COURSE FILE

Global Warming Climate Change

(Subject Code: 16CE3126)

III Year B. TECH. (CSE) I Semester

Prepared by S.SUSMITA

DEPARTMENT OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
(2019-2020)

DEPARTMENT OFCOMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

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Name of the Subject: GLOBAL WARMING CLIMATE CHANGE

(SUBJECT CODE: 16CE3126) Programme: UG

Branch: CSE Version No: 01

Year: III Updated on: JULY 2019

Semester: I No. of pages:

Classification status (Unrestricted/Restricted)

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Prepared by:

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3) Design. : Assistant Professor

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CONTENTS

Section Item Page No.

1 Introduction 4
2 Syllabus 5
3 Vision of the Institute 6
4 Mission of the Institute 6
5 Vision of the Department 6
6 Mission of the Department 6
7 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) 7
8 Program Outcomes (POs) 7
9 Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs) 8
10 Course objectives and Course Outcomes (COs) 8
11 Brief note on the importance of the course 9
12 Prerequisites 10
13 Instructional Learning outcomes 10
14 COs mapping with POs and PSOs 10
15 Class Time Table 11
16 Individual Time Table 12
17 Lecture schedule with methodology being used 13
18 Detailed Notes 15
19 Additional Topics 73
20 Mid and External Question Papers 75
21 Question Bank 77
22 Assignment questions 80
23 Unit wise objective bits 86
24 Tutorials 91
25 References, Websites and E links 97
26 Scheme of Evaluation 98
27 Student List 99
28 Group wise student list for discussion topics 100

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1. INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT

Climate is the long-term statistical expression of short-term weather. Climate can be defined as
"expected weather". When changes in the expected weather occur, we call these climate changes.
They can be defined by the differences between average weather conditions at two separate times.
Climate may change in different ways, over different time scales and at different geographical
scales. In recent times, scientists have become interested in global warming, due to mankind's
impact on the climate system, through the enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect.

The overall state of the global climate is determined by the amount of energy stored by the climate
system, and in particular the balance between energy the Earth receives from the Sun and the energy
which the Earth releases back to space, called the global energy balance. How this energy balance is
regulated depends upon the flows of energy within the global climate system. Major causes of
climate change involve any process that can alter the global energy balance, and the energy flows
within the climate system. Causes of climate change include changes in the Earths orbit around the
Sun, changes in the amount of energy coming from the Sun, changes in ocean circulation or changes
in the composition of the atmosphere. Large volcanic eruptions can affect the global climate over
only a few years. By contrast, the movement of continents around the world over hundreds of
millions of years can also affect global climate, but only over these much longer time scales

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2. SYLLABUS

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous)
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal Dist.- 501 301, Telangana State
16CE3126 – GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE
(OPEN ELECTIVE-I)
III Year B.Tech. CSE I Semester L T P/D C
Prerequisite(s): None 3 - -/- 3
Course Objectives:
Develop ability to
1. Understand the importance of Ozone layer in the atmosphere.
2. Comprehend composition of atmosphere.
3. Understand impacts of climate change on ecosystem.
4. Understand initiatives taken by different countries to reduce emission of greenhouse gases.
5. Know measures to mitigate greenhouse gases.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, student would be able to
CO1. Define greenhouse gases and their influence on global warming.
CO2. Explain physical and chemical characteristics of atmosphere and structure of
atmosphere.
CO3. Explain impacts of climate change on agriculture, forestry and ecosystem.
CO4. Explain initiatives taken by countries to reduce global warming.
CO5. Suggest mitigation measures taken to reduce global warming and climate change.
UNIT–I
Earth’s Climate System: Role of ozone in environment - Ozone layer – Ozone depleting gases –
Green House Effect – Radioactive effects of Greenhouse gases – The Hydrological cycle – Green
House Gases and Global Warming – Carbon Cycle.
UNIT–II
Atmosphere and Its Components: Importance of Atmosphere – Physical and chemical
characteristics of Atmosphere – Vertical structure of the atmosphere – Composition of the
atmosphere – Atmospheric stability – Temperature profile of the atmosphere – Lapse rates –
Temperature inversion – Effects of inversion on pollution dispersion.
UNIT–III
Impacts of Climate change: Causes of Climate change: Changes of Temperature in the
environment – Melting of ice pole – sea level rise – Impacts of Climate Change on various sectors –
Agriculture, Forestry and Ecosystem – Water Resources – Human Health – Industry, Settlement and
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Society – Methods and Scenarios – Projected Impacts for different regions – Uncertainties in the
projected impacts of Climate Change – Risk of Irreversible Changes.
UNIT–IV
Observed changes and its Causes: Climate change and Carbon credits – CDM – Initiatives in
India-Kyoto Protocol – Paris Convention - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change – Climate
Sensitivity and Feedbacks – The Montreal Protocol – UNFCCC – IPCC – Global Climate Models
(GCM) - Evidences of Changes in Climate and Environment- on a Global scale and in India.
UNIT–V
Climate change and mitigation measures: Clean Development Mechanism – Carbon Trading –
Examples of future clean technology – Biodiesel – Natural Compost – Eco-friendly plastic –
Alternate Energy – Hydrogen – Bio-fules – Solar Energy – Wind – Hydroelectric Power –
Mitigation Efforts in India and Adaptation funding. Key Mitigation Technologies and Practices –
Energy Supply – Transport – Buildings – Industry – Agriculture – Forestry – Carbon sequestration –
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) – Waste (MSW & Bio-waste, Biomedical, Industrial waste) –
International and Regional cooperation.
TEXT BOOK(S)
1. Climate Change: An Indian Perspective (Environment and Development), Dr. Sushil Kumar
Dash, Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd, 2007.
2. Adaptation and mitigation of climate change – Scientific Technical Analysis, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 2006.

REFERENCE BOOK(S)
1. Atmospheric Science, J.M. Wallace and P.V Hobbs, Elsevier/ Academic Press, 2006.
2. “Climate Change and Climate Variability on Hydrological Regimes”, Jan C. Van Dam,
Cambridge University Press, 2003.
3. http://www.ipcc.ch/

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3. VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

Geethanjali visualizes dissemination of knowledge and skills to students, who eventually

contribute to well-being of the people of the nation and global community.
4. MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

i. To impart adequate fundamental knowledge in all basic sciences and engineering, technical
and Inter - personal skills to student
ii. To bring out creativity in students that would promote innovation, research
and entrepreneurship.
iii. To Preserve and promote cultural heritage, humanistic and spiritual values promoting
and harmony in society
5. VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To produce globally competent and socially responsible computer science engineers

contributing to the advancement of engineering and technology which involves creativity and
innovation by providing excellent learning environment with world class facilities.

6. MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

1. To be a center of excellence in instruction, innovation in research and scholarship, and

service to the stake holders, the profession, and the public.

2. To prepare graduates to enter a rapidly changing field as a competent computer science

engineer.

3. To prepare graduate capable in all phases of software development, possess a firm

understanding of hardware technologies, have the strong mathematical background
necessary for scientific computing, and be sufficiently well versed in general theory to
allow growth within the discipline as it advances.

4. To prepare graduates to assume leadership roles by possessing good communication skills,

the ability to work effectively as team members, and an appreciation for their social and
ethical responsibility in a global setting.

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7. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO-I: To provide graduates with a good foundation in mathematics, sciences and

engineering fundamentals required to solve engineering problems that will facilitate them to
find employment in industry and / or to pursue postgraduate studies with an appreciation for
lifelong learning.
PEO-II: To provide graduates with analytical and problem solving skills to design algorithms,
other hardware / software systems, and inculcate professional ethics, inter-personal skills to
work in a multi-cultural team.
PEO-III: To facilitate graduates to get familiarized with the art software / hardware tools,
imbibing creativity and innovation that would enable them to develop cutting-edge
technologies of multi-disciplinary nature for societal development.
8. PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs):
PO 1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO 2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO 3: Design/development of solutions : Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal,
and environmental considerations.
PO 4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO 5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO 6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO 7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO 8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO 9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO 10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
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 engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO 11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO 12: Life-long learning : Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

9. PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO 1: To identify and define the computing requirements for its solution under given
constraints.

PSO 2: To follow the best practices namely SEI-CMM levels and six sigma which varies from
time to time for software development project using open ended programming environment to
produce software deliverables as per customer needs.

10. COURSE OBJECTIVES AND COURSE OUTCOMES (COs)

Course Objectives:
Develop ability to
1. Understand the importance of ozone layer in the atmosphere
2. Comprehend composition of atmosphere.
3. Understand impacts of climate change on eco system.
4. Understand initiatives taken by different countries to reduce emission of Green house gases.
5. Know measure to mitigate Green house gases.

Course Outcomes (COs):

At the end of the course, student would be able to

CO 1: Define green house gases and their influence on global warming

CO 2: Explain physical and chemical characteristic of atmosphere and structure of atmosphere
CO 3: Explain impact of climate change on agriculture, forestry and eco system.
CO 4: Explain imitative taken by countries to reduce global warming.
CO 5: Suggest mitigation taken to reduce global warming and climate changes..

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11. BRIEF NOTE ON THE IMPORTANCE OF THE COURSE

a. What role does this course play within the Program?

This course plays a important role to know the causes of Global warming and climatic changes
due to putting too much carbon into the atmosphere when coal, gas, and oil are burned to
generate electricity or to run our cars etc.
b. How is the course unique or different from other courses of the Program?
The course is unique from other courses of the program by studying the reason of global
warming
c. What essential knowledge or skills should they gain from this experience?

The knowledge from this course includes the climate condition, changes of climate , reasons of
global warming.
d. What knowledge or skills from this course will students need to have mastered to perform
well in future classes or later (Higher Education / Jobs)?

Students should know the causes of global warming and effects of climatic changes mitigations
of climate change.
e. Why is this course important for students to take?

The important of this course is students has to know climatic changes that takes place in the
world due to many reasons and how this changes if effects on different aspects like
agriculture ,ecosystem etc.
f. What is/are the prerequisite(s) for this course?

Environment al studies.

g. When students complete this course, what do they need to know or be able to do?

Student will able to the climatic changes that takes place in the world due to many reasons
and how this changes if effects on different aspects like agriculture ,ecosystem etc . The
importance of ozone layer in the atmosphere

h. Is there specific knowledge that the students will need to know in the future?

Students should protect the world from global warming.

i. Are there certain practical or professional skills that students will need to apply in the
future?

Yes. They should able to plant the trees and conduct some event to avoid the climatic changes

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j. Five years from now, what do you hope students will remember from this course?

They will remember different causes and effect of global warming and climatic changes .the
mitigation of climatic changes.

k. What is it about this course that makes it unique or special?

It deals with sustainable development of nation.

l. Why does the program offer this course?

The program offer this course to know the importance of environment and and how the
agriculture, ecosystem and forestry effect due to climatic change.

m. Why can’t this course be “covered” as a sub-section of another course?

It deals with environmental engineering. Since the course content is enormous it cannot be
covered as a sub-section of another course.
n. What unique contributions to students’ learning experience does this course make?

It gives unique contribution about Event on protect the trees from de forestation
o. What is the value of taking this course? How exactly does it enrich the program?

In this course the student will be exposed to the environmental development in ancient India.
We can get the basic knowledge on climate change and its effect and causes of global warming.

p. What are the major career options that require for this course?
The major career options are:

1. Atmospheric Scientists/Meteorologists

2. Environmental Engineers

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 12. PRE-REQUISITES

 Environmental studies.

12. INSTRUCTIONAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

CO 1: Define green house gases and their influence on global warming

CO 2: Explain physical and chemical characteristic of atmosphere and structure of atmosphere
CO 3: Explain impact of climate change on agriculture, forestry and eco system.
CO 4: Explain imitative taken by countries to reduce global warming.
CO 5: Suggest mitigation taken to reduce global warming and climate changes..

13. COs MAPPING WITH POs and PSOs

Mapping of Course Outcomes (COs) with Program Outcomes (POs) and Program Specific
Outcomes (PSOs)

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PS PS PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 O1 O2 3
1
CO 1 - 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

CO 2 - 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

CO 3 - 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

CO 4 - 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1

CO 5 - 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
1. Slightly/ Low 2. Moderately/ Medium 3. Substantially/ High

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14. CLASS TIME TABLE

B. Tech III Yr- I Sem – Section A

15. INDIVIDUAL TIME TABLE:

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17. LECTURE SCHEDULE WITH METHODOLOGY BEING USED

No. of Total No. Regular/ LCD/OHP/BB

Unit
Topics to be covered period of periods Additional
No
s
Role of zone in environment 1 Regular BB
Ozone layer –Ozone depleting gases 2 Regular BB
green House effect 2 Regular BB
radioactive effect of greenhouse 1 Regular BB
gases 10
I the hydrological cycle Green House 2 Regular BB/ LCD
Gases and Global Warming

Carbon cycle 1 Regular BB

Tutorial-1 1 Regular BB/LCD
Introduction Atmosphere and its 1 Regular BB/ LCD
component
important of atmosphere 1 Regular BB
physical and chemical characteristic 1 Regular BB
of Atmosphere
Chemical characteristic of 1 Regular BB/ LCD
Atmosphere
II vertical structure of the atmosphere 1 11 Regular BB/ LCD
composition of the atmosphere 1 Regular BB/ LCD
atmosphere stability 1 Regular BB/ LCD
temperature profile of the atmosphere 1 Regular BB
lapse rate temperature inverse 1 Regular BB/ LCD
effect of inverse on pollution 1 Regular BB
dispersion

Tutorial – 2 1 Regular BB
Introduction Impact of climate 1 Regular BB
change
cause of climate change 1 Regular BB
Change of temperature in 1 Regular BB
environment melting of ice pole
sea level rise 1 Regular BB
impact of climate in various sectors 1 Regular BB
agricultural forestry and eco system 1 11 Regular BB/ LCD
III water resources 1 Regular BB
human health industry settlement and 1 Regular BB/ LCD
the society methods
scenarios projected impact on 1 Regular BB
different region
un certainties in the projected impact 1 Regular BB
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 of climate change
risk of irreversible changes 1 Regular BB
Tutorial-3 1 Regular BB
Introduction Observed changes and 1 Regular BB/LCD
its causes
climate changes and carbon credits 1 Regular BB/ LCD
CDM-initiatives in india 1 Regular BB/. LCD
IV Kyoto protocol 1 Regular BB/ LCD
Paris convention 1 12 Regular BB
intergovernmental panel on climate 1 Regular BB/ LCD
change climate sensitivity
intergovernmental panel on climate 1 Regular BB/ LCD
change climate sensitivity and
feedback
the Montreal protocol 1 Regular BB/ LCD
UNFCCC-IPCC 1
global climate model(GCM) 1
evidence of change in climate 1
environment on a global scale and in 1
India
Tutorial-4 1 Regular BB
clean development mechanism 1 Regular BB/ LCD
carbon trading example of future
clean technology
biodiesel natural compost eco 1 Regular BB/LCD
friendly plastic alternate energy
Hydrogen 1
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Regular BB
V Bio fuel 1 Regular BB
solar energy- wind 1 Regular BB/ LCD
hydroelectric power mitigation 1 Regular BB/ LCD
efforts in India
adaptation funding, key 1 Regular BB/ LCD
mitigation technology and practices 1 Regular BB
energy supply
waste (MSW AND BIO WASTE 1 Regular BB
,BIO MEDICAL , INDUSRIAL
WASTE)
international regional cooperation 1 Regular BB
Tutorial-5 1 Regular BB

18. DETAILED NOTES

UNIT 1
ROLE OF OZONE IN ENVIRONMENT

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Ozone is very rare in our atmosphere, averaging about three molecules of ozone for every 10
million air molecules. In spite of this small amount, ozone plays a vital role in the atmosphere. In
the information below, we present "the basics" about this important component of the Earth's
atmosphere

Where is ozone found in the atmosphere?

