ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

UNIT – 2 MAGNETOSTATICS
➢ Magnetic Field: -
A field due to electric field whether it is in motion or at a
rest but a force due to the magnetic field only if it is in motion.
Magnetic field can be represented by lines called lines of
induction.
1. The tangent drawn at any point to a line of induction gives
the direction of B at that point.
2. The number of lines per unit area gives an idea about the
magnitude of the magnetic field vector B. This field is
large if lines are closer and is small if they are far apart.
In a uniform magnetic field, where the B – vector has the
same magnitude and direction at all points, the lines of
induction are equally spaced parallel and straight.
➢ The Definition Of B: -
The magnitude of the magnetic field Vector B at any point
P is given as,
𝐵 = 𝐹⁄𝑞0 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝑉𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
In vector form it can be written as,
𝐹 = 𝑞0 (𝑣 × 𝐵)
From this relation we can see that,
a) F is perpendicular to the plane formed by V and B
b) F vanishes as V = 0, B = 0 or V and B are either parallel
or antiparallel.
c) V⊥B the magnetic force F has its maximum value given
as F = q0VB
 Unit of magnetic force = (T) Tesla = 104 Gauss

➢ Lorentz Force: -
If a charged particle moves through a region in which both
an electric field and a magnetic field are present the resultant
force,
𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸 + 𝑞0 (𝑣 × 𝐵)
This relation is known as Lorentz relation.
❖ Example: -

➢ Magnetic Flux: -
Magnetic flux is a measure of total magnetic field
passing through a surface.
It depends on both the strength of the magnetic field and the
orientation of the surface relative to the field. Mathematically it
is given by the product of the magnetic field strength (B) and the
perpendicular area (A) through which the field lines pass.

𝜙𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃

𝜙𝐵 = ∫ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝐴
Where Theta = angle between the magnetic field lines and the
normal to the surface. [Unit = Wb (weber)]
❖ Example: -
➢ Magnetic Force: -
⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑞0 (𝑉 ⃗)
⃗ and
1. 𝐹 the force is always perpendicular to the plane formed by 𝑉
⃗ and thus always is sideways force.
𝐵
2. 𝐹 vanishes as, 𝑉 ⃗ = 0,𝐵 ⃗ = 0 Both are either parallel or
antiparallel.
⃗ and 𝐵
3. 𝑉 ⃗ are parallel force as its maximum value.
4. The work done by the force in a static magnetic field is a zero as
the direction of the force and the direction of the motion of
charge are always at a right angle.
ⅆ𝑊 = 𝐹 ⅆ𝑙
𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 =
𝑚2

➢ Force on a current carrying conductor: -

Let us consider C1 conducting wire of length (𝑙) and

cross section area A in which the current I is passing. If this wire
is placed in a magnetic field B, which is perpendicular to the
plane of the diagram pointing in downward direction.
The current in a metal wire is carried by the negative
charges and the positive charges. If the positive charge q1 is
moving with a drift velocity V1 it is acted on by a force F1, given
as,
𝐹1 = 𝑞1 (𝑉1 × 𝐵)
 The direction of F1 is upward if the direction of the
current density j is from left to right. The negative charge q 2
moving I opposite direction is acted on by a force,
𝐹2 = − 𝑞2 (𝑉2 × 𝐵)
It is also in upward direction as the velocity V2 is
opposite to V1.
If n1 is the number of positive charges carries per unit
volume and n2 that of negative charge carries per unit volume,
Then the total force F on all charge carries of the given conductor.
𝐹 = (𝑛1 𝐴𝑙) 𝑞1 (𝑉1 × 𝐵) − (𝑛2 𝐴𝑙) 𝑞2 (𝑉2 × 𝐵)

𝐹 = 𝛴𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑖 𝑞𝑖 (𝑉𝑖 × 𝐵)
But we know that the vector current density,
𝑗 = 𝛴𝑛𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑙 (𝑗 × 𝐵)
𝐹 = 𝑉(𝑗 × 𝐵)
This relation is called the Ampere’s law and defines
the force acting on an element of electric current of density 𝑗
enclosed in a volume V.
𝐹 = 𝑖 (𝑙 × 𝐵)
➢ The Biot-Savart Law: -
This law states that the magnetic field ⅆ𝐵 produced at
point P by a differential current element 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 is proportional to
the product 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 and the sine of the angle 𝜃 between the element
𝑖ⅆ𝑙 and the line joining P to the element and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r between P and the
element.
 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 sin 𝜃
ⅆ𝐵 𝛼
𝑟2

