Ahmed and Abu Haraira Fyp

On Equitable Coloring of Certain Graphs
By
Ahmed Muhammad Sohail

CIIT/FA20-BSM-022/LHR
And
Abu Haraira
CIIT/SP20-BSM-013/LHR
BS
In
Mathematics
COMSATS University Islamabad

Pakistan
Spring 2024
i
A Report Presented to
In partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of
Science in
Mathematic
s by

Abu Haraira
Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Science

Pakistan
Spring 2024
ii
A Final Year Report is submitted to the Department of Mathematics as

partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Degree of BS
Mathematics.
Name Registration Number
Ahmed Muhammad Sohail CIIT/FA20-BSM-022/LHR
Abu Haraira CIIT/SP20-BSM-013/LHR
Supervisor
Dr. M. Faisal Nadeem

Associate Professor,
COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus
May, 2024
iii
Certificate of Approval
This report titled

By

And
Abu Haraira
has been approved
for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mathematics

at COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus.
External Examiner:
Dr. Tabasam Rashid

University of Management and
Technology, Lahore
Supervisor:

CUI, Lahore Campus
Head of Department:
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Hussain

CUI, Lahore Campus
iv
Author’s Declaration
We Ahmed Muhammad Sohail and Abu Haraira with registration number
CIIT/FA20-BSM-022/LHR and CIIT/SP20-BSM-013/LHR hereby declare
that we have produced the work presented in this report, during the scheduled
period of study.
Date:
Ahmed Muhammad
Sohail
CIIT/FA20-BSM-
022/LHR
Abu Haraira
CIIT/SP20-BSM-
013/LHR
v
Certificate
It is certified that Ahmed Muhammad Sohail, CIIT/FA20-BSM-022/LHR and Abu
Haraira, CIIT/SP20-BSM-013 have carried out all the work related to this report
under my supervision at the Department of Mathematics, COMSATS University
Islamabad, Lahore Campus and the work fulfills the requirement for award of BS
degree.
Date:
Supervisor

Associate Professor,
Mathematics,
COMSATS University
Islamabad
Lahore Campus
vi
Dedication To My
Parents and All Family
vii
Acknowledgements
Praise to be ALLAH, the Cherisher and Lord

of the World, Most gracious and Most
Merciful
First and foremost, I would like to thank ALLAH Almighty (the most beneficent and
most merciful) for giving me the strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to
undertake this research study and to preserve and complete it satisfactorily. Without
countless blessing of ALLAH Almighty, this achievement would not have been
possible. May His peace and blessings be upon His messenger Hazrat Muhammad
(PBUH), upon his family, companions and whoever follows him. My insightful
gratitude to Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) Who is forever a track of guidance and
knowledge for humanity as a whole. In my journey towards this degree, I have found
a teacher, an inspiration, a role model and a pillar of support in my life, my kind.

Abu Haraira
viii
Abstract
On Equitable Coloring of Certain
Graphs
By
And
Abu
Haraira
In this project, we explore several fundamental concepts in graph theory,

focusing primarily equitable edge coloring. An equitable edge coloring
of a graph is a proper edge coloring for which the difference between
any two color classes is at most one. The minimum cardinality of G for
such coloring is called equitable edge chromatic number.
ix
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Application of Graph Theory in Diverse Areas .......................................... 1
1.2 Some Basic Definitions in Graph Theory ................................................... 1
2 Equitable coloring of certain graphs ............................................................. 15