Ozone is mainly found in two regions of the Earth's atmosphere. Most ozone (about 90%) resides in
a layer that begins between 6 and 10 miles (10 and 17 kilometers) above the Earth's surface and
extends up to about 30 miles (50 kilometers). This region of the atmosphere is called the
stratosphere. The ozone in this region is commonly known as the ozone layer. The remaining ozone
is in the lower region of the atmosphere, which is commonly called the troposphere. The figure
(above) shows an example of how ozone is distributed in the atmosphere.

What roles does ozone play in the atmosphere and how are humans affected?
The ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and the lower atmosphere
(troposphere) are chemically identical, because they all consist of three oxygen atoms and have the
chemical formula O3. However, they have very different roles in the atmosphere and very different
effects on humans and other living beings. Stratospheric ozone (sometimes referred to as "good
ozone") plays a beneficial role by absorbing most of the biologically damaging ultraviolet sunlight
(called UV-B), allowing only a small amount to reach the Earth's surface. The absorption of
ultraviolet radiation by ozone creates a source of heat, which actually forms the stratosphere itself (a
region in which the temperature rises as one goes to higher altitudes). Ozone thus plays a key role in
the temperature structure of the Earth's atmosphere. Without the filtering action of the ozone layer,
more of the Sun's UV-B radiation would penetrate the atmosphere and would reach the Earth's
surface. Many experimental studies of plants and animals and clinical studies of humans have
shown the harmful effects of excessive exposure to UV-B radiation.

At the Earth's surface, ozone comes into direct contact with life-forms and displays its destructive
side (hence, it is often called "bad ozone"). Because ozone reacts strongly with other molecules,
high levels of ozone are toxic to living systems. Several studies have documented the harmful
effects of ozone on crop production, forest growth, and human health. The substantial negative
effects of surface-level troposphere ozone from this direct toxicity contrast with the benefits of the
additional filtering of UV-B radiation that it provides.
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What human activities affect upper-atmospheric ozone (the stratospheric ozone layer)?
The scientific evidence, accumulated over more than two decades of study by the international
research community, has shown that human-produced chemicals are responsible for the observed
depletions of the ozone layer. The ozone-depleting compounds contain various combinations of the
chemical elements chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon, and hydrogen and are often described by the
general term halocarbons. The compounds that contain only chlorine, fluorine, and carbon are called
chlorofluorocarbons, usually abbreviated as CFCs. CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform are important human-produced ozone-depleting gases that have been used in many
applications including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronics
components, and as solvents. Another important group of human-produced halocarbons is the
halons, which contain carbon, bromine, fluorine, and (in some cases) chlorine and have been mainly
used as fire extinguish ants.

What actions have been taken to protect the ozone layer?

Through an international agreement known as the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer, governments have decided to eventually discontinue production of CFCs, halons,
carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform (except for a few special uses), and industry has
developed more "ozone-friendly" substitutes. All other things being equal, and with adherence to the
international agreements, the ozone layer is expected to recover over the next 50 years or so.

What is ozone?
Ozone is a gas in the atmosphere that protects everything living on the Earth from harmful
ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. Without the layer of ozone in the atmosphere, it would be very
difficult for anything to survive on the surface. Plants cannot live and grow in heavy ultraviolet
radiation, nor can the plankton that serve as food for most of the ocean life. The ozone layer acts as
a shield to absorb the UV rays, and keep them from doing damage at the Earth's surface.

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Ozone layer (stratospheric ozone) is a high concentration of ozone molecules about 30 to 50 km
altitude (stratosphere). The main function of the ozone layer is to absorb the Sun’s ultraviolet
radiation, hence protecting the Earth from its harmful effects. The thickness of the ozone layer is
measured in Dobson Units, denoted “DU”. 100 DU = 1 mm. “Normal” thickness of the ozone layer
is ~ 3 mm (300 DU), but the average ozone layer’s thickness above
Depletion of the ozone layer and widening of ozone “holes” is considered to be one of the 20 to
21’st century’s major environmental problems. Excessive ultraviolet radiation increases a possibility
to come down with skin cancer and eye cataract, weakens immunity, decreases yields as well as fish
hauls, etc.

The Benefits of Good Ozone

Small concentrations of ozone occur naturally in the stratosphere, which is part of the Earth’s upper
atmosphere. At that level, ozone helps to protect life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet
radiation from the sun, particularly UVB radiation that can cause skin cancer and cataracts, damage
crops, and destroy some types of marine life.

Formation

Ozone is formed throughout the atmosphere in multistep chemical processes that require sunlight. In the
stratosphere, the process begins with an oxygen molecule (O2 ) being broken apart by ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun. In the lower atmosphere (troposphere), ozone is formed by a different set of chemical
reactions that involve naturally occurring gases and those from pollution sources.

The ozone (O3), an isotope of oxygen, exists in the so-called Ozone layer at a height of about 15-60
km in the middle and upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
By a natural chemical process, sunlight creates ozone when it strikes the stratosphere. The ozone
layer absorbs or blocks the shortwave ultraviolet radiation (Fig 6.3) that passes through it.

This property gives it an important function in protecting the biosphere. It the ozone layer was not
present, and then the ionizing ultraviolet rays would destroy most or all the life on earth.

Increased ultraviolet radiation can lead to greater incidence of skin cancer, cataracts, immune
deficiencies, decreased crop yields and reduced populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton and

18
certain fish larvae that are important constituents of aquatic food chains. Increased ultraviolet
radiation can also contribute to smog, which is one of the important air pollutants. The stratospheric
ozone protects oxygen at lower altitudes from being broken up by UV rays and keeps most of these
harmful rays from penetrating the earth’s surface.

What are ozone depleting substances?

Ozone depleting substances are man-made gases that destroy ozone once the gases reach the ozone
layer. The ozone layer sits in the upper atmosphere and reduces the amount of harmful ultra violet
radiation that reaches Earth from the sun. Ultraviolet radiation can have detrimental effects on both
humans and the environment such as inducing skin cancer and cataracts, distorting plant growth and
damaging the marine environment.

Ozone depleting substances include:

 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

 hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs)

 halons

 methyl bromide

 carbon tetrachloride

 methyl chloroform.

They have been used as:

 refrigerants in commercial, home and vehicle air conditioners and refrigerators

 foam blowing agents

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  a component in electrical equipment

 industrial solvents

 solvents for cleaning (including dry cleaning)

 aerosol spray propellants

 fumigants.

Green house effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.

The greenhouse effect increases the temperature of the Earth by trapping heat in our atmosphere.
This keeps the temperature of the Earth higher than it would be if direct heating by the Sun was the
only source of warming. When sunlight reaches the surface of the Earth, some of it is absorbed
which warms the ground and some bounces back to space as heat. gases that are in the atmosphere
absorb and then redirect some of this heat back towards the Earth

The greenhouse effect is a major factor in keeping the Earth warm because it keeps some of the
planet's heat that would otherwise escape from the atmosphere out to space. In fact, without the
greenhouse effect the Earth's average global temperature would be much colder and life on Earth as
we know it would not be possible. The difference between the Earth's actual average temperature
14° C (57.2° F) and the expected effective temperature just with the Sun's radiation -19° C (-2.2° F)
gives us the strength of the greenhouse effect, which is 33° C

How does the greenhouse effect work?

To understand exactly how the greenhouse effect works, imagine the following: a warm, sunny day
where the sun shines bright on the Earth. This sunlight (shortwave radiation) passes into the planet's
atmosphere and warms the Earth. Part of this energy is absorbed by the Earth's surface, transformed
into heat (longwave radiation) and radiated back towards space. But as this heat goes up through the

20
atmosphere, some of it is trapped by the different greenhouse gases and doesn't escape into space.
This in turn warms up the Earth's atmosphere; just like the windows of a greenhouse that lets light
in and keeps the heat within to warm the plants growing inside.

Since some of the heat can't escape into space, it continues to add up which then warms up the
Earth. This is what we call the greenhouse effect. So the more greenhouse gases you have in the
atmosphere, the more heat stays on Earth.

If the amount of energy from the sun and the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere remain
the same, then the average temperature on Earth will also be constant. But this is no longer the case.
The amount of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere is the highest it has been in the last 3 million
years. This is enhancing the greenhouse effect and making the Earth warmer than normal, which is
affecting the planet's weather patterns, creating global warming and climate change.

AN EVERYDAY EXAMPLE OF THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

If you open the door of a car that has been left parked in the sun for a couple of hours, you'll notice
that the temperature inside the car is much warmer than the temperature outside. This is because the
windows of the car allow the sunlight to enter. This light, once inside, is then partially converted
into heat. However, these same windows do not allow the heat inside the car to pass through as
easily as light, so some of this heat accumulates. The net effect is that more heat remains in than can
come out, increasing the temperature inside the car.

What causes the greenhouse effect?

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 The greenhouse effect is caused by the interaction of the sun's energy with greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases in the Earth's atmosphere. The ability
of these gases to trap heat is what causes the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gases are made of three or more atoms. This molecular structure makes it possible for
these gases to trap heat in the atmosphere and then re-emit it towards the surface which further
warms the Earth.This continuous cycle of trapping heat leads to an overall increase in global
temperatures. This process, which is very similar to the way a greenhouse works, is why the gases
that can produce this effect are collectively known as greenhouse gases.

The principal forcing gases of the greenhouse effect are:

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

 Methane (CH4)

 Nitrous oxide (N2O)

 Fluorinated gases

 The main feedback gas of the greenhouse effect is:

 Water vapor

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and the fluorinated gases are all well-mixed gases in the
atmosphere that do not react to changes in temperature and air pressure, so the levels of these gases
are not affected by condensation. Water vapor on the other hand, is a highly active component of the
climate system that responds rapidly to changes in conditions by either condensing into rain or
snow, or evaporating to return to the atmosphere. Thus the impact of the greenhouse effect is
primarily circulated through water vapor, and it acts as a fast feedback.

Carbon dioxide and the other non-condensing greenhouse gases are the key gases within the Earth's
atmosphere that sustain the greenhouse effect and control its strength. Water vapor is a fast-acting

22
feedback but its atmospheric concentration is controlled by the radiative forcing supplied by the
non-condensing greenhouse gases.

In fact, the greenhouse effect would collapse were it not for the presence of carbon dioxide and the
other non-condensing greenhouse gases. Together the feedback by the condensing and the forcing
by the non-condensing gases within the atmosphere both play an important role in the greenhouse
effect

Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some
artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the
Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life
on Earth to exist.

Enhanced greenhouse effect

The problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and
natural gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases.
This is the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of the Earth.

Greenhouse effect

Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of this is reflected back into space.
Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans, heating the Earth.
Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth
warm enough to sustain life.
Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are increasing
the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
23
Step 6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.

The natural greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere caused by
substances such as carbon dioxide and water vapour which let the sun’s energy through to the
ground but impede the passage of energy from the earth back into space.
Energy emitted from the sun ("solar radiation") is concentrated in a region of short wavelengths
including visible light. Much of the short wave solar radiation travels down through the Earth’s
atmosphere to the surface virtually unimpeded. Some of the solar radiation is reflected straight back
into space by clouds and by the earth’s surface. Much of the solar radiation is absorbed at the earth’s
surface, causing the surface and the lower parts of the atmosphere to warm.

The warmed Earth emits radiation upwards, just as a hot stove or bar heater radiates energy. In the
absence of any atmosphere, the upward radiation from the Earth would balance the incoming energy
absorbed from the Sun at a mean surface temperature of around -18°C, 33° colder than the observed
mean surface temperature of the Earth. The presence of "greenhouse" gases in the atmosphere
accounts for the temperature difference. Heat radiation (infra-red) emitted by the Earth is
concentrated at long wavelengths and is strongly absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane. Absorption of heat causes the atmosphere to
warm and emit its own infra-red radiation. The Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere warm until
they reach a temperature where the infra-red radiation emitted back into space, plus the directly
reflected solar radiation, balance the absorbed energy coming in from the sun. As a result, the
surface temperature of the globe is around 15°C on average, 33 °C warmer than it would be if there
was no atmosphere. This is called the natural greenhouse effect.
The effect of increased greenhouse gas concentrations
If extra amounts of greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere, such as from human activities,
then they will absorb more of the infra-red radiation. The Earth’s surface and the lower atmosphere
will warm further until a balance of incoming and outgoing radiation is reached again (the emission
of infra-red radiation increases as the temperature of the emitting body rises). This extra warming is
called the enhanced greenhouse effect.
The magnitude of the enhanced greenhouse effect is influenced by various complex interactions in
the earth-ocean-atmosphere system which is not included in the discussion above. For example, as
24
the temperature of the earth’s surface increases more water vapour is evaporated. Since water
vapour is itself a strong greenhouse gas this is a positive feedback which will tend to amplify the
warming effect of (for example) carbon dioxide emissions. Clouds tend both to cool the Earth
because they reflect incoming sunlight, and to warm it by trapping outgoing infra-red radiation. The
net result over the globe of clouds is a cooling, but it is still uncertain whether this overall cooling
will increase or decreases as greenhouse gas concentrations increase. Heat is distributed vertically in
the atmosphere by motion, turbulence and evaporation and condensation of moist air, as well as by
the radiative processes discussed above.