𝜇0 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 sin 𝜃
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝜇0 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 × 𝑟
ⅆ𝐵 = − − − − − (𝐸𝑞. 1)
4𝜋 𝑟 3
The direction of ⅆ𝐵 will be perpendicular to the plane
containing ⅆ𝑙 and 𝑟 and may be given by any of the following
rules (a) Maxwell’s cork-screw rule, (b) Right hand claps rule.
𝜇0 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 × 𝑟
𝐵= ∫
4𝜋 𝑟3
The current contributions may be either the line current,
surface current and volume current.
𝑖ⅆ𝑙 = 𝐾ⅆ𝑆 = 𝑗ⅆ𝑉
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑗 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ⅆ𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐾= = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ⅆ𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
ⅆ𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝜇0 𝑖ⅆ𝑙 × 𝑟
𝐵= ∫ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
4𝜋 𝑟 3
𝐿
 𝜇0 𝐾 × 𝑟ⅆ𝑠
𝐵= ∫ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
4𝜋 𝑟3
𝑆

𝜇0 𝑗 × 𝑟
𝐵= ∫ ⅆ𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
4𝜋 𝑟 3
𝑉

To find the relation (1) in terms of charge carriers, let us

consider a small section ⅆ𝑙 of a wire of a cross section A carrying
a current 𝑖. If 𝑛 is the number of charge carriers per unit volume,
each of charge a and moving with a drift velocity V, Then
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝑉𝐴

𝜇0 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑉 ⅆ𝑙
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
To define unit of current, Ampere, let us consider two
elements A and B of lengths ⅆ𝑙1 and ⅆ𝑙2 having currents 𝑖1 and
𝑖2 respectively.
𝜇0 𝑖2 ⅆ𝑙2 × 𝑟12
ⅆ𝐵2 = 3
4𝜋 𝑟12

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒ⅆ 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

⃗⃗⃗⃗2
ⅆ2 𝐹1 = 𝑖1 ⅆ𝑙1 × ⅆ𝐵
𝜇0 𝑖1 𝑖2 ⅆ𝑙1 × (ⅆ𝑙2 × 𝑟12 )
ⅆ2 𝐹1 = 3
4𝜋 𝑟12
 The total force on the first wire due to the current in the
entire length of the second wire is obtained by integrating this
equation over whole lengths 𝑙1 & 𝑙2 .

𝐹 = ∫ ∫ ⅆ2 𝐹
𝑙2
𝑙1

𝜇0 ⅆ𝑙1 × (ⅆ𝑙2 × 𝑟12 )

𝐹= 𝑖1 𝑖2 ∫ ∫ 3
4𝜋 𝑟12
𝑙2
𝑙1

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠.

If these current elements are each of unit length and at a
𝑑𝑙1 ×(𝑑𝑙2 ×𝑟12 )
unit distance apart and are so oriented that factor 3
𝑟12
is unity. Then the current in the element is defined to be an
ampere, if the resulting force is 10−7 newton.
➢ Calculation Of B by using Biot – Savart Law: -
A. Long Straight Wire: -
A point P is chosen at a fixed distance R from the long
straight wire AB. Carrying current 𝑖. Let us consider a small
element ⅆ𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from point 𝑂, using Biot-savart law
for this element we get,

𝜇0 𝑖 ⅆ𝑥 × 𝑟
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 3
 The direction of ⅆ𝐵 is perpendicular to the plane of ⅆ𝑥
and 𝑟 and is directed into the plane of paper. This is direction
for all current element. Hence total magnetic field.
𝐵 = ∫ ⅆ𝐵

𝜇0 ⅆ𝑥 × 𝑟
𝐵= 𝑖∫
4𝜋 𝑟3

𝑟2
𝜇0 ⅆ𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝐵= 𝑖∫
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝑟1

