sem C Batch : 2019
1 18R11A05B1 Mr. KASTHALA SAI KALYAN 29 19R11A05C4 Mr. MUSTHYALA SRAVANI
2 19R11A0597 Mr. A KOSHIK KUMAR 30 19R11A05C5 Miss NAMALA DEEPTHI
3 19R11A0598 Mr. BATHULA SREENU 31 19R11A05C6 Mr. NANUVALA TULASI RAM
4 19R11A0599 Mr. BETHI VISHWAMBHAR 32 19R11A05C7 Miss NARRA NAVYA SRI
5 19R11A05A0 Mr. BHOOPALAM KUSHAL 33 19R11A05C8 Miss PALLEM BHOOMIKA
6 19R11A05A1 Mr. BHUVAN VARMA K 34 19R11A05C9 Mr. PANYAM BADRINATH REDDY
7 19R11A05A2 Mr. DHEERAVATH RAMESH NAYAK 35 19R11A05D0 Miss PEDDINENI JAHNAVI
8 19R11A05A3 Mr. DONTHAM S V ABHIRAM 36 19R11A05D1 Mr. PINJARI JUNAID AHMED
9 19R11A05A4 Mr. GADE HARSHAVARDHAN 37 19R11A05D2 Miss PRAJNA S
10 19R11A05A5 Miss GAJJI AKSHITHA 38 19R11A05D3 Mr. SAI NARENDER REDDY BORA
11 19R11A05A6 Mr. GALIGUTTA VINAY REDDY 39 19R11A05D4 Miss SAMYUKTHA ALFRED
12 19R11A05A7 Mr. GANGAPURAM SAI RAM 40 19R11A05D5 Mr. SARALA VINEETH
13 19R11A05A8 Miss GILAKATHULA APOORVA 41 19R11A05D6 Mr. SHIVA PAVAN SUSHANTH
14 19R11A05A9 Mr. K BHARATH KUMAR 42 19R11A05D7 Mr. SHAIK RAHUL PASHA
15 19R11A05B0 Miss K MEGHANA 43 19R11A05D8 Miss T N D S SNIGDHA
16 19R11A05B1 Mr. K VEEREN VISHWANTH SAI 44 19R11A05D9 Miss TADEM MANVITHA
Mr. KANKANALA HEMANTH
17 19R11A05B2 REDDY 45 19R11A05E0 Miss TADOORI LAKSHMI PRASANNA
18 19R11A05B3 Miss KONDA HARSHITA 46 19R11A05E1 Mr. V SAI PRAKASH CHARY
19 19R11A05B4 Mr. L GOVIND NAYAK 47 19R11A05E2 Mr. V TEJA
20 19R11A05B5 Mr. LAKKIREDDY VINAY REDDY 48 19R11A05E3 Miss VALLAPUREDDY NIKHITA REDDY
21 19R11A05B6 Mr. LIKKI ABHINAY REDDY 49 19R11A05E4 Miss VANKADOTH LIKITHA
22 19R11A05B7 Mr. MADDULA MAHESH REDDY 50 19R11A05H5 Miss KOMAROOL SAI KEERTHANA
Mr. PADIDOJU SAI GYANESHWAR
23 19R11A05B8 Mr. MADUPU SWARAN SUJITH 51 20R15A0512 CHARY
24 19R11A05B9 Miss MANDAVA LIKITHA 52 20R15A0513 Mr. SIRRA SANDEEP
Mr. MANNAVA KRISHNA
25 19R11A05C0 CHAITANYA 53 20R15A0514 Mr. THATIKONDA SAI MANISH
26 19R11A05C1 Miss MARAM TEJASWI 54 20R15A0515 Mr. VALU ROUTHU PAVAN KUMAR
27 19R11A05C2 Miss MERUGU DEEPIKA 55 20R15A0516 Mr. VANAMALA NITHIN
28 19R11A05C3 Mr. MUKKOLLU DINESH
280
AUTONOMOUS
Section:
Class & Branch : B.Tech (CSE) III Year I Sem D Batch : 2019
1 18R11A05N6 Mr. SANKALP SAI VUDATHALA 28 19R11A05H1 Mr. KANAMARLAPUDI REVANTH
2 18R11A05P9 Mr. REGUNTA HEMANTH RAJ 29 19R11A05H2 Miss KANCHUMARTHY SRILEKHA
3 19R11A05E5 Miss ARRAM AKHILA 30 19R11A05H3 Mr. KANITHI HEMANTH
4 19R11A05E6 Miss B MAINA 31 19R11A05H4 Miss KATUKAM AKHILA
5 19R11A05E7 Miss BANDI RASMI REDDY 32 19R11A05H6 Miss KOMMU NIHARIKA
6 19R11A05E8 Mr. BEERAM NUTAN PAVAN SAI 33 19R11A05H7 Mr. KRISTAPURAM PAVAN KUMAR
7 19R11A05E9 Miss BHEEMREDDY POOJITHA 34 19R11A05H8 Miss MALLARAPPU MAHESHWARI
8 19R11A05F0 Mr. BOLLEPALLI SHUBHAM GOUD 35 19R11A05H9 Mr. MUKKU DHEERAJ REDDY
9 19R11A05F1 Mr. BUTATI PREETHAM 36 19R11A05J0 Miss MULI MANASA
Mr. CHALLAGOLLA VENKATA
10 19R11A05F2 VIKRAM 37 19R11A05J1 Miss P SHIVANI
11 19R11A05F3 Mr. CHINDAM MANI RAJ 38 19R11A05J2 Miss PALLAPU MANISHA
12 19R11A05F4 Mr. CHINMAI KANALA 39 19R11A05J3 Mr. PULIPAKA SAI ABHIGNU
Mr. DATLA SRIHARSHITH SAI
13 19R11A05F5 VARMA 40 19R11A05J4 Miss PUVVADA ABHINAYA
14 19R11A05F6 Mr. DANDU ARUN KUMAR REDDY 41 19R11A05J5 Miss RACHAPUDI JAYANI