Thus many processes and feedbacks must be accounted for in order to realistically predict climate
changes resulting from particular greenhouse gas emission scenarios. These complications are the
source of much of the debate which has occurred about the likely magnitude and timing of climate
changes due to enhanced greenhouse gas emissions.

The key is the different wavelength (or different frequency) of solar light and infrared light. Let's
have a look at the greenhouse effect (see also the graph about radion transmitted by atmosphere
below):

1. About 70 to 75% of the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and reaches the Earth
2. This solar radiation is absorbed on the Earth surface, which warms up the Earth surface.
3. When a body is warmer than its environment, it emits infrared radiation. The is also true for the
warmed up surface of the Earth: The surface of the Earth emits infrared radiation.
4. Because infrared radiation has a different wavelength than solar radiation, its transmission
behavior through the atmosphere is different: 15-30% will be transmitted and 70 to 85% will
be reflected back to the Earth. This leads to a further increase of temperature on Earth.

You could summarize this in saying the atmosphere does transmit 70 to 75% of solar radiation but
only 15 to 30% of heat radiation.

This effect has always been there, it is not new at all. When the concentration of so-called
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, Methane, NOx, etc.) is increased, the percentage of infrared
radiation which is beeing transmitted through the atmosphere is reduced or in other words: When

25
the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increased, more infrared radiation is
reflected back to the Earth by the atmosphere. This leads to an increased temperature of the surface
of the Earth. This increased effect due to higher concentration of greenhouse gases is normally
called global warming or climate change

Consequences of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

1) Global Warming
Increase of greenhouse gases concentration causes a reduction in outgoing infrared radiation, thus
the Earth's climate must change somehow to restore the balance between incoming and outgoing
radiation. This “climatic change” will include a “global warming” of the Earth's surface and the
lower atmosphere as warming up is the simplest way for the climate to get rid of the extra energy.
However, a small rise in temperature will induce many other changes, for example, cloud cover and
wind patterns. Some of these changes may act to enhance the warming (positive feedbacks), others t
o counteract it (negative feedbacks).
Using complex climate models, the "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" in their third asse
ssment report has forecast that global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4℃ to 5.8℃
by the end of 2100. This projection takes into account the effects of aerosols which tend to cool the
climate as well as the delaying effects of the oceans which have a large thermal capacity. However, t
here are many uncertainties associated with this projection such as future emission rates of greenhou
se gases, climate feedbacks, and the size of the ocean delay ...etc.

i)Sea Level Rise

If global warming takes place, sea level will rise due to two different processes. Firstly, warmer tem
perature cause sea level to rise due to the thermal expansion of seawater. Secondly, water
from melting glaciers and the ice sheets of Greenland and the Antarctica would also add water
to the ocean. It is predicted that the Earth's average sea level will rise by 0.09 to 0.88 m between 19
90 and 2100

Potential Impact on human life

a)Economic Impact
Over half of the human population lives within 100 kilometres of the sea. Most of this population li
ves in urban areas that serve as seaports. A measurable rise in sea level will have a severe economic
26
impact on low-lying coastal areas and islands, for examples, increasing the beach erosion rates alon
g coastlines, rising sea level displacing fresh groundwater for a substantial distance inland.
b) Agricultural Impact

a)Experiments have shown that with higher concentrations of CO2, plants can grow bigger and faste
r. However, the effect of global warming may affect the atmospheric general circulation and thus alt
ering the global precipitation pattern as well as changing the soil moisture contents over various con
tinents. Since it is unclear how global warming will affect climate on a regional or local scale, the pr
obable effects on the biosphere remains uncertain. c) Effects on Aquatic systems
The loss of coastal wetlands could certainly reduce fish populations, especially shellfish. Increased s
alinity in estuaries could reduce the abundance of freshwater species but could increase the presence
of marine species. However, the full impact on marine species is not known.

d) Effects on Hydrological Cycle

Global precipitation is likely to increase. However, it is not known how regional rainfall patterns wil
l change. Some regions may have more rainfall, while others may have less. Furthermore, higher te
mperatures would probably increase evaporation. These changes would probably create new stresse
s for many water management syste

Water vapor and certain gases in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation, causing what is called
the Greenhouse Effect. This infrared radiation comes from materials on the Earth's surface that has
been heated by sunlight. The absorption of infrared heats the atmosphere to the common
temperatures we experience.

As the percentage of some greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, increases in the atmosphere,
the average temperature also increases.

The atmosphere, oceans and surface of the Earth are heated by the absorption of visible light from
the Sun. Those items, in turn, emit infrared radiation that is primarily absorbed by gases and water
vapor in the atmosphere, increasing its temperature. This is called the Greenhouse Effect.

Stability of this effect is important in keeping the Earth at reasonable temperatures. However,
changes in the amount of absorbing gases can bring about instability in the Earth's climate.

27
How the Earth is heated

The Earth is heated to relatively moderate temperatures by the absorption of some of the Sun's
radiated energy.

About 30% of the visible light from the Sun is reflected back into space, while the other 70% is
absorbed by the ground and oceans, resulting in heating the Earth. Since the atmosphere is
transparent to visible light, it absorbs little energy from the sunlight and does not make much of a
contribution in heating the Earth.

The soil, rocks and water that have been heated by the sunlight then give off longer wavelength
infrared radiation, some of which is absorbed by the Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These
gases include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3). Absorption
of the infrared radiation heats the atmosphere to acceptable temperatures, provided they are in the
proper proportion.

Greenhouse Effect

The Greenhouse Effect is a misnomer and not a correct description of how the Earth is heated by the
Sun. A greenhouse uses glass windows to trap the infrared in the building, thus heating its air. In the
Greenhouse Effect, gases in the Earth's atmosphere absorb the radiation and thus heat the air. It is a
much stronger effect than simply having glass windows trap infrared and warm air

Absorption of infrared

Water vapor (H2O) is the most active molecule in absorbing infrared radiation and thus in heating
the atmosphere. It accounts for about 55% of the absorption of thermal radiation in the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) also absorbs infrared radiation and accounts for about 18%, methane (CH4)
accounts for about 6% and ozone (O3) accounts for about 5% of heating the atmosphere.

Since some infrared radiation is lost into space, the recent percentages of carbon dioxide and
methane in the atmosphere have allowed the temperature to remain stable.

28
CO2 has stayed at the proper percentage in the atmosphere until recently, when an increasing
amount of the gas has been emitted due to the burning of fossil fuels. Automobile exhaust and
industrial smoke contribute the most CO2.

There are 2 ways that greenhouse gas emissions enter our atmosphere. One of them is through
human activities. The main human sources of greenhouse gas emissions are: fossil fuel use,
deforestation, intensive livestock farming, use of synthetic fertilizers and industrial processes. The
other is through natural processes like animal and plant respiration.

There are four main types of forcing greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and
fluorinated gases. The main feedback greenhouse gas is water vapor.

Greenhouse gas emissions trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, just as the glass of a greenhouse
keeps warm air inside. Human activity increases the amount of greenhouse gas emissions entering
in the atmosphere, contributing to a warming of the Earth's surface.

Carbon Dioxide

There are both natural and human sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Natural sources
include decomposition, ocean release, respiration and volcanoes. Human sources come from
activities like cement production, deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels.

42.8 percent of all naturally produced CO2 emissions come from ocean-atmosphere exchange.
Other important natural CO2 sources include plant and animal respiration (28.56%) as well as soil

29
respiration and decomposition (28.56%). A minor amount is also created by volcanic eruptions
(0.03%).

87 percent of all human CO2 emissions come from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas
and oil. Other sources include deforestation (9%), and industrial processes such as cement
manufacturing (4%).

Human sources of CO2 are much smaller than natural emissions but they upset the balance in the
carbon cycle that existed before the Industrial Revolution. The amount of CO2 produced by natural
sources is completely offset by natural carbon sinks and has been for thousands of years.

Before the influence of humans, CO2 levels were quite steady because of this natural balance. Since
the Industrial Revolution, human sources of CO2 emissions have been growing. Activities such as
the burning of fossil fuels as well as deforestation are the primary cause of the increased CO2
concentrations in the atmosphere.

30
UNIT II

What Is the Atmosphere?

Earth’s atmosphere is a thin blanket of gases and tiny particles — together called air. We are most
aware of air when it moves and creates wind. Earth's atmosphere, along with the
abundant liquid water at Earth's surface, are the keys to our planet's unique place in the solar
system. Much of what makes Earth exceptional depends on the atmosphere. For example, all living
things need some of the gases in air for life support. Without an atmosphere, Earth would likely be
just another lifeless rock.

Without the atmosphere, Earth would look a lot more like the Moon. Atmospheric gases, especially
carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), are extremely important for living organisms. How does the
atmosphere make life possible? How does life alter the atmosphere?

Photosynthesis

In photosynthesis, plants use CO2 and create O2. Photosynthesis is responsible for nearly all of the
oxygen currently found in the atmosphere.

The chemical reaction for photosynthesis is:

6CO2 + 6H2O + solar energy → C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2

Respiration

By creating oxygen and food, plants have made an environment that is favorable for animals.
In respiration, animals use oxygen to convert sugar into food energy they can use. Plants also go
through respiration and consume some of the sugars they produce.

The chemical reaction for respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + useable energy

How is respiration similar to and different from photosynthesis? They are approximately the reverse
of each other. In photosynthesis, CO2 is converted to O2 and in respiration, O2 is converted to CO2

Crucial Part of the Water Cycle

31
As part of the hydrologic cycle, water spends a lot of time in the atmosphere, mostly as water vapor.
The atmosphere is an important reservoir for water.

Ozone Makes Life on Earth Possible

Ozone is a molecule composed of three oxygen atoms, (O3). Ozone in the upper atmosphere absorbs
high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun. This protects living things on Earth’s
surface from the Sun’s most harmful rays. Without ozone for protection, only the simplest life forms
would be able to live on Earth. The highest concentration of ozone is in the ozone layer in the
lower stratosphere.

Keeps Earth’s Temperature Moderate

Along with the oceans, the atmosphere keeps Earth's temperatures within an acceptable range.
Without an atmosphere, Earth's temperatures would be frigid at night and scorching during the day.
If the 12-year-old in the scenario above asked why, she would find out. Greenhouse
gasestrap heat in the atmosphere. Important greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapor, and ozone.

Provides the Substance for Waves to Travel Through

The atmosphere is made of gases that take up space and transmit energy. Sound waves are among
the types of energy that travel though the atmosphere. Without an atmosphere, we could not hear a
single sound. Earth would be as silent as outer space (explosions in movies about space should be
silent). Of course, no insect, bird, or airplane would be able to fly, because there would be no
atmosphere to hold it up.

Video link

https://youtu.be/CsWp25SAPq4

Important video …..importance of atmosphere

https://youtu.be/7XkH6NnUpFQ

32
Vertical structure of the atmosphere

Vertical change of composition

According to the homogeneity of atmospheric composition, two layers can be defined in the
atmosphere. The lower layer, up to an altitude of about 80 km above sea level is the homosphere,
where due to the continuous turbulent mixing the composition of the atmosphere is relatively
constant for chemical species which have long mean residence times. This region is closed by a thin
transition layer, called turbopause. Above the turbopause, in the heterosphere, the molecular
diffusion dominates and the chemical composition of the atmosphere becomes stratified and varies
according to the molecular mass of chemical species (Figure 1.7). The lower heterosphere are
dominated by nitrogen and oxygen molecules and the lighter gases being concentrated in the higher
layers. Up to 1,000 km the oxygen atoms and above this height the helium and hydrogen are the
dominant species.

In the upper part of the atmosphere – from about 60 km to 2000 km above the Earth's surface –
ionic species or free radicals (O+, O2+, NO+, N2+, free electrons) can also be found, and high number
of ionized particles affect the propagation of radio waves. This region of the atmosphere is called
ionosphere. There are three important layers in the lower part of the ionosphere (at altitudes between
about 60 km and 600 km), where the absorption of solar extreme ultraviolet radiation and x-rays
ionize the neutral atmosphere. These are the D (60–90 km), E (90–150 km) and F regions (150–500
km) with F1 and F2 sub-layers. The ion density of each layer depends on the solar activity and time
of day

33
Figure 1.7: Vertical structure of the atmosphere according to chemical composition

34
 The layers of the ionosphere

Vertical temperature changes

Based on the variation of temperature with height, the atmosphere can be divided to different layers

Troposphere:

The lowest major atmospheric layer is the troposphere, extending from the Earth's surface to the
tropopause The thickness of the troposphere varies with latitude: it is about 7 km in polar region,
generally 11–12 km in the mid-latitudes and even 18 km over the Equator. The height of the
tropopause is also depends on season, weather condition and time of day.

Figure 1.9: The vertical structure of the atmosphere according to the vertical temperature changes

35
Troposphere contains about 80% of total mass of the atmosphere, nearly all water vapour and dust
particles can be found here. Almost all weather phenomena and cloud formation take place in this
layer. The troposphere is heated from below by the Earth’s surface. Incoming solar radiation first
warms the surface, which radiates heat into the atmosphere. The warmer air in the near surface layer
generates turbulent vertical motions, which transfer water vapour and other tracers to higher
altitudes.