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 diagram

𝑅
sin(180 − 𝜃 ) =
𝑟

𝑟 = 𝑅 cosec 𝜃 ; 𝑥 = −𝑅 cot 𝜃

ⅆ𝑥 = 𝑅 cosec 2 𝜃 ⅆ𝜃

𝜃2

𝜇0 𝑅 cosec 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 ⅆ𝜃
𝐵= 𝑖∫
𝑢𝜋 𝑅 2 cosec 2 𝜃
𝜃1

𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵= (cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 )
4𝜋 𝑅

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝜃1 = 0 & 𝜃2 = 𝜋 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵= (1 + 1)
4𝜋 𝑅
 𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵= 2
4𝜋 𝑅

𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑅

B. Circular current loop: -

Let us consider a circular loop of radius 𝑎, having turns 𝑛
and carrying a current 𝑖. The magnetic field ⅆ𝐵 at point 𝑃 on
its axis at a distance 𝑥 from its center, due to current element
𝐴𝐵 of length ⅆ𝑙 is,
𝜇0 𝑖 ⅆ𝑙 × 𝑟
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 3

The magnitude of ⅆ𝐵 at point 𝑃 due to current element ⅆ𝑙′ ,

𝜇0 𝑖 ⅆ𝑙′ × 𝑟
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 3

Here ⅆ𝑙 and ⅆ𝑙′ are equal length and hence ⅆ𝐵 and ⅆ𝐵′ are
also equal. The component of ⅆ𝐵 and ⅆ𝐵′ , ⅆ𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and
ⅆ𝐵′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 are equal and their directions are opposite to one
another. Thus, they cancel each other. Therefore, the resultant
B is in the direction of the axis and is equal to

𝐵 = ∫ ⅆ𝐵 sin 𝜃
 𝜇0 𝑖 ⅆ𝑙 𝑎
𝐵=∫
4𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑟

𝜇0 𝑖𝑎
𝐵= ∫ ⅆ𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟 3

𝜇0 𝐼𝑎2𝜋𝑎
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑟 3

𝜇0 𝐼𝑎2
𝐵= 3
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝜇 𝑖
At the center of the loop, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝐵 = 0 . If the coil has N
2𝑎
closely packed turns.
𝜇0 𝑖𝑎2 𝑁
𝐵= 3
2(𝑎2 + 2
𝑥 )2
Variation of B along the axis of a circular coil.
C. Field along the axis of a solenoid: -

A solenoid having current flowing in it of 𝐼 and length 𝑙

suppose 9 rectangle ABCD over the solenoid. Now applying
circuital law,
∮𝐵⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐴
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵
∮𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷

The field outside the solenoid approaches zero, we shall

assume that the field outside is zero.

𝐷
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 0
∮𝐵
𝐶
The field inside becomes everywhere parallel to the axis.

𝐶 𝐴
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 0
∮𝐵 ; ⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 0
∮𝐵
𝐵 𝐷
Let N be the number of turns per unit length then the total
number of turns is 𝑛ℎ.

𝐵
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
∮𝐵
𝐴
 𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛ℎ𝐼
𝐵ℎ = 𝜇0 𝑛ℎ𝐼 ; 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼

➢ Divergence Of Magnetic field: -

Divergence of magnetic field 𝐵 is defined as the flux of 𝐵
through the surface 𝑆 enclosing per unit volume. It can be
obtained directly from the Biot-savart law,

𝜇0 𝑖 × 𝑟
𝐵= ∫ 3 ⅆ𝑉
4𝜋 𝑟
𝑉

𝜇0 𝑖 × 𝑟
ⅆ𝑖𝑣 𝐵 = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐵 = 𝛻 ⋅ ∫ 3 ⅆ𝑉
4𝜋 𝑟
𝑉
To solve this equation, let us assume that the position
vectors of the field point (at which B is measured) and source
point (current element) ne 𝑟2 and 𝑟1 respectively.
𝜇0 𝑖 (𝑟1 ) × (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
𝛻⋅𝐵 =𝛻⋅ ∫ ⅆ𝑉1
4𝜋 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )3
𝑉
Since the del operation is a function of the field point but
the independent variable under the integral sign is a function of
the source point hence the del operation may be moved to the
right of the integral sign.
𝜇0 𝑗(𝑟1 ) × (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
𝛻 ⋅ 𝐵 (𝜋2 ) = ∫𝛻 ⋅ [ ]
4𝜋 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )3
𝑉
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖ⅆ𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦.