15 19R11A05F7 Mr. DASARI MANNA 42 19R11A05J6 Mr. RAKESH KUMAR BOMSETTY
16 19R11A05F8 Mr. DODLE VENKATESH 43 19R11A05J7 Miss S ASHVITHA
17 19R11A05F9 Miss G MAITHREYI 44 19R11A05J8 Mr. SARABUDLA VIKRAM REDDY
Miss SHANKRAPOLLA SOWMYA
18 19R11A05G0 Mr. G VENNEL YADAV 45 19R11A05J9 REDDY
19 19R11A05G1 Mr. GANTA SANVITH 46 19R11A05K0 Mr. VEESAMSHETTY VARUN
20 19R11A05G2 Miss GAZULA SHEBA RANI 47 19R11A05K1 Miss VISWANADHAPALLI MYTHILI
21 19R11A05G3 Miss GOPAGONI HARIKA 48 19R11A05K2 Miss Y NANDINI
Mr. GUDUMALA R ANISH
22 19R11A05G4 CHANDRA 49 20R15A0517 Miss KARRA EVA
Mr. GUNDABATTINA REVANTH
23 19R11A05G5 TEJA 50 20R15A0518 Mr. JAVVAJI SHOBHAN BABU
24 19R11A05G6 Miss GUNDETI SANNIHITHA 51 20R15A0519 Mr. KONDA KRISHNASAI
25 19R11A05G7 Mr. HEMANTH NELLURI 52 20R15A0520 Mr. MADA SAI KIRAN
26 19R11A05G8 Mr. JAYYARAPU SAI VAMSHI 53 20R15A0521 Mr. METTU MADHURI
27 19R11A05H0 Mr. KALAVAKOLANU SUDARSHAN SHARMA
281
AUTONOMOUS
Section:
Class & Branch : B.Tech (CSE) III Year I Sem E Batch : 2019
1 16R11A05M5 Miss N Nikhila 27 19R11A05M8 Miss KRISHNA SUPRIYA
2 19R11A05K3 Mr. AERVA NAVEENKUMAR 28 19R11A05M9 Mr. MANDA KARTHIK
3 19R11A05K4 Miss AKURATHI PREETHI PAVANI 29 19R11A05N0 Mr. MOHD WAHEEDUDDIN
4 19R11A05K5 Mr. ALLALA ROHITH 30 19R11A05N1 Miss MULA POOJA
5 19R11A05K6 Miss BASANGARI SREENIDHI REDDY 31 19R11A05N2 Mr. MURAHARI AKASH
6 19R11A05K7 Miss BATTU S SHRADDHA PRIYA 32 19R11A05N3 Mr. MUTHYALA VIVEK
7 19R11A05K8 Mr. BAHATAM LOKESH VENKATA ABHINAVA RAJU 33 19R11A05N4 Mr. MYSON SUNNY RAJ
8 19R11A05K9 Miss BOTTA SWATHI 34 19R11A05N5 Miss N J SANJANA
9 19R11A05L0 Mr. BURSU VARUN KUMAR 35 19R11A05N6 Miss N SRI KIRTHANA
10 19R11A05L1 Mr. CHALLA SAIKRISHNA 36 19R11A05N7 Mr. PASALA BALA NIKHIL
11 19R11A05L2 Miss CHERUKU SAHITHISRI 37 19R11A05N8 Mr. PATURI KAUSTUBH
12 19R11A05L3 Miss D VISHNU PRIYA 38 19R11A05N9 Mr. PONNALA SRINIVAS
13 19R11A05L4 Miss DUGGIRALA RAJYALAKSHMI DEVI 39 19R11A05P0 Miss RAYELA BHARGAVI
14 19R11A05L5 Miss G NANDINI LAXMI PRIYA 40 19R11A05P1 Miss SAMPATH VARSHITHA
15 19R11A05L6 Mr. GADDAM VIKAS YADAV 41 19R11A05P2 Mr. SANGISHETTY VAMSHI
16 19R11A05L7 Miss GAIKWAD ASHLESHA 42 19R11A05P3 Miss SANKE INDHUMATHI
17 19R11A05L8 Mr. GANTI YASHWANTH 43 19R11A05P4 Miss SATYA SRAVANI SAMAYAM
18 19R11A05L9 Mr. GORA CHARAN KUMAR GOUD 44 19R11A05P5 Miss SHAIK MEHANAZ ZAMAN
19 19R11A05M0 Miss INALA JAHNAVI 45 19R11A05P6 Mr. SHYAMALA SAI KIRAN
20 19R11A05M1 Miss JAGILLAPURAM BHAVANA 46 19R11A05P7 Miss SIDDAM ROJA
21 19R11A05M2 Mr. JAYADHWAJ REDDY MOTHEY 47 19R11A05P8 Mr. SURAM MAHESH REDDY
22 19R11A05M3 Miss KARRA PRANATHI PRIYA 48 19R11A05P9 Mr. VINAY SARTHAK VODAPALLI
23 19R11A05M4 Miss KARUNYA DUBEY 49 19R11A05Q0 Mr. YERVA KOUSHIK REDDY
24 19R11A05M5 Miss KATEPALLY SATHVIKA 50 20R15A0522 Mr. BATTU SAI RAM
25 19R11A05M6 Mr. KEVIN BRYANT NERELLA 51 20R15A0523 Miss RANGU SRINIJA
26 19R11A05M7 Mr. KOLLIMARLA SAI SANJAY 52 20R15A0524 Mr. VUTPALA LOVEKUSH RAO
282
26.Group-Wise students list for discussion topics
Class: CSE – 3A A.Y: 2020-21
Class: CSE – 3B A.Y: 2020-21
Class: CSE – 3C A.Y: 2020-21
Class: CSE – 3D A.Y : 2020-21
Class: CSE – 3E A.Y: 2020-21
283