Temperature decreases with increasing height in the troposphere to away from the warming surface.
The changing rate of temperature with height is called “lapse rate”]Tropospheric air temperature is
generally proportional with distance from surface and lapse rate is fairly uniform, it is about 6,5 °C /
1000 m, but this rate is affected by water vapour content. Temperature is generally lower than –50
°C at the top of the troposphere (in mid-latitude, temperature is –56.5 °C at 11 km based on ICAO
standard atmosphere

However, in the lower troposphere, the atmospheric stratification can differ from normal, and
temperature can increase with height in the function of time of day and weather condition. This
situation is called inversion, which generally occurs at night. When temperature remains the same
with height, the stratification is isothermal. The atmospheric stratification and thereby the stability
conditions play important role in dispersion of tracers.

The troposphere can be divided into two main parts. The lower part is the planetary boundary layer
(PBL) or atmospheric boundary layer, extending upward from the surface to a height that ranges
from about 100 to 3000 m in the function of season, weather condition and time of day. Above this
layer, the free troposphere can be found.

Stratosphere:

At the tropopause, the decrease of temperature halts and to about 50 km above ground level, an
inversion layer can be found, when temperature increases with height. This layer is the stratosphere.
Temperature increase in the stratosphere (Figure 1.9) is due to the relatively high concentration of
ozone. Ozone strongly absorbs uv radiation from the Sun in the bands between 210 and 290 nm
(more information about ozone see Chapter 8). This absorption by the ozone is the primary cause of

36
temperature increase in the stratosphere. Without ozone layer, a further decrease of temperature with
increasing height would be observable in the stratosphere

Stratosphere holds about 19% of total mass of the atmosphere, and it contains only a very small
amount of water vapour. Due to the vertical stratification, stratosphere is a stable layer and the
mixing is weak. Particles that reach the stratosphere from the troposphere (e.g. from a large volcanic
eruption) can stay a long time (many years) in the stratosphere without removing from it. Polar
stratospheric clouds ( PSCs) can be observed in winter polar stratosphere between 15 and 25 km
height. They form at only very low temperature (below −78 °C). Different types of PSCs contain
water, and different particles (e.g. nitric acids) or only water ice (see more information about polar
stratospheric clouds in Chapter 8).

The stratosphere is bounded above by the stratopause at about 50 km height, where the average
temperature is generally just below 0 °C.

Figure 1.10: Real and hypothetical vertical profile of temperature with and without ozone in the
stratosphere, respectively.

Mesosphere:

Over the stratopause, the next layer is the mesosphere from about 50 km to 85–100 km above the
Earth’s surface (Figure 1.9). Air density is tow low to absorb solar radiation, thus the mesosphere is
warmed from below by the stratosphere and hence the temperature decreases with increasing height.
However the atmosphere is still thick enough to slow down meteoroids enter to the atmosphere. The

37
upper boundary of mesosphere is the mesopause, which is the coldest region of Earth’s atmosphere,
where the temperature is around –100 °C.

Within the mesosphere, noctilucent clouds can be appeared, when Sun is below the horizon and the
lower layers of the atmosphere are in the Earth's shadow. These thin clouds are composed from tiny
ice crystals, but their emergences, properties and relationships with global climate change are still
not fully understood.

Upper atmospheric electrical discharges (like red sprites or blue jets) over tropospheric
thunderstorms also occur in the mesosphere.

However, in the absence of frequent direct measurements (only by occasionally sounding rockets),
mesosphere is a less known layer of the atmosphere.

Thermosphere:

In the thermosphere, over the mesopause, temperature rise continually with increasing height due to
the direct absorption of high energy solar radiation by atmospheric gases. Temperatures are highly
dependent on solar activity, and can rise well beyond to 1000 °C. However, this value is not
comparable to those of the lower part of the atmosphere, as the air density is extremely low in this
layer.

Considering the composition, this layer is a part of the heterosphere, where the atmospheric
compounds stratified by their molecular mass. Major layers of the ionosphere (see above) are
situated in the thermosphere. Auroras, form by collisions of energetic charged particles with atoms,
occur also in the thermosphere.

Over about 500–1000 km above the Earth’s surface (depending on solar activity), the collisions
between atmospheric constituent become negligible. This layer is often called as exosphere, which
gradually merge into interplanetary space.

Atmospheric Stability

38
Atmospheric stability determines whether or not air will rise and cause storms, sink and cause clear
skies, or essentially do nothing. Stability is dependent upon the Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Lapse
Rates and the Environmental Lapse Rate. We will eventually be able to compare a measured ELR
with both the DALR and SALR and determine the atmospheric stability condition. First, however,
we must become familiar with basic forms of stability. Other forms will be derived from these
later.

Basic Forms of Stability: There are essentially three types of stability (we will introduce special
conditions later). These three are actually rather easy to understand and remember. They are shown
below.

In each instance we have a parcel in contact with a surface. Remember the rule: "Air takes on the
characteristics of the surface beneath it?" In each case, then, a parcel is formed with the same
temperature characteristic as the underlying surface. To accurately determine the stability condition,
you must follow this rule:

Always compare the parcel's temperature to that of the surrounding environment and not the other
way around!!

A) If an air parcel is warmer than its surrounding environment, then it will be less dense than its
surroundings and will rise like a hot air balloon. This is Unstable Airand has the potential for
creating storms.

B) If an air parcel is cooler than its surrounding environment, then it will be denser than its
environment and will sink. Think of this situation as a pebble sinking in water. This is Stable
Air which generally leads to clear skies.
39
C) If an air parcel is the same temperature as its surrounding environment, then the parcel will not
move of its own accord. This is Neutral Air.

Determining Stability Conditions Using DALR, SALR, and ELR: We introduced lapse rates
in Tutorial 13. You may wish to go back and refresh your memory as to the values of the DALR
and SALR as we will need them shortly. We also showed how the adiabatic lapse rates plot on a
diagram. If we add the ELR to such diagrams, we may easily determine the atmospheric stability
condition. Let's see what such a diagram would look like and also find out tricks to interpreting the
diagram. In the following diagrams, a dashed line is used to indicate the ELR.

Remember that the DALR and SALR are fixed rates and will always plot as shown. The ELR, on
the other hand, is extremely variable and may plot in many different positions yielding different

40
stability conditions. In this example, the ELR just so happens to fall between the SALR and
DALR. We must compare the parcel lines to the ELR to determine stability conditions.

Diagram Features: There are a set of features you need to become familiar with. The ELR always
has "Warm" and "Cool" sides to it. Here is what I mean. Temperature increases to the right along
the X-axis. I want you to consider the region to the right of the ELR to be the"Warm Region" and
the left region to be the"Cool Region". We may prove this idea. Read up the Y-axis to an arbitrary
altitude (in this example, where the green line is). We will find out how much dry and saturated air
and the environment will have cooled by this altitude. Read straight across along the green line and
drop lines down to the X-axis where the green line hits the DALR, SALR, and the ELR. Note that
dry air would have cooled the most, the environment the next greatest amount, and saturated air the
least. The dry air "D" is on the left of the ELR "E" while the saturated air "S" is on the right of "E."
Let's apply this to the first diagram. Here, dry air will cool more rapidly and thus be cooler than the
environment at any given level. According to our first diagram, dry air would be Stable.
Saturated air would cool more slowly than the environment and therefore remain warmer than the
surrounding environment. The first diagram shows this situation as being Unstable.

Rules: A parcel line plotting to the right of the ELR indicates unstable conditions for that parcel
type. A parcel line plotting to the left of the ELR indicates stable conditions for that parcel type.

Specific Stability Conditions: The following diagrams depict the various forms of stability that you
will be expected to know.

41
Absolute Stability:
Whenever both parcel plots are on the same side of the ELR, we refer to the condition as being
"Absolute." In this case, both plots are on the left or "cool" side of the ELR. That is, both are on
the stable side. This is called Absolute Stability. Air of any relative humidity (RH) will cool faster
than the surrounding environment and will therefore not rise. Air would tend to sink and create
clear skies.
Notation: DALR > SALR > ELR.

Absolute Instability:
In this instance, both parcel lines are on the right or "warm side" of the ELR. This means that air of
any RH will cool more slowly than the environment and therefore always be warmer than the
surrounding environment. Air parcels will be buoyant and rise like hot air balloons. Air would tend
to rise and create storms.
Notation: ELR > DALR > SALR.

42
Conditional Stability:
Here the ELR falls between the DALR and SALR. Note here that the SALR is on the "warm" side
and the DALR is on the "cool" side of the ELR. This means that saturated parcels will be unstable
and dry parcels will be stable. The overall picture is called Conditional Stability because one must
know the condition (RH) of a parcel to determine if it will be stable or unstable.
Notation: DALR > ELR > SALR.

Wet Neutral:
Here the ELR matches the SALR. Saturated parcels will thus be neutral. Notice, however, that dry
parcels, being on the left or "cool" side of the ELR will be stable.
Notation: DALR > SALR = ELR.

43
Dry Neutral:
The ELR now matches the DALR meaning that dry parcels will be neutral. Note that saturated
parcels, being on the right or "warm" side of the ELR will be unstable.
Notation: DALR = ELR > SALR.

Extreme Stability:
For the first time, we have a Negative ELR! This indicates that the layering of the lower atmosphere
is such that warmer air lies on top of cooler air. This is, of course, a Temperature Inversion! Note
that both parcel lines are on the same, "cool" side of the ELR. This is a special form of Absolute
Stability. In this situation, no air parcel may rise. This often has negative effects upon pollution

44
dispersal (read about Donora, PA in the text!!).
Notation: ELR is negative!!

Vertical Profile of Temperature

Vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere

45
There are several ways of classifying the different layers of the atmosphere. The most common
classification is based on the vertical distribution and variations of temperature in the atmosphere. In
this classification, from the lowest layer to the highest layer are respectively the troposphere, the
stratosphere, the mesosphere, and finally the thermosphere. The thickness and the boundary of each
layer are not identical throughout the globe but vary in different time and places

Fig.1: Vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere.

The troposphere is about 12 kilometers thick on average; it is thicker in summer than in winter. The
troposphere over low latitude regions is usually thicker than over high latitude regions. The
troposphere over the equator is about 18 kilometers thick, while its thickness in the regions nearest
the two poles is only about eight to nine kilometers. The temperature in the troposphere

Temperature inversion

Temperature inversion, a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the troposphere (the
region of the atmosphere nearest the Earth’s surface), in which a layer of cool air at the surface is
overlain by a layer of warmer air. (Under normal conditions air temperature usually decreases with
height.)

Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility. An
inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a
result, convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited to levels below the
inversion. Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is likewise limited. In regions where a
pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce
46
showers and, at the same time, visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion, even in the
absence of clouds, by the accumulation of dust and smoke particles. Because air near the base of an
inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently present there.

Inversions also affect diurnal variations in air temperature. The principal heating of air during the
day is produced by its contact with a land surface that has been heated by the Sun’s radiation. Heat
from the ground is communicated to the air by conduction and convection. Since an inversion will
usually control the upper level to which heat is carried by convection, only a shallow layer of air
will be heated if the inversion is low and large, and the rise in temperature will be great.

There are four kinds of inversions: ground, turbulence, subsidence, and frontal.

A ground inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it becomes
cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this occurs most often on clear nights, when the ground cools
off rapidly by radiation. If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may
result. Topography greatly affects the magnitude of ground inversions. If the land is rolling or hilly,
the cold air formed on the higher land surfaces tends to drain into the hollows, producing a larger
and thicker inversion above low ground and little or none above higher elevations.

A turbulence inversion often forms when quiescent air overlies turbulent air. Within the turbulent
layer, vertical mixing carries heat downward and cools the upper part of the layer. The unmixed air
above is not cooled and eventually is warmer than the air below; an inversion then exists.

A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air descends. The layer is compressed
and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and as a result the lapse rate of
temperature is reduced. If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at higher altitudes becomes warmer
than at lower altitudes, producing a temperature inversion. Subsidence inversions are common over
the northern continents in winter and over the subtropical oceans; these regions generally have
subsiding air because they are located under large high-pressure centres.

A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft; the
front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below. This kind of inversion
has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. In addition, humidity may be
high, and clouds may be present immediately above it.

Lapse rate

Lapse rate, rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the
Earth’s atmosphere. The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with
elevation, zero when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature
increases with elevation (temperature inversion). The lapse rate of nonrising air—commonly
referred to as the normal, or environmental, lapse rate—is highly variable, being affected

47
 by radiation, convection, and condensation; it averages about 6.5 °C per kilometre (18.8 °F per
mile) in the lower atmosphere (troposphere). It differs from the adiabatic lapse rate, which involves
temperature changes due to the rising or sinking of an air parcel. Adiabatic lapse rates are
usually differentiated as dry or moist.

The dry adiabatic lapse rate for air depends only on the specific heat capacity of air at
constant pressure and the acceleration due to gravity. The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s
atmosphere equals 9.8 °C per kilometre (28.3 °F per mile); thus, the temperature of an air parcel that
ascends or descends 5 km (3 miles) would fall or rise 49 °C (85 °F), respectively.

When an air parcel that is saturated with water vapour rises, some of the vapour will condense and
release latent heat. This process causes the parcel to cool more slowly than it would if it were not
saturated. The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of water vapour in
the air is highly variable. The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the adiabatic lapse rate. As
an air parcel rises and cools, it may eventually lose its moisture through condensation; its lapse rate
then increases and approaches the dry adiabatic value.

The difference between the normal lapse rate in the atmosphere and the dry and moist adiabatic
lapse rates determines the vertical stability of the atmosphere—that is, the tendency of an air
particle to return to its original position or to accelerate away from its original position after being
given a slight vertical displacement. For this reason, the lapse rate is of prime importance to
meteorologists in forecasting certain types of cloud formations, the incidence of thunderstorms, and
the intensity of atmospheric turbulence.

What is a temperature inversion?

A temperature inversion is a thin layer of the atmosphere where the normal decrease in temperature with height
switches to the temperature increasing with height. An inversion acts like a lid, keeping normal convective
overturning oftheatmospherefrompenetratingthroughtheinversion.

This can cause several weather-related effects. One is the trapping of pollutants below the inversion, allowing
them to build up. If the sky is very hazy, or is sunsets are very red, there is likely an inversion somewhere in the
lower atmosphere. This happens more frequently in high pressure zones, where the gradual sinking of air in
the high pressure dome typically causes an inversion to form at the base of a sinking layer of air.