𝛻 ⋅ (𝐴 × 𝐵) = 𝐵 ⋅ (𝛻 × 𝐴) − 𝐴 ⋅ (𝛻 × 𝐵 )
 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
𝐴 = 𝑗(𝑟1 ) ; 𝐵 =
(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )3

𝑗(𝑟1 ) × (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
𝛻⋅[ ]
(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )3
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
= ⋅ (𝛻 × 𝑗𝑟1 ) − 𝑗 (𝑟1 ) [𝛻 × ]
(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )3 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )3
The first term on the right is zero as 𝑗(𝑟1 ) is a function of
the source point (𝑟1 ) while the del operator derivates 𝑊, 𝑟, 𝑡 the
field point (𝑟2 ) as,

𝑟 1 1
𝛻× = 𝛻 × (−𝛻 ) = −𝛻 × 𝛻 ( )
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟
Thus, the curl of the gradient of any function is identically
(𝑟 −𝑟1 )
zero hence second term [𝛻 × (𝑟 2 3] is also zero.
2 −𝑟1 )

𝛻⋅𝐵 =0
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑆 = ∫ 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐵 ⅆ𝑉
5 𝑉
Since 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐵 is always zero, hence the flux over any closed
surface is zero it shows that the magnetic charge known as the
magnetic monopole cannot exist.
∫ 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑆 = ∫ 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑛̂ ⅆ𝑆 = 𝛥
𝑆 5
This is known as Gauss’s law for magnetic fields 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐵 = 0
is known as the differential form of Gauss’s law.
➢ Ampere’s Circuital Law: -
The magnetic field around a long wire carrying a current 𝐼
𝜇 𝑖
𝐵⃗ = 0
2𝜋𝑟
The line integral around the path of radius 𝑟 starting at any point
and returning to the same point.

𝜇0 𝑖 𝜇0 𝑖
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = ∫ 𝐵 ⅆ𝑙 =
∮𝐵 ∫ ⅆ𝑙 = × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

⃗ around any closed path is equal to 𝜇0 times

The line integral of 𝐵
the net current enclosed the area bounded by this path. It is
called ampere’s circuital law.
The curl of B 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽 is called Ampere’s law in
differential form. It can be converted to internal form by the
usual device of applying one of the fundamental theorems in this
case stokes theorem.

∫(𝛻 × 𝐵) ⋅ ⅆ𝑎 = ∮ 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0 ∫ 𝐽 ⋅ ⅆ𝑎

Now, 𝐽 ⋅ ⅆ𝑎 is the total current passing through the surface,

which we call 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐.

∮ 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐.

Unlike the electrostatic field the magnetic field does not

have rotation hence can’t be conservative.
➢ Ampere’s Law: Long Solenoid: -
A long solenoid means that its length is much greater than
its radius. The magnetic field at the inside of the solenoid in
uniform, strong and in the direction of its axis. The magnetic field
at the outside is weak and mostly parallel to the axis of the
solenoid and has no perpendicular component.

Assume a rectangular Amperion loop abcd. The magnetic

field at cd is zero.
𝑑
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 0
∫𝐵
𝑐
Segment ‘bc’ and ‘da’ the magnetic field is zero. Hence,
these two continents make no contribution.
𝑎 𝑏
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = ∫ 𝐵
∫𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 0
𝑑 𝐶
Let there be a magnetic field-B parallel to ‘ab’. Thus, the
present length of the Amperian period is L = h. If the number of
loops per unit length is n, the total number of loops is nh. The
induced current is 𝐼0 = 𝐼(𝑛ℎ).
𝑏
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒
∫𝐵
𝑎

𝐵ℎ = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑛ℎ

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
➢ The Toroid: -

We can see the cross-section of a toroid. The three Amperion

loops 1, 2, 3 are indicated by dark line. Suppose, the value of the
magnetic field at region 1 is B1. Hence Ampère’s circuit law,
𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟2
However, since this region does not carry my current,𝐼𝑒 = 0
𝐵1 (2𝜋𝑟1 ) = 𝜇0 (0)

