This chapter covers a variety of external memory systems

and devices. The magnetic disk, which is regarded as a

foundational component for external memory in computer
systems, is the main device under discussion. Disk arrays,
including RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
systems, solid-state drives, external optical memory, and
magnetic tape are just a few of the subjects covered in this
chapter.
A detailed examination of the magnetic disk is presented,
emphasizing its construction with a circular plate composed
of non-magnetic material coated in a magnetic material.
The chapter explores the inner workings of magnetic read
and write operations, elucidating the process of data
recording and retrieval through the use of conducting coils,
or heads.
Concentric circles on the disk called tracks are used to
organize data; each track is equal to the width of the head.
The physical characteristics of magnetic disks are analyzed,
encompassing head motion, platter types, disk mobility,
head mechanics, and sides. The topic of discussion includes
several disk types, including single and multiple plate
configurations, fixed-head and movable-head disks, and the
application of aerodynamic gaps.
The explanation of disk performance factors, such as seek
me, transfer :me, and latency :me, centers on how they
affect total access me. The importance of disk scheduling
techniques in enhancing I/O performance is emphasized
throughout the chapter, especially in situations involving
many sectors or random access.
The comparison of two I/O operations—one employing
sequential access and the other using random access—in
the concluding section of the content highlights the
significance of sector order in affecting disk performance.
In contrast to processors and main memory, secondary
storage improves at a slower rate. This is addressed with
RAID, or Redundant Array of Independent Disks. Three
characteristics are shared by RAID: Using redundant disk
capacity for parity information, distributing data across
disks via striping, and presence physical disks as a single
logical drive are ways to guarantee data recoverability in
the event of a disk failure.
There are seven RAID levels (0–6), and each one offers a
different design architecture with special characteristics.
RAID 0, for example, is appropriate for applications that
prioritize performance and cost over dependability since it
focuses on enhancing I/O throughput and capacity without
redundancy. RAID 1, on the other hand, replicates all data
for greater dependability, which makes it appropriate for
critical files.
RAID levels 2 and 3 both use parallel access; RAID 2 uses a
basic parity bit for error correction, while RAID 3 uses
Hamming codes. RAID 6 adds dual distributed parity for
improved fault tolerance, while RAID 4 and 5 employ
independent access and distribute parity information
differently.
High data transfer rates are best served by RAID 0, while
high I/O request rates—especially for reads—are best
served by RAID 1. RAID 3 performs poorly in situations that
are focused on transactions, despite offering fast data
transfer rates. RAID 4 has good read throughput, but
because of the write penalty, it has trouble with write
throughput. RAID 5 balances parity among drives in order to
increased effectiveness and is compatible with a range of
server applications. RAID 6 is appropriate for mission-
critical applications because it provides incredibly high fault
tolerance, allowing several drive failures without causing
data loss.
To sum up, RAID configurations address a variety of
requirements by weighing performance, reliability, and cost
considerations in accordance with the particular demands
of applications and environments.