2.1 Historical Background of Equitable Edge Coloring ................................. 15
3 Conclusion
References
x
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 1.2 Graph of order 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1.3 Graph of size 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.4 Graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.5 Graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1.6 Radius=2: Diameter=3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 1.7 Isolated vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 1.8 Adjacent vertices a, b, and c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 1.9 Pendant vertices a, b, c, and d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 1.10 Even and odd degree vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 1.11 Types of edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 1.12 Empty Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 1.13 Simple Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 1.14 Walk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 1.15 Trail adeb f e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 1.16 Path abc f e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 1.17 Cycle abc f eda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 1.18 Tree Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 1.19 Star Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.20 Path Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.21 Cycle Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.22 3-Regular Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1.23 Complete graph K5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1.24 Bipartite graph B2,3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 1.25 Complete bipartite graph K2,3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 1.26 Wheel graph W5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
xi
Figure 1.27 Petersen graph P5,2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 1.28 Prism graph P5,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 2.1 Sunlet graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 2.2 Wheel graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
xii
Chapter 1
Introducti
on
In the 18th century, Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler laid the groundwork for
graph theory while attempting to solve the Konigsberg bridge problem. Konigsberg, a
city with two islands and two land areas, was interconnected by seven bridges. Euler
sought to devise a walk that would cross each bridge exactly once and return to the
starting point. In 1736, he published a paper proving the impossibility of such a path.
His approach involved representing the land areas as vertices and the bridges as edges, a
methodology fundamental to graph theory. For his various contributions to the field,
Euler is often hailed as the fatherof graph theory.
Graph theory has since become instrumental in numerous scientific domains, including
networking, electrical circuits, computer science, and biology. Its principles are
essential for understanding and solving complex problems in these areas.
1.1 Application of Graph Theory in Diverse Areas
Graph theory is used for modelling and analysing various types of networks, including
social networks communication network transport networks and electrical circuits. It
enables the identification of optimal routes, discovery of patterns, and analysis of
relationships within complex systems.
1.2 Some Basic Definitions in Graph Theory
Definition 1.2.1. A graph is a pictorial representation of a set of objects, where the

objectsare represented as vertices (or nodes) and the links between them as edges.
Formally,a graph is a pair of sets (V, E), where V is the set of vertices and E is the set of
edges connecting the vertices.
Example 1.2.1. Let V = {a, b, c, d} and E = {ab, bc, cd, da, bd} represent the vertices
1
and edges of the graph shown in Figure 1.1.
a b
e d
Figure 1.1:
Graph
Definition 1.2.2. Let G = (V, E) be any graph, where V (G) is the set of vertices and
E(G) is the set of edges. The order of G, denoted as |V (G)|, refers to the number of
vertices in
G. The graph shown in Figure 1.2 has an order of 9 because |V (G)| = 9.
a b d e g h
c f i
Figure 1.2: Graph of order 9
Definition 1.2.3. Let G = (V, E) be any graph. The size of G, denoted as |E(G)|, refers
to the number of edges in G. The graph shown in Figure 1.3 has a size of 6
because
|E(G)| = 6.
2
a b
e1
e5
e4 e2
e6
e3
d c
Figure 1.3: Graph of size 6
Definition 1.2.4. Let a graph G = (V, E), for any vertex v V (G), the neighborhood of
v is the set of all vertices which are adjacent to v and is defined as N(v) = {u  V : (v, u) 
E(G)}. The closed neighborhood of any vertex v  V (G) is the set of all vertices which
areadjacent to v and itself, and it is defined as N[v] = N(v) ∪ {v}.
Example 1.2.2. N(a) = {b} and N(d) = {c, e, f }. N[a] = {a, b}, N[d] = {c, d, e, f },
and N[ f ] = {d,e, f ,g}.
b c
a g f e
Figure 1.4:
Graph G
Definition 1.2.5. The number of edges incident to a vertex v  V (G) of an undirected

graph G = (V, E) is called the degree of vertex v. In Figure 1.5, we can see deg(b) =
deg(c) = deg(d) = deg( f ) = 2 and deg(a) = deg(e) = 3.
3
b
Figure 1.5:
Graph G
Definition 1.2.6. The distance between two vertices in a graph G = (V, E) is the number of
edges in a shortest or minimal path. For any two vertices u, v  V (G), the distance
between them is denoted by d(u, v). The distance between f and d is d( f , d) = 3, which
is shownin Figure 1.6.
Definition 1.2.7. The maximum distance between a vertex v  V (G) and all other
vertices of the graph G = (V, E) is called the eccentricity of the vertex v. It is denoted
by Ecc(v). The eccentricity of vertex a is Ecc(a) = 3, as shown in Figure 1.6.
Definition 1.2.8. The maximum eccentricity of a vertex v among all other vertices is
known as the diameter of the graph.
Definition 1.2.9. The minimum eccentricity of a vertex v among all other vertices is
knownas the radius of the graph.
Example 1.2.3. The eccentricity of all the vertices are ecc(a) = 3, ecc(b) = 2, ecc(c) =
2, ecc(d) = 3, ecc(e) = 2, and ecc( f ) = 3. The radius is 2, and the diameter is 3 of the
graphshown in Figure 1.6.
4
a b
c d
f e
Figure 1.6: Radius=2: Diameter=3
Definition 1.2.10. A vertex in a graph G with zero degree or no edges is called an