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Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology

III Year B.Tech. CSE – I Semester

Faculty in charge HOD-CSE

S.No Topic Page. No.

4) Date : 02-08-2021 4) Date : 09-08-2021

1) Name : Dr. A. Sree Lakshmi

Course coordinator Program Coordinator HOD

3. Vision of the Department

To produce globally competent and socially responsible computer science engineers

5. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES and PROGRAM OUTCOMES

1. Understand the concepts of scripting languages for developing Web Scripting.

Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

Course PEOS POs Teaching Aids

Course Outcomes - Program Outcomes and Program Specific Outcomes

CO1. Apply the concepts

CO3. Illustrate the PHP

CO4. Examine the

CO5. Explain the Python

a. What role does this course play within the Program?

f. What is/are the prerequisite(s) for this course?

k. What is it about this course that makes it unique or special?

l. Why does the program offer this course?

m. Why can’t this course be “covered” as a sub-section of another course?

10. Instructional Learning Outcomes

3. Understand PHP Authentication and Methodologies.

4. Advanced PHP further develops the skills of experienced PHP Programmers by

4. Understand Fundamental concepts of Tk and Visual tool kits.

III B.Tech CSE I Semester – A Section

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

S.No Subject(T/P) Course Code Faculty Name

TT. Coord:__________ HOD:__________________ Dean Academics:-_______________ Principal:___________________

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

S.No Subject(T/P) Course Code Faculty Name

TT. Coord:__________ HOD:__________________ Dean Academics:-_______________ Principal:___________________

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

S.No Subject(T/P) Course Code Faculty Name

TT. Coord:__________ HOD:__________________ Dean Academics:-_______________ Principal:___________________

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

S.No Subject(T/P) Course Code Faculty Name

TT. Coord:__________ HOD:__________________ Dean Academics:-_______________ Principal:___________________

Geethanjali College of Engineering & Technology

S.No Subject(T/P) Course Code Faculty Name

TT. Coord:__________ HOD:__________________ Dean Academics:-_______________ Principal:___________________

Faculty NAME:K.Vijaykumar-SL (III CSE I Sem A Section)

Faculty Name:Ch. Vikas-SL (III CSE I SEM B & C Section)

FacultyName:Mr. E. Mahender-SL (III CSE I Sem D & E Section)

Un Class Topic Teaching Aids

Day25 Embedding PHP Code in your Web pages PPT

43. Day43 Variables and Data in TCL PPT

Scripts and programs

Scripting languages, on other hand, address different problems:

▪ Building applications from ‘off the shelf’components

SCRIPTING IS USED WITH 3 DIFFRENT MEANINGS

A glue language is a programming language i,e an interpreted scripting language and is

Dynamic Web pages

o The original UNIX world of traditional scripting usingPerl

o The Microsoft world of Visual Basic and Active controls

In conventional programming languages, new variables are introduced by a

Numeric constants can be written in a variety of ways, including specific notation,

$b = "$ { a } Script" ; which gives $b the value "JavaScript".

<STDIN> - a special value

$c= 17 ; $d= ++$c;

Two examples illustrate this.

Print ++$a, ‘ ‘, ++$b;

TT. Coord: HOD: Dean Academics:-_ Principal:_____________

TT. Coord: HOD: Dean Academics:-_ Principal:_____________

TT. Coord: HOD: Dean Academics:-_ Principal:_____________

TT. Coord: HOD: Dean Academics:-_ Principal:_____________

TT. Coord: HOD: Dean Academics:-_ Principal:_____________