Another effect that an inversion has is to make clouds just below the inversion to spread out and take on a
flattened appearance. For instance, marine stratocumulus clouds over cold ocean waters; or the tops of
48
thunderstorms when they reach the base of the stratosphere, which also forms a temperature inversion.

Still another effect is to prevent thunderstorms from forming. Even in an air mass that is hot and humid in the
lowest layers, thunderstorms will be prevented if an inversion in the lower atmosphere is keeping this air from
rising. The conceptual opposite of a temperature inversion is an unstable air layer.

Temperature inversion

video …………..https://youtu.be/3CGhmAFFhiI

Temperature Inversion

 Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the normal behavior of temperature in the

troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer
air. (Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with height).

49
Effects

 Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility.

 An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a result,
convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited to levels below the
inversion. Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is likewise limited.

 In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective

clouds cannot grow high enough to produce showers.

 Visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion due to the accumulation of dust and
smoke particles. Because air near the base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently
present there.

50
  Inversions also affect diurnal variations in temperature. Diurnal variations tend to be
very small.

Ideal Conditions For Temperature Inversion

1. Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming radiation.

2. Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.

3. Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.

Types of Temperature Inversion

Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion)

 Sometimes, the temperature in the lower layers of air increases instead of decreasing with
elevation. This happens commonly along a sloping surface.

 Here, the surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools down at a faster rate than the
upper layers. As a result the lower cold layers get condensed and become heavy.

 The sloping surface underneath makes them move towards the bottom where the cold layer
settles down as a zone of low temperature while the upper layers are relatively warmer.

 This condition, opposite to normal vertical distribution of temperature, is known as

Temperature Inversion.

 In other words, the vertical temperature gets inverted during temperature inversion.

 This kind of temperature inversion is very strong in the middle and higher latitudes. It can be
strong in regions with high mountains or deep valleys also.

51
Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)

 A ground inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it
becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this occurs most often on clear nights, when
the ground cools off rapidly by radiation. If the temperature of surface air drops below its
dew point, fog may result.

 This kind of temperature inversion is very common in the higher latitudes.

 Surface temperature inversion in lower and middle latitudes occurs during cold nights and
gets destroyed during daytime.

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Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)

 A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air descends.

 The layer is compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and as
a result the lapse rate of temperature is reduced.

 If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower
altitudes, producing a temperature inversion.

 Subsidence inversions are common over the northern continents in winter (dry atmosphere)
and over the subtropical oceans; these regions generally have subsiding air because they are
located under large high-pressure centers.

 This temperature inversion is called upper surface temperature inversion because it takes
place in the upper parts of the atmosphere.

Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature Inversion )

 A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass (Cold and Warm
Fronts: we will study in detail later) and lifts it aloft; the front between the two air masses
then has warm air above and cold air below.

 This kind of inversion has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly
horizontal. In addition, humidity may be high, and clouds may be present immediately above
it.

 This types of inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.

53
Economic Implications of Temperature Inversion

 Sometimes, the temperature of the air at the valley bottom reaches below freezing point,
whereas the air at higher altitude remains comparatively warm. As a result, the trees along
the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at higher levels are free from it.

 Due to inversion of temperature, air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not
disperse in the valley bottoms. Because of these factors, houses and farms in intermontane
valleys are usually situated along the upper slopes, avoiding the cold and foggy valley
bottoms. For instance, coffee growers of Brazil and apple growers and hoteliers of mountain
states of Himalayas in India avoid lower slopes.

 Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation and human settlements.

 Less rainfall due to stable conditions.

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 The Effects of Temperature Inversion

It is a phenomenon where a layer of warm air is formed on top of a layer of cold air, unlike in
normal atmospheric conditions. It is also known as thermal inversion.
The dome of smog seen above the city (in the image) also corresponds to the concept of Urban
Heat Island, which is a consequence of the increase in the amount of polluting emissions released
into the air. This zone is, therefore, warmer as compared to the region surrounding it.

Causes of Temperature Inversion

Normally, as the altitude increases, the temperature of air begins to fall. However, during nights or
in winters, a reversal of this pattern is generally seen. Polar regions witness this reversion quite
often. Inversions are witnessed at different points:

Surface Inversion: It occurs near the Earth's surface.

Subsidence Inversion: This is recorded at the lower layers in the troposphere.
Frontal Inversion: It is the temperature inversion occurring at the boundary between a warm and
cold front.

Causes of Surface Inversion

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Surface inversion occurs when the following factors are present:

1. Windless, cold and long nights

2. Very calm and still air

The Earth cools off at a fast pace during cold nights. Thus, the air near the ground cools down faster
than the layer of air present above it. This forms a comparatively warmer layer of air on top of the
layer of cold air at the ground surface.

Causes of Subsidence Inversion

It is observed at the high pressure centers. When a huge airmass (spread over a large surface, even
continents at times) begins to move down, it gets compressed and hot due to the increasing air
pressure. This decreases the lapse rate (rate of change in temperature). If this air mass moves deep
down, there is a gradient created in its temperature. Air is warmer at higher altitudes and cooler at
the lower altitudes.

Causes of Frontal Inversion

Fronts can be referred to as the edges of the warm or cold air masses. At the borders of these warm
and cold fronts, the cold air being denser, pushes the warm air from beneath and lifts it up. Thus,
now the frontal border between them becomes like a "U" shape. The cold air mass occupies the
space below the warm front on the ground, forcing the lighter, warm air mass to move up.

UNIT 3

Causes of Climate Change

The general state of the Earth's climate is dependent upon the amount of energy stored by
the climate system, and in particular the balance between the amount of energy the Earth receives
from the Sun, in the form of light and ultraviolet radiation, and the amount of energy the Earth
releases back to space, in the form of infrared heat energy. Causes of climate change involve any
process that can alter this global energy balance. Scientists call this "climate forcing". Climate
forcing "forces" the climate to change.

The are many climate forcing processes, but broadly speaking, they can be separated into internal
and external types. External processes operate outside planet Earth, and includes changes in
the global energy balance due to variations in the Earths orbit around the Sun, and changes in the
56
amount of energy received from the Sun. Internal processes operates from within the Earth's climate
system, and include changes in the global energy balance due to changes in ocean circulation or
changes in the composition of the atmosphere. Other climate forcing processes include the impacts
of large volcanic eruptions and collisions with comets or meteorites.

Luckily, the Earth is not hit by large comets or meteorites very often, perhaps every 20 to 30 million
years or so, and therefore their associated climate changes occur rarely throughout Earth History.
However, other causes of climate change influence the Earth on much shorter time scales, with
changes sometimes occurring within a single generation. Indeed, our present pollution of the
atmosphere with greenhouse gases may be causing the global climate to change. This man-made
climate change has become known as global warming.

Global warming is caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels, and farming.

Burning fossil fuels

When we burn fossil fuels like coal, and gas to create electricity or power our cars, we release
CO2 pollution into the atmosphere.

Australians are big producers of CO2 pollution compared to the rest of the world. Our level of
CO2 pollution per person is nearly double the average of other developed nations and more than four
times the world average.

Electricity generation is the main cause of carbon pollution in Australia as 73% of our electricity
comes from burning coal and 13% from burning gas. The remaining 14% comes from renewable
energy sources such as hydro, solar and wind, which do not emit carbon.

Reducing the amount of electricity generated from coal and gas, and increasing the amount of
electricity from clean, renewable energy sources like solar and wind, means less carbon pollution is
emitted. This is one of the main ways we can address global warming.

57
A large coal power station in the UK with barbed wire in the foreground © Global Warming Images
/ WWF

Deforestation

Plants play an important role in regulating the climate because they absorb carbon dioxide from the
air and release oxygen back into it. Forests and bushland act as carbon sinks and are a valuable

58
means of keeping global warming to 1.5°C.

But humans clear vast areas of vegetation around the world for farming, urban and infrastructure
development or to sell tree products such as timber and palm oil. When vegetation is removed or
burnt, the stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO2, contributing to global
warming. Up to one-fifth of global greenhouse gas pollution comes from deforestation and forest
degradation.

Preventing deforestation as well as planting trees, through reforestation and afforestation, are
important actions in the fight against global warming.

A huge swap is burnt in Indonesia © WWF-Indonesia / Komar

Methane

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Methane is produced through both natural and human activities. For example, natural wetlands,
agricultural activities, and fossil fuel extraction and transport all emit CH4.

Methane is more abundant in Earth’s atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 800,000
years.[2] Due to human activities, CH4 concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th
century and are now more than two-and-a-half times pre-industrial levels. In recent decades, the rate
of increase has slowed considerably.[2]

For more information on CH4 emissions and sources, and actions that can reduce emissions, see
EPA’s Methane page in the Greenhouse Gas Emissions website. For information on how methane is
impacting the Arctic, see the EPA report Methane and Black Carbon Impacts on the Arctic.

Nitrous oxide

Nitrous oxide is produced through natural and human activities, mainly through agricultural
activities and natural biological processes. Fuel burning and some other processes also create N2O.
Concentrations of N2O have risen approximately 20% since the start of the Industrial Revolution,
with a relatively rapid increase toward the end of the 20th century.[2]

Overall, N2O concentrations have increased more rapidly during the past century than at any time in
the past 22,000 years.[2] For more information on N2O emissions and sources, and actions that can
reduce emissions, see EPA’s Nitrous Oxide page in the Greenhouse Gas Emissions website.

Other greenhouse gases

 Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and also the most important in terms of its
contribution to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime.
Some human activities can influence local water vapor levels. However, on a global scale,
the concentration of water vapor is controlled by temperature, which influences overall rates
of evaporation and precipitation.[2] Therefore, the global concentration of water vapor is not
substantially affected by direct human emissions.

 Tropospheric ozone (O3), which also has a short atmospheric lifetime, is a potent greenhouse
gas. Chemical reactions create ozone from emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds from automobiles, power plants, and other industrial and commercial sources in
the presence of sunlight. In addition to trapping heat, ground-level ozone is a pollutant that
can cause respiratory health problems and damage crops and ecosystems.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons

(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), together called F-gases, are
often used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol
propellants. Unlike water vapor and ozone, these F-gases have a long atmospheric lifetime,
and some of these emissions will affect the climate for many decades or centuries.

60
For more information on greenhouse gas emissions, see the Greenhouse Gas Emissions website,
including an expanded discussion of global warming potentials and how they are used to measure
the relative strengths of greenhouse gases. To learn more about actions that can reduce these
emissions, see What You Can Do.

Humans are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature by burning fossil
fuels, cutting down rainforests and farming livestock.

This adds enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring in the
atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.

Greenhouse gases

Some gases in the Earth's atmosphere act a bit like the glass in a greenhouse, trapping the sun's heat
and stopping it from leaking back into space.

Many of these gases occur naturally, but human activity is increasing the concentrations of some of
them in the atmosphere, in particular:

 carbon dioxide (CO2)

 methane

 nitrous oxide

 fluorinated gases

CO2 is the greenhouse gas most commonly produced by human activities and it is responsible for
64% of man-made global warming. Its concentration in the atmosphere is currently 40% higher
than it was when industrialisation began.

Other greenhouse gases are emitted in smaller quantities, but they trap heat far more effectively
than CO2, and in some cases are thousands of times stronger. Methane is responsible for 17% of
man-made global warming, nitrous oxide for 6%.

Causes for rising emissions

 Burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.

 Cutting down forests (deforestation). Trees help to regulate the climate by absorbing
CO2 from the atmosphere. So when they are cut down, that beneficial effect is lost and the
carbon stored in the trees is released into the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse effect.

 Increasing livestock farming. Cows and sheep produce large amounts of methane when
they digest their food.

61
  Fertilisers containing nitrogen produce nitrous oxide emissions.

 Fluorinated gases produce a very strong warming effect, up to 23 000 times greater than
CO2. Thankfully these are released in smaller quantities and are being phased down by EU
regulation.

Global warming

TThe current global average temperature is 0.85ºC higher than it was in the late 19th century.
Each of the past three decades has been warmer than any preceding decade since records began in
1850.

The world's leading climate scientists think human activities are almost certainly the main cause of
the warming observed since the middle of the 20th century.

An increase of 2°C compared to the temperature in pre-industrial times is seen by scientists as the
threshold beyond which there is a much higher risk that dangerous and possibly catastrophic
changes in the global environment will occur. For this reason, the international community has
recognised the need to keep warming below 2°C.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

cientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for decades to come,
largely due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), which includes more than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other
countries, forecasts a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century.

According to the IPCC, the extent of climate change effects on individual regions will vary over
time and with the ability of different societal and environmental systems to mitigate or adapt to
change.

The IPCC predicts that increases in global mean temperature of less than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees
Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above 1990 levels will produce beneficial impacts in some
regions and harmful ones in others. Net annual costs will increase over time as global temperatures
increase.
62
"Taken as a whole," the IPCC states, "the range of published evidence indicates that the net damage
costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time." 1-2

Future effects

Some of the long-term effects of global climate change in the United States are as follows,
according to the Third and Fourth National Climate Assessment Reports:

Frost-free season (and growing season) will lengthen

The length of the frost-free season (and the corresponding growing season) has been increasing
nationally since the 1980s, with the largest increases occurring in the western United States,
affecting ecosystems and agriculture. Across the United States, the growing season is projected to
continue to lengthen.

In a future in which heat-trapping gas emissions continue to grow, increases of a month or more in
the lengths of the frost-free and growing seasons are projected across most of the U.S. by the end of
the century, with slightly smaller increases in the northern Great Plains. The largest increases in the
frost-free season (more than eight weeks) are projected for the western U.S., particularly in high
elevation and coastal areas. The increases will be considerably smaller if heat-trapping gas
emissions are reduced.

Visualization comparing 1950s and 1920s

This NASA visualization presents observational evidence that the growing season (climatological
spring) is occurring earlier in the Northern Hemisphere.

Changes in precipitation patterns

Average U.S. precipitation has increased since 1900, but some areas have had increases greater than
the national average, and some areas have had decreases. More winter and spring precipitation is
projected for the northern United States, and less for the Southwest, over this century.