isolatedvertex.
Example 1.2.4. The vertices a and b shown in Figure 1.7 are isolated vertices
becausedeg(a) = deg(b) = 0.
a b
Figure 1.7: Isolated vertices
Definition 1.2.11. In graph G, two vertices are considered adjacent if they are
connectedby an edge.
Example 1.2.5. The vertices a, b, and c shown in Figure 1.8 are adjacent vertices,
whilethe vertex d is non-adjacent to any other vertex because it is not connected by
any edge.
c b
Figure 1.8: Adjacent vertices a, b, and c
Definition 1.2.12. A vertex in a graph G with a degree of one is called a pendant vertex.
5
Example 1.2.6. The vertices a, b, c, and d are pendant vertices, as shown in Figure
1.9,because deg(a) = deg(b) = deg(c) = deg(d) = 1.
e
d b
Figure 1.9: Pendant vertices a, b, c, and d
Definition 1.2.13. A vertex in a graph G = (V, E) is called an even vertex if its degree is
even. Similarly, if the degree of a vertex is odd, it is known as an odd vertex.
Example 1.2.7. In Figure 1.10, the vertices a, c, e, and g are odd vertices, while the
vertices b, d, f , and h are even vertices because deg(a) = deg(c) = deg(e) = deg(g) = 3,
and deg(b) = deg(d) = deg( f ) = deg(h) = 2.
h b
g c
f d
Figure 1.10: Even and odd degree vertices
Definition 1.2.14. An edge joining a vertex to itself is called a loop.
6
Definition 1.2.15. If two vertices of graph G are connected by more than one edge,
then these edges are called multiple or parallel edges.
Definition 1.2.16. If two non-parallel edges of graph G are joined by a single vertex,
then these edges are called adjacent edges. Edges ab and be are adjacent edges with the
commonvertex b, as shown in Figure 1.11.
a b
parallel edges
loop
c e
Figure 1.11: Types of edges
Definition 1.2.17. Let G = (V, E) be any graph in which the set of edges is empty;
thensuch a graph is called an empty or null graph. See Figure 1.12.
a b
Figure 1.12: Empty Graph
Definition 1.2.18. A graph G = (V, E) having no loops and no multiple or parallel edges
iscalled a simple graph.
7
a
d b
Figure 1.13: Simple Graph
Definition 1.2.19. Let G = (V, E) be any graph, where V (G) = {v0 , v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } and
E(G) = {e1 , e2 , e3 , . . . , en } are the vertices and edges of graph G, respectively. A walk is
a finite sequence of vertices and edges of the graph defined as v0e1v1e2 . . . vn−1envn,
whereei = vi−1vi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. In a walk, vertices and edges can be repeated.
Example 1.2.8. As W = abe f c is a walk of graph G shown in Figure 1.14.
e
f
b
Figure 1.14:
Walk
Definition 1.2.20. If v0 = vn, then such a walk is called a closed walk. In Figure 1.14,
thewalk W = abc f da is a closed walk.
Definition 1.2.21. If v0,vn, then such a walk is called an open walk. In Figure 1.14, the
walk W = adefcb is an open walk.
Definition 1.2.22. A walk that has zero length or no edges is called a trivial walk.
8
Definition 1.2.23. An open walk is called a trail in which no edge is repeated. The trail
T = adeb f e is shown in Figure 1.15.
a b c
d e f
Figure 1.15: Trail adeb f e
Definition 1.2.24. An open walk is called a path in which neither edges nor vertices are
repeated. The graph shown in Figure 1.16 has the path P = abcfe.
a b c
d e f
Figure 1.16: Path abdcfe
Definition 1.2.25. A closed walk in which neither edges nor vertices are repeated but the
starting and ending vertices must be the same is called a cycle. The graph shown in Figure
1.17 has a cycle C = abcfeda.
a b c
d e f
Figure 1.17: Cycle abcfeda
9
Definition 1.2.26. A connected graph with no cycles is called a tree graph, denoted by
T .A tree graph of order n has a size of n − 1.
d c
e f
g h
Figure 1.18: Tree Graph
Definition 1.2.27. The star graph is a special type of tree graph in which n − 1
vertices have a degree of 1, and a single vertex has a degree of n − 1. In a star graph, n − 1
vertices are connected to a single central vertex. It is denoted by Sn. The star graph S9
is shown in Figure 1.19.
For further detail regarding graphs coloring, check references [1-15]
10
a
h b
i
g c
f d
e
Figure 1.19: Star Graph
Definition 1.2.28. The path graph Pn has a vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } and an edge
