Lecture S4 -- The British and French Empires

Economic Growth and Empire

Mercantilist Theory: By limiting exports and increasing imports, you could
increase your nation’s wealth; tariffs were used to keep out foreign goods, and
your colonies were used to supply the raw materials you needed to build things.
Four Kinds of Mercantilist Regulations
1. The Navigation Acts—All shipping in the Empire in English or
colonial ships
2. Enumerated products could be shipped only to England or other
colonies—these were typically raw materials
3. Manufactured goods were subsidized to allow undercutting of
competition
4. Colonists were prohibited from manufacturing wool, felt hats, and iron
on a large scale.
Prosperity: The colonies and England both prospered, growing economically.
Sugar was King—West Indian Sugar was seven times more valuable than the
entire exports of New England. Tobacco held second place. New Englanders
became middlemen, taking a major role in trade.
Colonial Dependence: The colonies were dependent on manufactured goods
from England, having little industry themselves. The American planters racked
up huge debts on credit.
Urbanization: American cities began to grow, and social inequality became
more prevalent as some became very wealthy. But the American poor were less
numerous than in England (about 10% in cities, 1/3rd in England). Philadelphia,
New York, Boston, and Charleston were the great cities.
Philadelphia in 1759: 3000 houses, two libraries, 8-10 churches, and a
college (College of Philadelphia (1755), now University of Pennsylvania)
(p. 92). By 1775, it had 34,000 people.

Cultural and Religious Transformation

Prosperity: Prosperity brought an increase in importation of manufactured
goods; people could afford to have luxuries now.
Gentility: As they became wealthy, the upper classes aped English manners, and
sought to gain more education, breeding, and appropriate dress and homes.
People began to write books and to hold formal balls and galas and engage in
entertaining.
Age of Enlightenment (1650-1789): In Europe, a new season of rational thought
was in progress. Americans did their best to join in. Benjamin Franklin became
America’s most renowned scholar, joining the Royal Society and being well-
regarded in Europe. He invented the lightning rod, the Franklin stove, bifocal
spectacles, and the glass harmonica. Ultimately limited impact of movement in
America due to lack of literacy.
Religious Changes: In 1700, most Americans were not members of a church.
Even in New England, many did not have the necessary conversion experience.
This eventually led to the Halfway Covenant—this allowed those baptized as
children of those with conversion experiences to have their own children baptized.
By the 1680s, church membership was becoming easier. In the rest of the
Americas, Anglicanism was weak and had a poor presence. In the middle
colonies, many churches flourished—Baptists, Quakers, Lutherans, etc.
Salem Witch Trials (1692): Caught in strange behavior with a slave
woman from the Caribbean, two girls claimed to have been possessed by
the foul magic of...WITCHES! This triggered a cascade of accusations
that sent 5 men and 14 women to the gallows and killed 5 others,
including Giles Corey, who was pressed to death over 2 days in an attempt
to force him to confess. The accusations reflected the ongoing crisis of
power and faith as the number of people with conversion experiences
dwindled and people looked for scapegoats. Witch scapegoats.
The Great Awakening: 1730s-1760s: England and America saw a
massive religious revival, first in the north, then the south.
1739—George Whitefield invades America with his travelling
salvation show. Waves of revivals and mass conversions
followed.
Jonathan Edwards : He was an influential Puritan minister who
wrote some of the greatest hellfire and brimstone sermons ever.
His most famous is “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”,
which compared his listeners to spiders hanging over a fire with
God's hands on the webs holding them up. Continue to anger God
and you will fall in and BURN.

IV. They are now the objects of that very same anger and wrath of God
that is expressed in the torments of hell: and the reason why they don't go
down to hell at each moment, is not because God, in whose power they
are, is not then very angry with them; as angry as he is with many of those
miserable creatures that he is now tormenting in hell, and do there feel
and bear the fierceness of his wrath. Yea, God is a great deal more angry
with great numbers that are now on earth, yea, doubtless with many that
are now in this congregation, that it may be are at ease and quiet, than he
is with many of those that are now in the flames of hell.
So that it is not because God is unmindful of their wickedness, and don't
resent it, that he don't let loose his hand and cut them off. God is not
altogether such an one as themselves, though they may imagine him to be
so. The wrath of God burns against them, their damnation don't slumber,
the pit is prepared, the fire is made ready, the furnace is now hot, ready to
receive them, the flames do now rage and glow. The glittering sword is
whet, and held over them, and the pit hath opened her mouth under them.