𝐵1 = 0
Hence the magnetic field near any point p in the open space in
the toroid is zero. Let the magnetic field at loop 3 is B3. Here also
from Ampère’s law 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟3 . However, from the Cross-section
we can see that the current flowing outwards from the plane of
the book is canceled by the same amount of the current flowing
inwards. Hence, 𝐼𝑒 = 0
𝐵3 = 0
Suppose the magnetic field B inside the toroid. Thus,
𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟2 = 2𝜋𝑟
The enclosed current 𝐼𝑒 is equal to 𝑁𝐼.
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Let the mean radius of the toroid be n and the number of loops
per unit length is n. Hence,
𝑁
𝑛=
2𝜋𝑟

𝐵 = 𝑢0 𝑛𝐼
 ➢ Magnetic Vector Potential: -
ⅆ𝑖𝑣 𝐵⃗ =0

Div of curl of any vector = 0

⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐴 ; 𝐴 = 𝐴 + 𝛻𝜙
𝐵
The vector field 𝐴, the curl of which is equal to the magnetic
⃗ is known as magnetic vector potential. Since curl of a
field 𝐵
gradient of scalar is always zero therefore the vector 𝐴 is
uniquely defined by.
𝐵⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴

⃗ = 𝛻⃗ × 𝐴
𝐵

𝛻⃗ × 𝐴′ = 𝛻 × 𝐴 + 𝛻 × (𝛻𝜙)

𝛻⃗ × 𝐴′ = 𝛻⃗ × 𝐴 = 𝐵
⃗
➢ Lorentz Gauge: -
Since the potential is chosen ambiguously, 𝐴 will be specified
uniquely only if it’s divergence as well as its curl is given, we
choose.
ⅆ𝑖𝑣 𝐴 = 0 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒ⅆ 𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

⃗ = 𝜇0 𝑗 we get
Equation for vector potential from 𝛻 × 𝐵
𝛻⃗ × (𝛻 × 𝐴) = 𝜇0 𝑗

𝛻 (𝛻𝐴) − (𝛻𝛻)𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝑗

𝛻 2 𝐴 = −𝜇0 𝑗

Poisson’s Equation
 𝜌
𝛻2𝑄 = −
𝜀0

1 𝜌(⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 )
𝑄 (𝑟) = ∫ ′
⋅ ⅆ𝑣 ′
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 − 𝑟
𝑣

𝛻 2 𝐴 = −𝜇0 𝑗

𝜇0 𝑗𝑖 𝑟 ′
𝐴(𝑟) = ∫ ′
ⅆ𝑣 ′
ℎ𝜋 𝑟 − 𝑟
𝑣

If all the current are constructed in finite region of space in a case

of filamentary current 𝑖 through a differential length current 𝑖ⅆ𝑙
along the wire we have.
𝑖
𝑗 ⅆ𝑉 ′ = ( ) (𝑠 ⅆ𝑙′ )
𝑆

𝑗 ⅆ𝑉 ′ = 𝑖 ⅆ𝑙

𝜇0 𝑖 ⅆ𝑙 ′
ⅆ𝐴(𝑟) =
4𝜋 |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ |

𝜇0 𝑖 (𝑟 ′ ) ⅆ𝑙′
𝐴(𝑟) = ∫
4𝜋 |𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ |
𝑉
The component of 𝐴 varies as 1/r like the electric potential V
which doesn’t diverge within a charge distribution as divergence
⃗ = 0 can be written as a
curl of a vector is always zero and ⅆ𝑖𝑣 𝐵
curl of a vector and thus A is a vector due to these reasons: -
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
➢ Biot-Savart Law: -
⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵

⃗ is𝛿𝐵
Hence contribution of𝛿𝐴 to the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗.
𝛿𝐵⃗ = 𝛻 × 𝛿𝐴

𝜇0 𝑖𝛿𝜆
⃗ =𝛻×
𝛿𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 1 1
⃗ =
𝛿𝐵 𝑖 [ 𝛻 × 𝛿𝑙 + 𝛻 ( ) × 𝛿𝑙]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟

𝜇0 1
⃗ =
𝛿𝐵 𝑖 [𝛻 ( ) × 8𝑙]
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 𝑟
⃗ =
𝛿𝐵 𝑖𝛿𝑙 × ( 3 )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 𝑖𝛿𝑙 × 𝑟
⃗ =
𝛿𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟 3

➢ Magnetic field of small current carrying loop (Magnetic dipole):-

⃗ we calculate 𝐴 at a point on a X-Z plane ⅆ𝐴 due to small

To find 𝐵
element ⅆ𝑙 of the loop.
𝜇0 ⅆ𝑙
ⅆ𝐴 = 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑟
[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ⅆ𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 − 𝑌 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, ⅆ𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 − 𝑌 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒]
For any value of r’ consider two symmetrical ⅆ𝑙 elements whose
y -component add and X -component cancel total vector
potential due to the whole loop.
 2𝜋
𝜇0 ⅆ𝑙
𝐴= 𝑖 ∫ ′ cos 𝜙
4𝜋 𝑟
0

2𝜋
𝜇0 (𝑎 ⅆ 𝜙 )
𝐴= 𝑖∫ cos 𝜙
4𝜋 𝑟′
0

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠,

2
𝑟 ′ = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑟 cos 𝜙

1 1
= 1⁄
𝑟′ 𝑎2 2𝑎 2
𝑟 [1 + 2 − cos 𝛷]
𝑟 𝑟

1 1 𝑎2 2𝑎
= [1 + 2 − cos 𝛹]
𝑟′ 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

To replace cos 𝛹, we write 𝑟, 𝑎 in two ways and compare.

(𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂) ⋅ (acos 𝜙 𝑖̂ + asin 𝜙 𝑗̂) = 𝑟 acos 𝛹

𝑥 cos 𝜙 = 𝑟 cos 𝛹

1 1 𝑎2 𝑎 × cos 𝜙
= [1 − 2 − ]
𝑟′ 𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟2

𝜇0 𝑖 𝜋𝑎2
𝐴= 𝑥
4𝜋 𝑟 3
 𝜇0 𝑖𝜋𝑎2 sin 𝜃
𝐴=
4𝜋 𝑟2

𝜇0 𝑀 sin 𝜃
𝐴= ⋅
4𝜋 𝑟2

⃗⃗ × 𝑟
𝜇0 𝑀
𝐴=
4𝜋 𝑟 3

𝜇0 ⃗⃗
𝑀
𝐴= 𝛻×
4𝜋 𝑟

⃗ =𝛻×𝐴
𝐵

𝜇 ⃗⃗
𝑀
⃗𝐵 = 𝛻 × ( 0 𝛻 × )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 ⃗⃗
𝑀 ⃗⃗
𝑀
⃗ =
𝐵 2
[𝛻 (𝛻 ⋅ ) − 𝛻 ( )]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟

𝑛𝑜𝑤, ∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐴) − 𝛻 2 𝐴

1
𝛻 2 ( ) = 0 ; (𝑟 ≠ 0)
𝑟

𝜇0 ⃗⃗
𝑀
⃗ =
𝐵 ⋅ 𝛻 (𝛻 ⋅ )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 1
⃗ =
𝐵 ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝛻 ( )]
𝛻 [𝑀
4𝜋 𝑟

⃗⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ⅆ𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

𝑀
 ⃗⃗ = 𝑖 (𝜋𝑎2 )𝑉
𝑀 ⃗ = 𝑖𝑆

Electric field due to electric dipole of dipole moment 𝑃⃗.

1 1
𝐸⃗ = 𝛻 [𝑃⃗ ⋅ 𝛻 ( )]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Magnetic dipole moment of an arbitrary shaped loop,

1
𝑚
⃗⃗ = 𝑖 ∮ 𝑟 × ⅆ𝑙
2
𝐶

1
𝑚
⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝑟 × 𝑗 ⅆ𝑉
2
𝐶
The magnetic moment of a distribution of charge elements
⃗ (𝑟) is.
ⅆ𝑞 (⃗⃗𝑟𝑐 ) moving at 𝑟 with average velocity 𝑉

1
⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑟 × 𝑣 (𝑟) ⅆ𝑞
𝑚
2