set E = {v1 v2 , v2 v3 , . . . , vn−1 vn }. The path graph is a special case of a tree graph.
Therefore, the path graph of order n has a size of n − 1. The path graph of order 4 and
size 3 is shownin Figure 1.20.
a b c d
Figure 1.20: Path Graph
Definition 1.2.29. The cycle graph in which v1 = vn is called a cycle graph of order n. It is
denoted by Cn. In a cycle graph, the order and size of the graph must be equal. The
cycle graph of order 8 and size 8 is shown in Figure 1.21.
h b
g c
f d
e
Figure 1.21: Cycle Graph
11
Definition 1.2.30. A graph is regular if all its vertices have the same degree. A regular
graph is a k-regular graph if the degree of each vertex is k. The 3-regular graph is
shown inFigure 1.22.
a b
c d
Figure 1.22: 3-Regular Graph
Definition 1.2.31. A simple graph with n vertices, where there is exactly one edge
between each pair of vertices, is called a complete graph. It is denoted by Kn. The size
n(n−1)
of a complete graph with n vertices is . Every complete graph with n vertices is
2
also known as an (n − 1)-regular graph. The complete graph K5 is shown in Figure
1.23.
e b
d c
Figure 1.23: Complete graph K5
Definition 1.2.32. A bipartite graph is a graph whose set of vertices can be split into
two subsets V1 and V2 in such a way that each edge of the graph joins a vertex in V1 and
a vertex in V2. There are no edges between vertices of V1 or between vertices of V2. It
is denoted by Bm,n, where m  V1 and n  V2. The bipartite graph B2,3 is shown in Figure
1.24, where V1 = {a,b} and V2 = {c,d,e}.
12
V1
a b
c d e
V2
Figure 1.24: Bipartite graph B2,3
Definition 1.2.33. A bipartite graph Bm,n = G(V1,V2, E) where every vertex of set V1 is
joined to every vertex of set V2 is called a complete bipartite graph. It is denoted by
Km,n, where m  V1 and n  V2. The size of a complete bipartite graph is m × n with m + n
vertices. The complete bipartite graph K2,3 is shown in Figure 1.25.
V1
a b
x y zV2
Figure 1.25: Complete bipartite graph K2,3
Definition 1.2.34. A graph that contains a cycle of order n, and for every vertex in the
cycle, a vertex known as the hub is connected to it, is called a wheel graph. Generally,
it is defined as the sum of a cycle graph with K1, denoted by Wn = Cn + K1. The size of a
wheel graph is 2n − 2 with n vertices. The wheel graph W5 is shown in Figure 1.26.
a b
c d
Figure 1.26: Wheel graph W5
13
Definition 1.2.35. Let n ≥ 3 be a positive integer and k < n , then we define the vertex
2
set of the Petersen graph Pn,k as {ui , vi | 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1} and the edge set as {ui ui+1 , ui vi ,
vi vi+k | 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1}, where all subscripts are assumed modulo n. The size of the
generalized Petersen graph is 3n with 2n vertices. The Petersen graph P5,2 is shown in
Figure 1.27.
u0
v0
u4 v1 u1
v4
v3 v2
u3
u2
Figure 1.27: Petersen graph P5,2
Definition 1.2.36. The Petersen graph Pn,k with k = 1 for all n ≥ 3 is called the prism
graph. It has the same vertex set {ui , vi | 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1} and edge set {uiui+1 , ui vi, vi vi+k | 0
≤ i ≤ n − 1}, where all subscripts are assumed modulo n. The prism graph P5,1 is a
specific instance of this, as shown in Figure 1.28.
u0
v0
u4 u1
v4 v1
v3 v2
u2
u3
Figure 1.28: Prism graph P5,1
14
Chapter 2
Equitable coloring of certain graphs
In the middle of 1960, the labeling was introduced by Alexander Rosa . Labeling of graph
plays an important role in many fields of sciences. Graph labeling is used to get
optimum solution in shortest routes, transportation model, flow of traffic, and in
scheduling the exam classes by making a suitable network. There are three different types
of graph labeling such as vertex labeling, edge labeling, and both (vertex and edge). In this
chapter, our main focus is toward special type of edge labeling which is known as
equitable edge colouring.
2.1 Historical Background of equitable coloring
Graph coloring is one of the early areas of graph theory. Its origins may be traced back
to 1852 when Augustus de Morgan in a letter to his friend William Hamilton asked if
it is possible to color the regions of any map with four colors so that neighboring regions
get different colors.
2.2 Graph coloring