New/Old Lights: The Presbyterians split between the New Lights

(revival converts) and Old Lights (older church members). The
New Lights insisted they could not remain in churches with
unconverted members and split to form their own congregations.
The South: Many Southern converts became Baptists. They
 criticized the wealthy planter class.
Consequences: New religious colonies, conversion of slaves,
undermining of deference to authority.
The Development of Colonial Government
Neglect (1600-1660): Under the early Stuarts and during the Interregnum, little
control was exerted over the colonies and little help given, either.
Greater Control (1660-1689): Under Charles II, new colonies were set up as
proprietary governments, rather than chartered ones. Under James II, efforts to
tighten English control of the colonies were made. 8 Northern colonies formed
into the Dominion of New England, under Sir Edmund Andros. The Royal
Governor had more power over the colonies than the King did in England. But he
was overthrown after the Glorious Revolution
1691—New Charters split the dominion up, though they combined Mass, Maine,
and Plymouth Bay. King would still appoint governors, and voters no longer had
to be Church members.
Salutary Neglect (1690s-1763): Period of little direct control, except through
Royal governors; the French and Indian Wars ensured that both sides would need
each other.
Diverging Political Theory: Political participation was more common in the
colonies than in England, where most people could not vote. (Though American
franchises were also limited, but 50-70% of adult males had enough land in
America to qualify). America had elites, but no aristocracy.
Virtual vs. Actual Representation: In England, the inadaptability of the
system led to theories of virtual representation, in which all ‘interests’
were represented. Whereas, in the Americas, actual representation by
districts was the goal.

The Struggle For Empire

Roots of Conflict
French Expansionism: In Europe, the French were busy expanding their power,
leading to conflict with other European nations
Glorious Revolution: To 1688, England is France’s toady; post 1688, England is
ruled by William III, who is also a leader of the Netherlands, and he becomes the
organizer of war against French ambition.
Spilling Over: The European conflicts spilled over into India and into the
Caribbean and North America as well; the first world wars.
In the Americas: In the Americas, the Indian tribes divide between English and
French, and to some extent exploit their divisions to protect themselves. The
Iroquois adopted a policy of neutrality in the Grand Settlement of 1701, enabling
them to play both sides against the middle. They also helped prevent either side
gaining ascendancy. The French are in the way of Colonial expansion, as they
control land to the north and west of the British (Spanish rule Florida).
A Century of War
Changing Relations: The pressure of a century of repeated wars with France
forced new Colonial relations and changes in Britain.
Stronger Ties: The colonies had a great need for British help to avoid being
destroyed, and you had the development of colonial military capacity.
Changes in Britain: In Britain, conflict developed over the new financing
methods and the standing army and their effect on society and politics. You had
the rise of Country Whig ideology which rejected standing armies and critiqued
the growth of the state, taxation, and permanent debt. This had a strong influence
on the political thinking of the colonists.

Victory in the French and Indian Wars

King William’s War (1689-1697) – (War of the League of Augsburg) Indecisive
conflict
Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713) – (War of Spanish Succession) More
indecisive conflict, though Acadia was seized by New Englanders.
King George’s War (1744-1748) – (War of Austrian Succession) New
Englanders attack Louisbourg and seize it, cutting off Canada. But northern
merchants traded with Canada, and England gave it back to make up for losses in
Europe. After war, competition for Ohio valley heats up. (1744-Treaty of
Lancaster, in which Iroquois chiefs had sold trade rights to a group of Virginians,
who thought they could therefore acquire land too)
French and Indian War (1754-1763) -- (Seven Years’ War)
The Start: Virginia sent George Washington with a group of men into
the area, only to have them overwhelmed at Fort Necessity and captured.
The Albany Congress meets to deal with the Iroquois. Some colonists put
forward the Albany Plan of Union, which called for an intercolonial union
to regulate defense, levy taxes, and regulate Indian affairs. But this fails.
1754-1758: France Stomps All Over the Colonies: The French use
guerilla war to harass the English successfully.
1755: Braddock’s defeat on expedition to Fort Duquesne.
Montcalm now stomps all over the border defenses.
British came to terms with Colonists and William Pitt the Elder
takes command.
1758: Washington marches on Fort Duquesne and takes it; the tide
turns.
1758-1763: British Victory: The British conquer Canada and drive the
French from the continent
1759: Quebec falls to an English/Colonial joint expedition.
Battle of Quiberon Bay destroys French naval strength
1760: The Iroquois defect to the English. Montreal Falls
Treaty of Paris: The English gain most of French NA; Spain gets
New Orleans, Cuba, and the Phillipines. French regain their sugar
islands.