Projections of future climate over the U.S. suggest that the recent trend towards increased heavy
precipitation events will continue. This trend is projected to occur even in regions where total
precipitation is expected to decrease, such as the Southwest.
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More droughts and heat waves

Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of abnormally hot weather lasting days to
weeks) everywhere are projected to become more intense, and cold waves less intense everywhere.

Summer temperatures are projected to continue rising, and a reduction of soil moisture, which
exacerbates heat waves, is projected for much of the western and central U.S. in summer. By the end
of this century, what have been once-in-20-year extreme heat days (one-day events) are projected to
occur every two or three years over most of the nation.

NASA visualizations of future precipitation scenarios

These NASA visualizations show model projections of the precipitation changes from 2000 to 2100
as a percentage difference between the 30-year precipitation averages and the 1970-1999 average.

NASA: Megadroughts in U.S. West projected to be worst of millennium

Droughts in the Southwest and Central Plains of the United States in the second half of the 21st
century could be drier and longer than anything humans have seen in those regions in the last 1,000
years, according to a NASA study published in Science Advances on February 12, 2015.Hurricanes
will become stronger and more intense

The intensity, frequency and duration of North Atlantic hurricanes, as well as the frequency of the
strongest (Category 4 and 5) hurricanes, have all increased since the early 1980s. The relative
contributions of human and natural causes to these increases are still uncertain. Hurricane-
associated storm intensity and rainfall rates are projected to increase as the climate continues to
warm

NASA: What are the chances of another Hurricane Katrina?

According to a new NASA study, a string of nine years without a major hurricane landfall in the
U.S. is Iikely to come along only once every 177 years. This video explains the findings of this
study.

Sea level will rise 1-4 feet by 2100

Global sea level has risen by about 8 inches since reliable record keeping began in 1880. It is
projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by 2100. This is the result of added water from melting land ice
and the expansion of seawater as it warms.

64
In the next several decades, storm surges and high tides could combine with sea level rise and land
subsidence to further increase flooding in many regions. Sea level rise will continue past 2100
because the oceans take a very long time to respond to warmer conditions at the Earth’s surface.
Ocean waters will therefore continue to warm and sea level will continue to rise for many centuries
at rates equal to or higher than those of the current century.

Earth’s vital signs: Sea level

An indicator of current global sea level as measured by satellites; updated monthly

Sea level quiz

Test your knowledge of sea level rise and its effect on global populations.

Arctic likely to become ice-free

The Arctic Ocean is expected to become essentially ice free in summer before mid-century.

Earth’s vital signs: Sea ice

An indicator of changes in the Arctic sea ice minimum over time. Arctic sea ice extent both affects
and is affected by global climate change.

Climate change and its Impact on Agriculture

Introduction: Climate change and variability are concerns of human being. The recurrent droughts
and floods threaten seriously the livelihood of billions of people who depend on land for most of
their needs. The global economy is adversely being influenced very frequently due to extreme
events such as droughts and floods, cold and heat waves, forest fires, landslips etc. The natural
calamities like earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions, though not related to weather
disasters, may chachange chemical composition of the atmosphere. It will, in turn, lead to weather
related disasters. Increase in aerosols (atmospheric pollutants) due to emission of greenhouse gases
such as Carbon Dioxide due to burning of fossil fuels, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) etc.,
Ozone depletion and UV-B filtered radiation, eruption of volcanoes, the “human hand” in
65
deforestation in the form of forest fires and loss of wet lands are causal factors for weather
extremes. The loss of forest cover, which normally intercepts rainfall and allows it to be absorbed
by the soil, causes precipitation to reach across the land eroding top soil and causes floods and
droughts. Paradoxically, lack of trees also exacerbates drought in dry years by making the soil dry
more quickly. Among the greenhouse gases, CO2 is the predominant gas leading to global warming
as it traps long wave radiation and emits it back to the earth surface. The global warming is nothing
but heating of surface atmosphere due to emission of greenhouse gases, thereby increasing global
atmospheric temperature over a long period of time. Such changes in surface air temperature and
consequent adverse impact on rainfall over a long period of time are known as climate change. If
these parameters show year-to-year variations or cyclic trends, it is known as climate variability.

However, the official definition by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) is that climate change is the change that can be attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable time periods. However, scientists often use the term
for any change in the climate, whether arising naturally or from human causes. In particular, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as a change in the state
of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and

or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer.

Weather and climate: Weather is the set of meteorological conditions such as wind, rain, snow,
sunshine, temperature, etc. at a particular time and place. By contrast, the term climate describes the
overall long-term characteristics of the weather experienced at a place. The ecosystems, agriculture,
livelihoods and settlements of a region are very dependent on its climate. The climate, therefore, can
be thought of as a long-term summary of weather conditions, taking account of the average
conditions as well as the variability of these conditions. The fluctuations that occur from year to
year, and the statistics of extreme conditions such as severe storms or unusually hot seasons are part
of the climatic variability.

The Earth‘s climate has varied considerably in the past, as shown by the geological evidence of ice
ages and sea level changes, and by the records of human history over many hundreds of years. The
causes of past changes are not always clear but are generally known to be related to changes in
ocean currents, solar activity, volcanic eruptions and other natural factors. The difference now is that
global temperatures have risen unusually rapidly over the last few decades. There is strong evidence
of increase in average global air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and

66
rising of average global sea levels. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report concludes that the global
warming is unequivocal. Atmosphere and ocean temperatures are higher than they have been at any
other time during at least the past five centuries, and probably for more than a millennium.
Scientists have long known that the atmosphere‘s greenhouse gases act as a blanket, which traps
incoming solar energy and keeps the Earth‘s surface warmer than it otherwise would be, and that an
increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases would lead to additional warming.

Important Weather Extremes and their Impact at Global Level

The year 1998 was the warmest and declared as the weather-related disaster year. It caused
hurricane havoc in Central America and floods in China, India and Bangladesh. Canada and New
England suffered heavily due to ice storm in January while Turkey, Argentina and Paraguay suffered
with floods in June 1998. In contrast

UNIT IV

What is the clean development mechanism?

The CDM allows emission-reduction projects in developing countries to earn certified emission
reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. These CERs can be traded and sold,
and used by industrialized countries to a meet a part of their emission reduction targets under the
Kyoto Protocol.

The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving
industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction limitation
targets.

The CDM is the main source of income for the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund, which was established
to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol
that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. The Adaptation Fund is
financed by a 2% levy on CERs issued by the CDM

The Clean Development Mechanism

67
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country
with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B
Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn
saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can
be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.

The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It is the first global, environmental investment and
credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs.

A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels
or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.

The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving
industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation
targets.

For more information about offsetting with CDM projects, visit Climate Neutral Now.
__________________________________________________________________

Operating details of the CDM

A CDM project must provide emission reductions that are additional to what would otherwise have
occurred. The projects must qualify through a rigorous and public registration and issuance process.
Approval is given by the Designated National Authorities. Public funding for CDM project
activities must not result in the diversion of official development assistance.
The mechanism is overseen by the CDM Executive Board, answerable ultimately to the countries
that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
Operational since the beginning of 2006, the mechanism has already registered more than 1,650
projects and is anticipated to produce CERs amounting to more than 2.9 billion tonnes of CO2
equivalent in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, 2008–2012.

For up-to-date information on the CDM, see the UNFCCC CDM website.

What is UNFCCC?

UNCFFF [United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC])

An international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de
Janeiro from June 3 to 14, 1992.
68
The objective of the treaty is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system

69
huge crop losses were noticed in Maharashtra (India) due to un-seasonal and poor distribution of rainfall
during 1997-98. The 1997/1998 El Nino event (The El Nino is nothing but warming of Pacific), the
strongest of the last century, affected 110 million people and costed the global economy nearly US$ 100
billion.

The year 2003 was the year of heat and cold waves across the world. The European Union (EU) suffered to a
large extent due to heat wave that occurred in summer 2003. In India Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh are the States that experienced summer heat waves. When the EU suffered heat
wave during the summer in 2003, India experienced severe cold wave from December 2002 to January
2003. Some parts of Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh .

So how did they attempt to do this? • The treaty itself sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for
individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms. In that sense, the treaty is considered legally
non-binding. Instead, the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties (called
"protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases. The main UNFCCC treaty is the Kyoto
Protocol, which has become much

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

It is the first legally binding treaty aimed at cutting emissions of the main greenhouse gases believed to
contribute to global warming. More than 150 nations signed it back in December 1997 at a meeting in
Kyoto. • But they left much of the detail about how it would be implemented to future talks. These dragged
on, reaching a crisis in The Hague in November 2000, when the US and the European Union failed to agree
and talks broke down. George W. Bush was installed as President soon afterwards, and announced that he
was pulling the US out of the deal altogether. • Since the US is the source of a quarter of emissions of
greenhouse gases that was a big blow, but the other nations decided to carry on and they finally reached
agreement in Marrakech in November 2001. Aim of the Kyoto Protocol: The Kyoto protocol was drawn
up to set specific targets for reductions in greenhouse gas concentrations in the global atmosphere. Emission
restrictions were made for the rich countries of annex 1 - the biggest greenhouse gas producers, and also the
countries most able to cut emissions. Targets range from an 8 per cent cut for the EU to a 10per cent increase
for Iceland, depending on the individual country.

Montreal Protocol • The Montreal Protocol is the first worldwide agreement designed to protect human
health and the environment against the adverse effects of the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer. The
protocol is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which maintains the list
of ozone depleting substances that are targeted for control practices, reductions, or total phase outs.

Importance of the Montreal Protocol • The 1987 Montreal Protocol - restricting the use of ozone-
depleting substances - has helped both to reduce global warming and to protect the ozone layer. • The benefit
to climate achieved by the Montreal Protocol alone at present greatly exceeds the initial target of the Kyoto
Protocol. • The effects of the Montreal Protocol on climate will become smaller in the future, while emission
reductions after 2012 under the Kyoto Protocol will potentially have much larger effects on climate. • Note
that while the Montreal Protocol mandates an end to the production and consumption of the major CFCs,
halons, hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide by 1996, there continue to be substantial releases of
some of these substances in the U.S. (based on industry reports to TRI). • Implementation of the Montreal
Protocol is dependent on national regulation, and in the U.S. the EPA has focused on eliminating production
of Class I ozone depleting substances by the treaty's phase-out dates. • Use of previously produced stocks of
ozone depleting substances was not banned as of January 1, 1996, and releases to the atmosphere continue.
Facilities reporting releases of Class I ozone depleting substances may have been legally using previously
produced stocks or operating under essential use exemptions, or they may have been operating illegally. EPA
is currently actively enforcing the CAA restrictions on uses of ozone depleting chemicals. Ozone layer and
the Montreal Protocol • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances are now globally
recognized as the main cause

UNIT V

Environmental pollution is the major problem associated with rapid industrialisation, urbanisation and rise in
living standards of people. For developing countries, industrialisation was must and still this activity very
much demands to build self reliant and in uplifting nation’s economy. However, industrialisation on the
other hand has also caused serious problems relating to environmental pollution. Therefore, wastes seem to
be a by-product of growth. The country like India can illafford to lose them as sheer waste. On the other
hand, with increasing demand for raw materials for industrial production, the non-renewable resources are
dwindling day-by-day. Therefore, efforts are to be made for controlling pollution arising out of the disposal
of wastes by conversion of these unwanted wastes into utilisable raw materials for various beneficial uses.
The problems relating to disposal of industrial solid waste are associated with lack of infrastructural
facilities and negligence of industries to take proper safeguards. The large and medium industries located in
identified (conforming) industrial areas still have some arrangements to dispose solid waste. However, the
problem persist with small scale industries. In number of cities and towns, small scale industries find it easy
to dispose waste here and there and it makes difficult for local bodies to collect such waste though it is not
their responsibility. In some cities, industrial, residential and commercial areas are mixed and thus all waste
gets intermingled. Therefore, it becomes necessary that the local bodies along with State Pollution Control
Board (SPCB) work out requisite strategy for organising proper collection and disposal of industrial solid
waste. Management of Industrial Solid Waste (ISW) is not the responsibility of local bodies. Industries
generating solid waste have to manage such waste by themselves and are required to seek authorisations
from respective State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) under relevant rules. However, through joint efforts
of SPCBs, local bodies and the industries, a mechanism could be evolved for better management.

Disposal Methods Depending upon the characteristics of the wastes, different types of disposal methods can
be used for hazardous and non-hazardous industrial wastes. The most predominant and widely practised
methods for wastes disposal are : (a) Landfill, (b) Incineration and (c) Composting. For thousands of years,
man has disposed the waste products in a variety of ways, the disposal method might reflect convenience,
expedience, expense, or best available technology. There were no major ecological or health hazards
associated with these practices until the last century.