In graph theory graph coloring is a special case of graph labeling it is an assignment
of labels traditionally called colors to elements of a graph subject to certain constraints.
2.3 Vertex coloring

Vertex coloring is a concept in graph theory that refers to assigning colors to the vertices
of a graph in such a way that no two adjacent vertices have the same color.
Formally, the vertex coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors. We usually represent
the colors by numbers.
15
2.4 Edge coloring
In graph theory edge coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to the edges of
the graph so that no two adjacent edges have the same color with an optimal number
of colors. Two edges are said to be adjacent if they are connected to the same vertex.
There is no known polynomial time algorithm for edge-coloring every graph with an
optimal number of colors.
Application
One motivation for equitable coloring is scheduling problems. In this application the vertices
of a graph represent a collection of tasks to be performed and an edge connects two tasks
that should not be performed at the same time. A coloring of this graph represents a partition
of the tasks into subsets that may be performed simultaneously thus the number of colors in
the coloring corresponds to the number of time steps required to perform the entire task. Due
to load balancing considerations it is desirable to perform equal or nearly equal numbers of
tasks in each time step and this balancing is exactly what an equitable coloring achieves
Chromatic Number
The Chromatic number of a graph G, denoted as χ(G), is the minimum number of colors
required to color the vertices of the graph G in such a way that no two adjacent vertices of
share the same color. Formally it is the smallest positive integer k for which there exist a
proper vertex coloring with k colors.
 Bicolorable Graphs
A graph with a chromatic number of 2 is said to be bicolorable. This means that the vertices
of the graph can be colored using only two colors in such a way that no two adjacent vertices
share the same color.
16
 Three-colorable Graphs
A graph with a chromatic number of 3 is said to be three-colorable. This means that the vert-
ices of the graph can be colored using only three colors in such a way that no two adjacent
vertices share the same color.
 Complete Graphs
The chromatic number of a complete graph is equal to the number of vertices in the graph.
A complete graph is a simple undirected graph in which every pair of distinct vertices is co-
nnected by a unique edge.
 Cycle Graphs
The chromatic number of a cycle graph is 2 if the number of vertices in the graph is even and
3 if the number of vertices in the graph is odd.
 Edgeless Graphs
The only graphs that can be 1-colored are edgeless graphs. An edgeless graph is a graph with
no edges.
 Map coloring problem
The chromatic number is directly related to the classic map coloring problem where the goal is
to color regions of a map (represented as vertices) such that no two adjacent regions share the
same color.
17
 Graph Classifications
Graphs with low chromatic numbers often have special properties. For example trees are 2-
colorable (have chromatic number 2), and bipartite graphs have chromatic number 2.
 Connection to combinatorial problems
The chromatic number is linked to combinatorial questions, such as finding the minimum num-
ber of colors needed to color a graph or identifying graphs with specific colorability properties.
2.5 Equitable edge colouring of graph
An edge coloring of a graph G is equitable if for each vertex v of G the number of edges of any
one color incident with v differs from the number of edges of any other color incident with v by
at most one. A graph G is called equitable if G has an equitable edge-coloring with k colors for
any integer k ≥ 1.
Theorem: [3] For any , the equitable chromatic index for sunlet
graph is 3.
Proof:
Let V (Sn )=uk , vk :1  k  nand E (Sn )=ek , sk :1  k  nwhere the edges
ek :1  k  nrepresent the edge {vk vk 1(mod n) :1  k  n}, the edges
sk :1  k  nrepresents the edge uk , vk :1  k  n
Define an edge coloring c : E(Sn )  1, 2, 3as follows. Let us partition the edge set of sunlet
graph E (Sn ) as follows.
18
Case (i): n  0(mod 3) (i.e) 3, 6, 9...
E1  e1 ,e3 , e7 ...., en2  s3 , s6 ,……., sn 
E2  e2 ,e5 , e8 ...., en1  s1, s4 ,…….., sn2 
E3  e3 ,e6 , e7 ...., en  s2 , s5 ,……..., sn1



From the equation (3.1) to (3.3), clearly the sunlet graph S n is equitable edge colored with 3 colors.
Also we observe that the color classes E1, E2 and E3 are independent sets of S n and its satisfies the
inequiality || Ei |  | E j || 1, for i  j. Hence  ' (S)  3. Since  3 and  ' (S)    3. Therefore
 ' (S)  3. When n  3, 6, 9,... , i.e consider n  6, for which the color classes | E1 || E2 || E3 | 4
and which implies that || E1 |  | E2 || 1. Thus, it is equitable edge colored with 3 colors. Therefore  '
(S )  3. The maximum degree of sunlet graph is 3(  3 ).
Case (ii): n  1 (mod 3)
E1  e1,e4 , e7,…….. , en3s3 , s6 ,...., sn1 sn 


E2  e2 ,e5 , e8 ...., en2  en  s4 , s7 ,……. , sn3

E3  e3 ,e6 , e9 ...., en1 s1, s2  s5 , s8 , , sn2 




19
Also we observe that the color classes E1, E2 and E3 are independent sets of S n and its satisfies the
inequiality || Ei |  | E j || 1, for i  j. Hence  ' (S)  3. Since  3 and  ' (S)    3 Therefore
 ' (S)  3. For example, in the case (ii) when n  1 (mod 3) , I.e consider n  10, for which the color
classes | E1 || E3 | 7 and | E2 | 6 , which implies that || Ei |  | E j || 1 Thus, it is equitable edge
colored with 3 colors.
Case (iii): n  2 (mod 3)
E1  e1,e4 , e7 ...., en1 s3 , s6 ,……, sn2 


E2  e2 ,e5 , e8 ...., en3 en  s4 , s7 , s10,……., sn1
E3  e3 ,e6 , e9 ...., en2  s1, s2   s5 , s8 ,……., sn 
Also we observe that the color classes E1 , E2 and E3 are independent sets of S n and its satisfies
the inequiality || Ei |  | E j || 1, for each (i, j) . Hence  ' (S )  3 . Since  3 and  ' (S)    3
Therefore  ' (S)  3. For example, in the case (iii) when n  2 (mod 3) , i.e consider n  11, for
which the color classes | E1 || E2 | 7 and | E3 | 8, which implies that || E |  | E || 1. Thus  ' (S)
 3.The maximum degree of sunlet graph is 3(  3 ).
20


Figure 2.1: Sunlet Graph
Theorem: [3] For any n ≥ 4, the equitable chromatic index for wheel graph is n-1.
Proof:
Let V (Wn )  v0vk :1 ≤ k ≤ n-1} and let E(Wn ) gk :1  k  n 1sk :1  k  n
1where the edges gk :1  k  n 1represents the edge {v0vk :1  k  n 1} the
edges sk :1  k  n represents the edge. vk vk 1 :1 k ≤ n-1}.
Construct an edge coloring c : E(Wn )  1, 2, 3, , n 1as follows. Let us partition the edge set for
wheel graph E(Wn ) as follows.
E1  g1, s2

E2  g2, s3




21
E3  g3, s4

E4  g4, s5

E5  g5, s6

En-4  gn-4, sn-3

En-3  gn-3, sn-2

En-2  gn-2, sn-1

En-1  gn-1, sn




From the equation (3.10) to (3.18), clearly the wheel graph Wn is equitable edge colored with n 1
colors. Also observe that color classes E1 , E2 ,...., En1 are independent sets of Wn the
cardinality of the color classes | E1 | | E2 || E3 | | En2 | | En1 |  2 and its satisfies
the inequiality || Ei |  | E j || 1, for i  j.
Hence  ' (W )  n 1 . Since   n 1 and  ' (W )  n 1. Therefore  ' (W )  n 1. For example,
consider n  8, vertices, such that the color classes | E1 || E2 || E3 | ..... | E7 | 2 and which implies
that || E1 |  | E2 || 1.
Thus an equitable edge colored with 7 colors and so that  ' (W8 )  7. The maximum degree of
wheel graph is 7 (  7) Hence  ' (W8 )  7.
22
Figure 2.2: Wheel Graph
Theorem: [3] For any n  4, the equitable chromatic index for helm graph is  ' (Hn)
n-1
Proof:
Let V (H n ) v0vk :1  k  n 1uk :1  k  n 1 and let E(H n ) 

ek :1  k  n 1 fk :1  k  n 1sk :1  k  n 1 , where the edges
ek :1  k  n 1represents the edge {v0vk :1  k  n 1} , the edges  fk :
1  k  n 1represents the edge vk vk 1(mod n-1) :1  k  n 1 and the
Edges sk : 1  k  n 1represents the edge vk uk:1  k  n 1