Since beginning, the hospitals are known for the treatment of sick persons but we are unaware about the
adverse effects of the garbage and filth generated by them on human body and environment. Now it is a well
established fact that hospital waste is a potential health hazard to the health care The act was passed by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1986 & notified the Bio Medical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules in July 1998. In accord DEFINITIONS • Hospital waste refers to all waste, biological or
non‐ biological that is discarded and not intended for further use. • Bio‐medical waste means any waste,
which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in
research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biologicals, and including categories
mentioned in Schedule I. • Infectious waste: The wastes which contain pathogens in sufficient concentration
or quantity that could cause diseases. It is hazardous e.g. culture and stocks of infectious agents from
laboratories, waste from surgery, waste originating from infectious patients. Classification of Bio ‐Medical
Waste SOURCES OF BIO MEDICAL WASTE • Hospitals • Nursing homes • Clinics • Medical laboratories
• Blood banks • Mortuaries • Medical research & training centers • Biotechnology institution/production
units • Animal houses etc. • Such a waste can also be generated at home if health care is being provided
there to a patient (e.g. injection, dressing material etc.) CATEGORIES OF BIO‐MEDICAL WASTE Option
Waste Category Treatment & Disposal Category No. I Human Anatomical Waste (human tissues, organs,
body parts) incineration/deep burial Category No. 2 Animal Waste (animal tissues, organs, body parts
carcasses, bleeding parts, fluid, blood and experimental animals used in research, waste generated by
veterinary hospitals colleges, discharge from hospitals, animal houses) incineration/deep burial Category No
3 Microbiology & Biotechnology Waste (wastes from laboratory cultures, stocks or specimens of micro‐
organisms live or attenuated vaccines, human and animal cell culture used in research and infectious agents
from research and industrial laboratories, wastes from production of biologicals, toxins, dishes and devices
used for transfer of cultures) local autoclaving/micro‐ waving/incineration Category No 4 Waste sharps
(needles, syringes, scalpels, blades, glass, etc. that may cause puncture and cuts. This includes both used and
unused sharps) disinfection (chemical treatment/autoclavin g/microwaving and mutilation/shredding
Category No 5 Discarded Medicines and Cytotoxic drugs (wastes comprising of outdated, contaminated and
discarded medicines) incineration@/destruction and drugs disposal in secured landfills Category No 6
Soiled Waste (Items contaminated with blood, and body fluids including cotton, dressings, soiled plaster
casts, lines, beddings, other material contaminated with blood) Incineration/ autoclaving/microwaving
Category No. 7 Solid Waste (wastes generated from disposable items other than the waste sharps such as
tubings, catheters, intravenous sets etc). disinfection by chemical treatment/autoclaving/ microwaving and
mutilation/ shredding Category No. 8 Liquid Waste (waste generated from laboratory and washing, cleaning,
house‐ keeping and disinfecting activities). disinfection by chemical treatment and discharge into drains
Category No. 9 Incineration Ash (ash from incineration of any bio‐medical waste) disposal in municipal
landfill Category No. 10 Chemical Waste (chemicals used in production of biologicals, chemicals used in
disinfection, as insecticides, etc.) Chemical discharge into drains for liquids and se Rule 1998 schedule II
Color coding Type of container Waste categories Yellow Plastic bags Cat 1 human anatomical waste Cat 2
Animal Waste Cal 3 Microbiological Waste Cat 6 Solid Waste Red Disinfected container plastic bags Cat 3
Microbiological Cat. 6 Soiled Dressing Blue/white Plastic bags, puncture proof containers Cat. 4 Waste
sharp Cat.7 Plastic disposable Black Do Cat. 5 Discarded medicine Cat. 9 Incineration ash Cat 10 Chemical
Waste TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE • The waste may be temporarily stored at the central storage
area of the hospital and from there it may be sent in bulk to the site of final disposal once or twice a day
depending upon the quantum of waste. During transportation following points should be taken care of: •
Ensure that waste bags/containers are properly sealed and labeled. • Bags should not be filled completely, so
that bags can be picked up by the neck again for further handling. Hand should not be put under the bag. At
a time only one bag should be lifted. • Manual handling of waste bags should be minimized to reduce the
risk of needle prick injury and infection. • BMW should be kept only in a specified storage area. • After
removal of the bag, clean the container including the lid with an appropriate disinfectant. • Waste bags and
containers should be removed daily from wards / OPDs or even more frequently if needed (as in Operation
Theatres, ICUs, labour rooms). Waste bags should be transported in a covered wheeled containers or large
bins in covered trolleys. • No untreated bio ‐medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours
TRANSPORT TO FINAL DISPOSAL SITE • Transportation from health care establishment to the site of
final disposal in a closed motor vehicle (truck, tractor‐trolley etc.) is desirable as it prevents spillage of
waste on the way. • Vehicles used for transport of BMW must have the “Bio‐Hazard” symbol and these
vehicles should not be used for any other purpose. •
CYTOTOXIC HAZARD SYMBOL HANDLE WITH CARE Note: Label shall be non‐washable &
prominently visible. DISPOSAL OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE • Deep burial: – Category 1 and 2 only – In
cities having less than 5 lakh population & rural area. • Autoclave and microwave treatment – Standards for
the autoclaving and microwaving are also mentioned in the Biomedical waste (Management and Handling)
Rules 1998. – All equipment installed/shared should meet these • Shredding: – The plastic (I.V. bottles, I.V.
sets, syringes, catheters etc.), sharps (needles, blades, glass etc) should be shredded but only after chemical
treatment/microwaving/autoclaving. – Needle destroyers can be used for disposal of needles directly without
chemical treatment. • Land disposal: – Open dumps – Secured/Sanitary landfill: advantages. – The
incinerator ash, discarded medicines, cytotoxic substances and solid chemical waste should be treated by this
option. Autoclaves Incinerator Incineration • A high temperature dry oxidation process, which reduces
organic and combustible waste to inorganic incombustible matter. • Usually used for the waste that can not
be reused, recycled or disposed of in landfill site. • The incinerator should be installed and made operational
as per specification under the BMW rules 1998 • Certificate may be taken from CPCB/State Pollution
Control Board • Category 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 can be incinerated. • Characteristics of waste suitable for
incineration are:  Low heating volume above 2000 Kcal/Kg for single chamber incinerators and
above 3500 Kcal/Kg for pyrolytic double chamber incinerators.  Content of combustible matter above
60%.  Content of non combustible matter below 50%.  Content of non combustible fines below 20%.
 Moisture content below 30%. • Waste types not to be incinerated are:  Pressurized gas containers. 
Large amount of reactive chemical wastes.  Silver salts and photographic or radiographic wastes. 
Halogenated plastics such as PVC.  Waste with high mercury or cadmium content such as broken
thermometers, used batteries.  Sealed ampoules or ampoules containing heavy metals. 1. Double chamber
pyrolytic incinerators 2. Single‐chamber furnaces 3. Rotary kilns Safety measures • All the generators of
biomedical waste should adopt universal precautions and appropriate safety measures while handling the
bio‐medical waste. • It should be ensured that:  drivers, collectors and other handlers are aware of the
nature and risk of the waste.  written instructions provided regarding the procedures to be adopted in the
event of spillage/ accidents.  protective gears provided and instructions regarding their uses are given. 
workers are protected by vaccination against tetanus and hepatitis B. Training • Every hospital must have
well planned awareness and training programme for all category of personnel. • Training should be
conducted in appropriate language/medium and in an acceptable manner. • All the medical professionals
must be made aware of Bio‐medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. Management and
Administration • Each hospital should constitute a hospital waste management committee – chaired by the
head of the Institute and having wide representation from all major departments. • This committee should be
responsible for making Hospital specific action plan – for hospital waste management and its supervision,
monitoring and implementation. • The annual reports, accident reports, as required under BMW rules should
be submitted to the concerned authorities as per BMW rules format. Measures for waste minimization • As
far as possible, purchase of reusable items made of glass and metal should be encouraged. • Select non PVC
plastic items. • Adopt procedures and policies for proper management of waste generated, the mainstay of
which is segregation to reduce the quantity of waste to be treated. • Establish effective and sound recycling
policy for plastic recycling and get in touch with authorized manufactures. Coordination between hospital
and outside agencies • Municipal authority : • As quite a large percentage of waste (in India up to 85%),
generated in Indian hospitals, belong to general category (non‐toxic and non‐hazardous), hospital should
have constant interaction with municipal authorities so that this category of waste is regularly taken out of
the hospital premises for land fill or other treatment. • Co‐ordination with Pollution Control Boards: – To
search for better methods technology, provision of facilities for testing, approval of certain models for
hospital use in conformity with standards 'aid down. – To search for cost effective and environmental
friendly technology for treatment of bio‐medicaland hazards.

19. ADDITIONAL TOPICS

1. Global Temperature Rise

2. Warming Oceans

3. Sea Level Rise

20. MID AND UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS
Set 1
Code No: 16CE3126
Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad (Autonomous)
II/III B.Tech. I Semester I Mid-Term Examinations, Aug 2018
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Time: 100 Min Max. Marks: 15

Note: Answer All Questions. (3 x 5 = 15)

1 a What do you understand by global warming and climate change? Marks CO1 BTL2
Explain with examples
b What are ozone depleting gases? Explain their sources and effects Marks CO1 BTL1
(OR)
2 a What are the various parameters in climate and weather? Write the Marks CO1 BTL2
differences between weather and climate
b Write in detail about hydrological cycle with a neat sketch Marks CO1 BTL2

3 a What is the importance of atmosphere? Marks CO2 BTL2

b Write the chemical composition of atmosphere in detail. Marks CO2 BTL2
(OR)
4 a Write about vertical structure of atmosphere in detail. Marks CO2 BTL2
b What is negative lapse rate? What are the effects of it? Marks CO2 BTL2

5 a Explain in detail the causes of climate change? Marks CO3 BTL3

b Explain in detail the various effects of climate change. Marks CO3 BTL2
(OR)
6 a Explain green house effect in detail Marks CO1 BTL2
b What is sea level rise? Mention its implications Marks CO3 BTL3

21.
 Code No: 16CE3126
Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad (Autonomous)
II/III B.Tech. I Semester I IMid-Term Examinations, Aug 2018
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Time: 100 Min Max. Marks: 15

Note: Answer All Questions. (3 x 5 = 15)

Answer all the questions:-

1) What are the causes of climate change? [5M]

OR
2) What are the effects of climate change? [5M]

3) Write about the Paris convention on climate change [5M]

OR
4) Explain of IPCC in detail [5M]

5) Write about future clean technologies in climate change mitigation[5M]

OR
6) Explain about MSW in detail [5M]

Question bank

UNIT 1
1. what are the causes of climate change?
2. what are the effects of climate change?
3. state the various sectors effected by the impact s of climate change?
4. explain any 3 sectors in detail which are effceted my climate change.
5. write about the risk of irreversible changes of global warming and climate change
6. how does the greenhouse effect work?
7. what are the effects of global warming?
8. What is sea level rise? Mention its implications ?
9. explains the mechanism of valley inversion of temperature?
10. explain about global climate models?
UNIT-2

1.what is the importance of atmosphere?

2. write the chemical composition of atmosphere in detail?
3.write about vertical structure of atmosphere in detail?
4.what is negative lapse rate? what are the effects of it?
5.explain green house effect in detail?
6.what is sea level rise? mention its implications?
7.plain about global climate models?
8.write about the evidences of climate change on global scale and in India?

9.write about the risk of irreversible changes of global warming and climate change?

10.explain about carbon credits?

UNIT III

1. How has climate change affected agriculture?

2. How climate change affects the ecosystem?

3. How are forests affected by climate change?

4. What are the consequences of global warming for human health?

5. What is the scientific consensus on the causes and consequences of climate change?
6. What are the Effects of climate change on key sectors at Global Level?
 7. explain any 3 sectors in detail which are effceted my climate change?
8. write about the risk of irreversible changes of global warming and climate change?
9. explain about carbon credits?
10. what is thermal inversion? what are its causes and effects?

UNIT-IV

1.Explain about clean development mechanisms?

2. Explain in detail about the initiatives taken in India Kyoto protocol?

3.Write about the Paris convention on climate change?

4.Explain of IPCC in detail?

5.Explain about UNFCCC in detail?

6.Write about Montreal protocol in detail?

7.Explain about global climate models?

8.Write about the evidences of climate change on global scale and in India?

9.Write the effects of ozone layer depletion?

10.What impacts will climate change have in the developing world?

UNIT V
1. Write about Montreal protocol in detail?
2. Explain about global climate models?
3. Write about the evidences of climate change on global scale and in India?
4. Explain about CCS in detail?
5. Explain about MSW in detail?
6. Explain bout bio medical wastes in detail?
7. Write with examples about alternate energy fuels?
8. Write about future clean technologies in climate change mitigation?

9. Explain example of future example of clean technology?

10. Explain types of mitigate climate change?

21. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

 ASSIGNMENT I – UNIT I

1. How are temperatures on Earth changing?

2. How do human activities contribute to climate change and how do they compare with natural
influences?

3. What is the greenhouse effect? And What are the main Greenhouse Gases?

4. What is the role of ozone in the atmosphere? In which layer of the atmosphere is it located? Why is
it critical to human life?
5. What are the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of the different gases?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

 Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

ASSIGNMENT II – UNIT II

1. What are the changes in temperature that take place with altitude throughout the atmosphere?

2. What is meant by atmospheric stability?

3. What is a stable lapse rate?

4. Which would have a longer effect on climate changes-volcanic ash and dust or the same volume of
sulfur-based aerosols? Why?

5. How are temperatures on Earth changing?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

 NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warmig Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

ASSIGNMENT III – UNIT III

1. How has climate change affected agriculture?

2. How climate change affects the ecosystem?

3. How are forests affected by climate change?

4. What are the consequences of global warming for human health?

5. What is the scientific consensus on the causes and consequences of climate change?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

 NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warmig Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – ISem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

ASSIGNMENT IV – UNIT IV

1. What are some of the impacts we can expect from climate change?
2. What was agreed to in the “Paris Agreement” that came out of COP-21, held in Paris in 2015?
3. Which of the following are consequences associated with climate change?

4. What are the changes in temperature that take place with altitude throughout the atmosphere?

5. What impacts will climate change have in the developing world?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

 Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

ASSIGNMENT V– UNIT V

1. How can bio fuels help mitigate climate change?

2. How does solar energy reduce global warming?

3. What are the mitigating efforts in India ?

4. Explain example of future example of clean technology?

5. Explain types of mitigate climate change?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

ASSIGNMENT 1 ASSIGNMENT 2 ASSIGNMENT 3 ASSIGNMENT 4 ASSIGNMENT 5

Q.NO
CO PO CO PO CO PO CO PO CO PO
1 1 6,7 2 6,7 3 7,6 4 10,7 5 8,7
2 1 6,7 2 3,6 3 7 4 9,6 5 9,6
3 1 6,7 2 7,8 3 3,6 4 8,7 5 8,7
4 1 6,7 2 3,6 3 8,7 4 9,6 5 10,6
5 1 6,7 2 3,6 3 3,6 4 8,7 5 8,7
MAPPING OF ASSIGNMENTS WITH COs and POs

22. UNIT WISE QUIZ QUESTIONS

 UNIT-I

1. Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective _ Heat
capacity______ of the oceans

2. Which of the following types of sources of energy do not produce carbon di-oxide? Wind energy

3. Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective _ Heat
capacity______ of the oceans

4. Which of the following types of sources of energy do not produce carbon di-oxide? Wind energy

5. Surface reflectance land use causes global warming

6. Changes in the composition of the atmosphere is an example of__ External forcing

7. Following is the main cause of Global dimming. Aerosols

8. Carbon dioxide contributes _ 40 to 45%_____ percent to global warming

9. Changes in the composition of the atmosphere is an example of__ External forcing

10. Deforestation increases greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to global warming

 UNIT-II

1. Global warming is observed century-scale rise in the _ Average temperature______ of the Earth’s

climate system.

2. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas? Carbon monoxide

3.Which of the following is (are) the anticipated effect(s) of Global warming?

4.UNFCCC stands for United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

5.Economies of the following country(ies) is(are) responsible for greatest annual CO2 emissions. USA

China

6.Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective _ Heat
capacity______ of the oceans

7.Which of the following types of sources of energy do not produce carbon di-oxide? Wind energy

8.The El-Nino Phenomenon occurs in Pacific Ocean

9.Without the Earth’s atmosphere, the Earth’s average temperature would be well below the _

Freezing_____ temperature of water

10.The major gas responsible for greenhouse effect is Water vapor.

 UNIT- III

1. Following is (are) the cause(s) for CO2 emissions. Fossil fuel burning

2. The Ozone layer lies in Stratosphere

3. _ Global dimming____ is a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the
Earth’s surface.

4. Following is the main cause of Global dimming. Aerosols

5. Carbon dioxide contributes _ 40 to 45%_____ percent to global warming

6. A climate model is a representation of the physical, chemical and _ Biological____ processes

that affect the climate system.

7. Climate model may be used to predict Local air movement

8. The Earth's atmosphere is divided into 5 layers

9. What does Ozone layer? absorbs the UV-C

10. Mesopause is the transitional zone that separates Mesosphere and Thermosphere. Mesosphere and
Thermosphere

UNIT -IV
1. carbon dioxide cause global warming?

2. UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

3. Climatologist measures the global warming rate?
4. How many percent of carbon dioxide increased in the atmosphere since pre-industrial times
About30%
5. Radioactive forcing iscauseglobalwarming
6. human activity has influenced global warming By changing the radioactive balance governing the
Earth
7. Aerosols is the anthropogenic radioactive forcing of climate

8. Surface reflectance land use causes global warming

9. Changes in the composition of the atmosphere is an example of__ External forcing

10. Deforestation increases greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to global warming

 UNIT–V

1. Desertification is the effect of global warming

2. Global warming is the main reason for melting of ice sheets
3. Most of the rubbish your family throws away each day ends up getting recycled
4. Aerosols is the anthropogenic radioactive forcing of climate
5. Sunspots appearing in increased numbers can be used to show evidence of Earth's warming.

6. Deforestation increases greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to global warming

7. The Global Warming that is happening now is Mostly caused by human activity

8. Hydrogen is a fossil fuel

9. How do we contribute to global warming when we burn fossil fuel like oil or coal

We release carbon dioxide emissions

10. Rising water temperature cause global warming and may eventually increase sea levels due to the
dissolving of Glaciers
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medcahl-Dist. – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – ISem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

TUTORIAL I – UNIT I

1. What is ozone layer? Role of ozone layer in the atmosphere? What are the units for
measurement of thickness of ozone layer?
2. What is green house effect? Explain its causes?
3. What are ozone depleting gases? Mention their sources and effects?
4. What is the role of atmosphere on the planet?
5. What is hydrological cycle? Explain with a neat sketch?
 GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal-Dist – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – ISem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

TUTORIAL II– UNIT II

1. What is sea level rise? What are its causes and effects?
2. Write in detail about the causes of climate change?
3. Write in detail about the effects of climate change on various sectors?
4. What is atmospheric stability? Causes and effects in detail?
5. What is lapse rate? Explain the types of lapse rates?
 GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal-Dist – 501301

DE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – ISem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

TUTORIAL III– UNIT III

1.State the various sectors effected by the impact s of climate change?

2.Explain any 3 sectors in detail which are effected my climate change?

3.Write about the risk of irreversible changes of global warming and climate change?

4.Explain about carbon credits?

5.What is thermal inversion? What are its causes and effects?

 GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal-Dist – 501301

DE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – ISem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

TUTORIAL IV– UNIT IV

1. Explain about clean development mechanisms?

2. Explain in detail about the initiatives taken in India Kyoto protocol?
3. Write about the Paris convention on climate change?
4. Explain of IPCC in detail?
5. Explain about UNFCCC in detail?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal-Dist – 501301

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

 NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.SUSMITA

TUTORIAL V – UNIT V

1. Write the classification of bio medical waste?

2. Write a short note on bio waste?
3. Write the applications of industrial waste?
4. Explain about CCS in detail?
5. Explain about MSW in detail?

GEETHANJALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal-Dist – 501301

DE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT: Global Warming Climate Change

 Branch, Section & AY: B. Tech III yr – I Sem, A & B, AY 2019-20

Names of Course Instructors: S.Susmita

MAPPING OF TUTORIALS WITH COs and POs

TUTORIAL 1 TUTORIAL 2 TUTORIAL 3 TUTORIAL 4 TUTORIAL 5

Q.NO
CO PO CO PO CO PO CO PO CO PO
1 1 7,8 2 8,9 3 8,9 4 8,9 5 8,9
2 1 6,7 2 9,10 3 9,10 4 9,10 5 9,10
3 1 7,8 2 10,11 3 10,11 4 10,11 5 10,11
4 1 6,7 2 9,6 3 9,6 4 9,6 5 9,6
5 1 7,8 2 7,8 3 7,8 4 7,8 5 7,8

23. REFERENCES, WEBSITES AND E LINKS

Sources of Information

Text books: -
1. Climate change and Indian prospective (environment and development),Dr. Sushil
Kumar Dash Cambridge university press India pvt lt 2007
2. Adaptation and mitigation of climate change –scientific technical analysis, Cambridge
university press, Cambridge ,2006
Websites: -
 NPTEL Resources: http://nptel.ac.in/

3. QUALITY MEASUREMENT SHEET

EVALUATION SCHEME:
PARTICULAR WEIGHTAGE MARKS
End Examinations 70% 70
Two Sesstionals 25% 25
Assignment 5% 5

Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE):

1) There shall be TWO (2) mid-term examinations for 25 marks each. Each mid-term
examination consists of one objective paper for TEN (10) marks, plus one subjective paper
for 15 marks, with a duration of 120 minutes (20 minutes for objective and 100 minutes for
subjective papers). Further, there shall be an allocation of 5 marks for assignment.
The objective paper is set with multiple choice questions, True/ False, fill-in the blanks,
matching type questions and short answer questions. Subjective paper shall contain 3
questions with internal choice, each for 5 marks. All three questions are to be answered.

2) The first mid-term examination shall be conducted for the first 50% of the syllabus,
and the second mid-term examination shall be conducted for the remaining 50% of the
syllabus.

3) The assignments shall be as specified by the course instructor concerned.

4) The first mid-term examination marks and first assignment marks shall make one
set of CIE marks , and the second mid-term examination marks and second
assignment marks shall make second set of CIE Marks; and the average of these
two sets of marks shall be taken as the final marks secured by the student in the
Continuous Internal Evaluation in that theory course.

Absence in mid-term examination(s):

 If any student is absent in one mid-term examination for any course on health
grounds / any valid reasons approved by the College Academic Committee,
only one test shall be conducted on all units by the college in each course at
the end of each semester.
 If any student is absent in both mid-term examinations for any course on
health grounds / any valid reasons approved by the College Academic
Committee, only one test for 25 marks shall be conducted on all units and the
marks secured out of 25 shall be divided by two, which shall be awarded
against the said mid-term examination(s) after the student pays the prescribed
fee.

Semester End Examination (SEE):

The details of the question paper pattern for Semester End Examination shall be as
follows:
  The examination shall be conducted for 70 marks. The question paper consists of
two parts:
 Part – A for 20 marks (Compulsory);
 Part – B for 50 marks (Questions with Internal Choice);
 Part – A: The question (numbered 01) under Part A consists of ten sub questions,
two from each unit of the prescribed syllabus of the course. Each sub question
carries 2 marks. All sub questions are compulsory.
 Part – B consists of five questions (numbered from 02 to 06), one each from the
five units of the prescribed syllabus of the course. Each question carries 10 marks
and may contain sub questions. For each question, there shall be an internal
choice (it means, there shall be two questions from each unit, and the student
should answer any one question). The student must answer all the questions of
Part B.

4. STUDENT LIST

18R11A054
1 9 ALETI KALYANI
18R11A055
2 0 ARENDRA SAI KRUPA CHARY
18R11A055
3 1 BALRAMGARI SREENIDHI
18R11A055
4 2 BANALA KEERTHANA
18R11A055
5 3 BATHINA SIRISHA
18R11A055
6 4 BHEMISETTY ABHISHEK
18R11A055
7 5 BODDU SURESH KUMAR
18R11A055
8 6 BRAMANDLAPALLY ADITYA
18R11A055
9 7 CHAKALI HARINATH
18R11A055
10 8 CHILAKAPATI DIVYA
 18R11A055
11 9 CHILUMULA AMULYA
18R11A056
12 0 CHINNAM ROSE MARY
18R11A056
13 1 D SWEEKRUTHI
18R11A056
14 2 DADI GEETHIKA
18R11A056
15 3 DESETTY SRI NIKITA
18R11A056
16 4 DUSETY DIVYA REDDY
18R11A056
17 5 G RAGHAV
18R11A056
18 6 G RUCHITHA
18R11A056
19 7 G SAI KEERTHANA
18R11A056
20 8 GORANTLA LAKSHMI SARVANI
18R11A056
21 9 GORLA SAI CHARAN
18R11A057 GORREMUTCHU WINNY
22 0 REBBECA
18R11A057
23 1 K G N BALAJI RAO
18R11A057
24 2 KARRI MAHESH VARMA
18R11A057
25 3 KODAKANDLA NAVYA
18R11A057
26 4 KODISANA SANJAY RAM
18R11A057
27 5 KONAKANCHI GOPTRI SULEKHA
18R11A057
28 6 KUMBA SRI CHAKRA
18R11A057
29 7 LANKE RAVI TEJA
18R11A057
30 8 MANDA SAI JAHNAVI
18R11A057
31 9 MANJEET KAUR
18R11A058
32 0 MEDIPALLI KRISHNA SAKETH
18R11A058
33 1 MOHAMMED AFREEN
18R11A058
34 2 MOHAMMED NAZEER AHMED
18R11A058
35 3 MOTHE SAHITHI
 18R11A058
36 4 MOVVA MANASWINI
18R11A058
37 5 PABBA JOGENDAR
18R11A058
38 6 PONTHAGANI SAI TEJA
18R11A058
39 7 PURALI LIPIKA
18R11A058
40 8 RAGHU VARDHAN P
18R11A058
41 9 RUPA REDDY VUDUMULA
18R11A059
42 0 SHIVA DHANUSH T V S
18R11A059
43 1 SUNKARI DINESHWAR REDDY
18R11A059
44 2 T VISHNU VARDHAN REDDY
18R11A059 VALLABHANENI MANIKANTA
45 3 VINEETH
18R11A059
46 4 VENKATA APARNA K L
18R11A059
47 5 VENNAKANDLA KARTHIK
18R11A059
48 6 YEDLAPATI JEEVANI

GROUP WISE STUDENT LIST FOR DISCUSSION TOPICS

18R11A054 1
1 9 ALETI KALYANI
18R11A055
2 0 ARENDRA SAI KRUPA CHARY
18R11A055
3 1 BALRAMGARI SREENIDHI
18R11A055
4 2 BANALA KEERTHANA
18R11A055
5 3 BATHINA SIRISHA
18R11A055 2
6 4 BHEMISETTY ABHISHEK
18R11A055
7 5 BODDU SURESH KUMAR
18R11A055
8 6 BRAMANDLAPALLY ADITYA
18R11A055
9 7 CHAKALI HARINATH
18R11A055
10 8 CHILAKAPATI DIVYA
 18R11A055 3
11 9 CHILUMULA AMULYA
18R11A056
12 0 CHINNAM ROSE MARY
18R11A056
13 1 D SWEEKRUTHI
18R11A056
14 2 DADI GEETHIKA
18R11A056
15 3 DESETTY SRI NIKITA
18R11A056 4
16 4 DUSETY DIVYA REDDY
18R11A056
17 5 G RAGHAV
18R11A056
18 6 G RUCHITHA
18R11A056
19 7 G SAI KEERTHANA
18R11A056
20 8 GORANTLA LAKSHMI SARVANI
18R11A056 5
21 9 GORLA SAI CHARAN
18R11A057 GORREMUTCHU WINNY
22 0 REBBECA
18R11A057
23 1 K G N BALAJI RAO
18R11A057
24 2 KARRI MAHESH VARMA
18R11A057
25 3 KODAKANDLA NAVYA
18R11A057 6
26 4 KODISANA SANJAY RAM
18R11A057
27 5 KONAKANCHI GOPTRI SULEKHA
18R11A057
28 6 KUMBA SRI CHAKRA
18R11A057
29 7 LANKE RAVI TEJA
18R11A057
30 8 MANDA SAI JAHNAVI
18R11A057 7
31 9 MANJEET KAUR
18R11A058
32 0 MEDIPALLI KRISHNA SAKETH
18R11A058
33 1 MOHAMMED AFREEN
18R11A058
34 2 MOHAMMED NAZEER AHMED
18R11A058
35 3 MOTHE SAHITHI
 18R11A058 8
36 4 MOVVA MANASWINI
18R11A058
37 5 PABBA JOGENDAR
18R11A058
38 6 PONTHAGANI SAI TEJA
18R11A058
39 7 PURALI LIPIKA
18R11A058
40 8 RAGHU VARDHAN P
18R11A058 9
41 9 RUPA REDDY VUDUMULA
18R11A059
42 0 SHIVA DHANUSH T V S
18R11A059
43 1 SUNKARI DINESHWAR REDDY
18R11A059
44 2 T VISHNU VARDHAN REDDY
18R11A059 10 VALLABHANENI MANIKANTA
45 3 VINEETH
18R11A059
46 4 VENKATA APARNA K L
18R11A059
47 5 VENNAKANDLA KARTHIK
18R11A059
48 6 YEDLAPATI JEEVANI