By construction an edge coloring c : E(Hn )  1, 2, 3,..., n 1as follows. Let us partition the
edge set for helm graph E(H n ) as follows.
23
E1  e1, f2 , s5
E2  e2, f3 , s1
E3  e3, f4 , s2
E4  e4, f5 , s3
E5  e5, f1 , s4(3.23)
En-5  en-5, fn-4 , sn-1(3.24)
En-4  en-4, fn-3 , sn-5
En-3  en-3, fn-2 , sn-4
En-2  en-2, fn-1 , sn-3
En-1  en-1, fn-5 , sn-2

From the equation (3.19) to (3.28), clearly the helm graph Hn is equitable edge colored
with n 1 colors. Also observe that the color classes independent sets of Hn the cardin-
ality of the color classes | E1 || E2 || E3 | ..... | En2 || En1 | 3 and its satisfies the
inequiality || Ei |  | E j || 1, for any (i, j) .
Hence  '(H)  n 1. Since   n 1 and  ' (H )    n 1. Therefore  ' (H ) 
n 1. For example, consider the helm n  8, vertices, the color classes | E1 | | E2 | 
| E3 | ...... | E7 |  3 and which implies that | E1 |  | E2 || 1. So that the equitable
edge colored with 7 colors. So that  ' (H8 )  7. The maximum degree of helm
24
graph is 7 (  7). Hence  ' (H8 )  7.
Figure 2.3: Equitable edge coloring of helm graph with 6 vertice
25
Theorem: [1] If G ∈ G1 ∪ G2 ∪ G3 ∪ G4, then V (G) can be colored equitably
with 2m colors such that each color class contains 2 or 3 vertices.
Proof:
Let m be of the form 2t or 2t + 1 (t ≥ 1) according as m is even or odd respectively.
If G ∈ G1 ∪ G2 ∪ G3 ∪ G4, then consider a partition of V (G) as follows:
• G ∈ G1:
V (G) = (V1, V 2 ,... , Vt, Vt' ), where [Vi] ∼

= I[C5](2), for all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ t and Vt' = ∅,
if m is even, and [V1] ∼

= I[C5](3, 2, 2, 2, 2), [Vi] ∼
= I[C5](2), for all i, 2 ≤ i ≤ t, and
[Vt' ] ∼
= P4, if m is odd.
• G ∈ G2:
V (G) = (V1, V 2 ,... , Vt, Vt' ), where [V1] ∼

= I[C5](2, 2, 2, 2, 3), [Vi] ∼
= I[C5](2), for
all i, 2 ≤ i ≤ t, and Vt' = ∅, if m is even, and [V1] ∼

= I[C5](3, 2, 2, 2, 3), [Vi] ∼
= I[C5]
(2), for all i, 2 ≤ i ≤ t, and [Vt' ] ∼

= P4, if m is odd.
• G ∈ G3:
V (G) = (V1, V 2 ,... , Vt, Vt' ), where [V1] ∼

= I[C5](2, 2, 2, 3, 3), [Vi] ∼
=I[C5](2), for

= I[C5](3, 2, 2, 2, 2), [Vi] ∼
=I[C5](2),
i, 2 ≤ i ≤ t, and [Vt' ] ∼
= I[P4](2, 2, 1, 1), if m is odd.
26
• G ∈ G4:
V (G) = (V1, V 2 ,... , Vt, Vt' ), where [V1] ∼

= I[C5](2, 3, 2, 2, 3), [Vi] ∼
=I[C5](2), for

= I[C5](3, 2, 2, 2, 2), [Vi] ∼
=
I[C5](2), for all i, 2 ≤ i ≤ t, and [Vt' ] ∼

= I[P4](2, 1, 1, 2), if m is odd.
In all the cases, we color each [Vi] (1 ≤ i ≤ t) with 4 colors such that each color class
contains 2 or 3 vertices and if Vt' /= ∅, we color [Vt' ] with another two colors.
Theorem: [2] A graph G is equitably k-colorable if k ≥ ∆(G) + 1.

Proof:
Hence, the next thing we would like to know is, when k=(G), whether a
graph G is still equitably k-colorable or not. Clearly, if a graph G is equitably
(G)-colorable, then (G)≥ χ(G) otherwise we have χ(G)≤ ∆(G) < χ(G), a
contradiction. In 1941, brook proved the following.
Theorem: [2] If G is a connected graph different from the odd cycle
C2n+1 and the complete graph Kn for all n ≥ 1, then ∆(G) ≥ χ(G).
Proof:
Therefore, a graph G (not necessarily connected) satisfies ∆(G) ≥ χ(G) if and only
if no component of G is an odd cycle when ∆(G) = 2 and no component of G is a
complete graph of order ∆(G)+1 when ∆(G) 2. But, even if a graph G satisfies
∆(G) ≥ χ(G), it is not sufficient to guarantee that G must be equitably ∆(G)-
colorable. Let us consider a balanced complete bipartite graph K2n+1, 2n+1 for
some n ≥ 1. Then ∆(K2n+1,2n+1) = 2n + 1 ≥ χ(K2n+1,2n+1) = 2. However,
27
K2n+1,2n+1 is apparently not equitably ∆(K2n+1,2n+1)-colorable. In fact,
Chenet al. in 1994 proposed the following conjecture.
A connected graph G is equitably ∆(G)-colorable if G is different from C2n+1,
Kn and K2n+1,2n+1 for all n ≥ 1.
Since ∆(C2n+1) < χ(C2n+1) and ∆(Kn) < χ(Kn) for all n ≥ 1, the conclusion of the
(E∆CC)can be equivalently stated as that a connected graph G with ∆(G) ≥
χ(G) is equitably ∆(G)-colorable if G is different from K2n+1, 2n+1 for all n ≥ 1.
But, it takes no time to realize that if the graph G with ∆(G) ≥ χ(G) is discon-
ected, then the conditions for G to be equitably ∆(G)-colorable are quite
different.
For example if G is the disjoint union of two K3,3 then G is equitably ∆(G)-
colorable. However if G is the disjoint union of K3,3 and K3, then G is not
equitably ∆(G)-colorable. Hence we need some extra efforts.
28
Conclusion:
In this article, we studied the equitable chromatic index of sunlet, wheel and helm graph .The
field of equitable edge coloring of graphs is broad open. It would be further interesting to
determine the bounds of equitable edge coloring of various families of graphs.
29
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On Equitable Coloring of Certain Graphs

Ahmed Muhammad Sohail

COMSATS University Islamabad

In partial fulfillment of the

Ahmed Muhammad Sohail

COMSATS University Islamabad

A Final Year Report is submitted to the Department of Mathematics as

Ahmed Muhammad Sohail CIIT/FA20-BSM-022/LHR

Abu Haraira CIIT/SP20-BSM-013/LHR

Dr. M. Faisal Nadeem

On Equitable Coloring of Certain Graphs

Ahmed Muhammad Sohail

has been approved

for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mathematics

Dr. Tabasam Rashid

Dr. M. Faisal Nadeem

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Hussain

Dr. M. Faisal Nadeem

Parents and All Family

Praise to be ALLAH, the Cherisher and Lord

Ahmed Muhammad Sohail

In this project, we explore several fundamental concepts in graph theory,

2 Equitable coloring of certain graphs ............................................................. 15

Figure 1.1 Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 2.1 Sunlet graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Figure 2.2 Wheel graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.1 Application of Graph Theory in Diverse Areas

1.2 Some Basic Definitions in Graph Theory

Definition 1.2.1. A graph is a pictorial representation of a set of objects, where the

Figure 1.2: Graph of order 9

Figure 1.3: Graph of size 6

Definition 1.2.5. The number of edges incident to a vertex v  V (G) of an undirected

Figure 1.6: Radius=2: Diameter=3

Definition 1.2.10. A vertex in a graph G with zero degree or no edges is called an

Figure 1.7: Isolated vertices

Figure 1.8: Adjacent vertices a, b, and c

Figure 1.9: Pendant vertices a, b, c, and d

Figure 1.10: Even and odd degree vertices

Definition 1.2.14. An edge joining a vertex to itself is called a loop.

Figure 1.11: Types of edges

Figure 1.12: Empty Graph

Figure 1.13: Simple Graph

Example 1.2.8. As W = abe f c is a walk of graph G shown in Figure 1.14.

walk W = adefcb is an open walk.

T = adeb f e is shown in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Trail adeb f e

Figure 1.16: Path abdcfe

Figure 1.17: Cycle abcfeda

Figure 1.18: Tree Graph

For further detail regarding graphs coloring, check references [1-15]

Figure 1.19: Star Graph

Figure 1.20: Path Graph

Figure 1.21: Cycle Graph

Figure 1.22: 3-Regular Graph

Figure 1.23: Complete graph K5

Figure 1.24: Bipartite graph B2,3

Figure 1.25: Complete bipartite graph K2,3

Figure 1.26: Wheel graph W5

Figure 1.27: Petersen graph P5,2

Figure 1.28: Prism graph P5,1

2.1 Historical Background of equitable coloring

2.2 Graph coloring

2.3 Vertex coloring

 Map coloring problem