Title:

Design parameters effects on the emissions and performance of a diesel-

ethanol-bioenergy
Nikhil Janardan Rathod 1, Ch Apparao2, K. Sudha Madhuri3, Upendra Rajak4, Rajan
Kumar5*, Sunil Kumar Dewangan6, Ashish Kumar7
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan University, Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh, India, rathodnikhil358@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad-
India-500043, apparaoch@gmail.com
3, 4
Department of Department of Mechanical Engineering, RGM College of Engineering and
Technology, Nandyala-518501, Andhra Pradesh, India, ksmadhurime@rgmcet.edu.in
5
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IES College of Technology, Bhopal-462044, India,
rajankumar227@gmail.com
6
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dharmsinh Desai University
, Nadiad 387001, Gujrat, India, sunildewangan.mech@ddu.ac.in
7
Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India;
ashishrahul79@gmail.com

Corresponding Author’s Details:

(*) Mailing address: Department of Mechanical Engineering
IES College of Technology, Bhopal,
Bhopal-462044, India
Tel.: +91-8770980226
*E-mail: rajankumar227@gmail.com (Rajan Kumar)

Abstract
The objective of the present study is to investigate the effects of fuel injection pressure, fuel
fraction, and load on the performance and emissions of a light-duty direct injection diesel engine
operating on a blend of ethanol, bioenergy, and diesel fuel. The Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was
used to create experiments that took fuel injection pressure at 23.5° before top dead centre (b
TDC), fuel fraction, and load into account while minimising brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC), carbon monoxides (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), smoke density, and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
 emission and maximizing brake thermal efficiency (BTE). The desirability function was used to
determine which level of the aforementioned factors would be the optimum combination. Results
showed that the fuel injection pressure (220 bar), fuel fraction (40% by volume), and load (80%)
are the parameters that are recommended for the engine's efficiency and emissions. The
experiments showed so the forecasts made utilising the desirability feature had a respectable level
of accuracy. The results showed that for the ethanol, biodiesel and diesel fuels under the same fuel
injection pressure (220, 240 and 260 bar), the BTE, CO, HC, NOx and smoke density.
Keywords: Diesel engine; emissions; Taguchi optimization; Grey Relational Analysis, Bioenergy,
Injection pressure.

Nomenclature
B TDC before top dead center
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption
BTE brake thermal efficiency
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
HC Hydrocarbon
NOx oxides of nitrogen
FIP Fuel injection pressure

1. Introduction
In important spheres of the world economy and industries, transportation, and diesel engines in
agriculture are essential power sources. However, the fast internal combustion of fossil fuels causes
significant amounts of diesel engine smoke emissions as a result of heterogeneous combustion.
Smoke from engine exhaust is cancer-causing 1 and can result in cardio-respiratory conditions 2.
The yearly production of agricultural irrigation pump sets powered by diesel engines is estimated
to be 1.5 million, with a 7% predicted yearly rise. About 14.42 million of these diesel-powered
pump sets are currently in use nationwide 3.
Consequently, a significant proportion of India's agricultural community is consistently
exposed to perilous diesel pollutants via the use of this stationary machinery. Government
organisations are enforcing stricter pollution rules that engine manufacturers must comply with as
a result of these negative effects4. To adhere to stringent emission regulations, engine researchers
have employed various approaches, including modifying engine designs, utilising bio-derived fuels
such as biodiesels and bioalcohols, exploring novel combustion strategies for these fuels, and
implementing after treatment emissions control devices like diesel oxidation catalysts, diesel
particulate filters, and biodiesel-powered engines running on used cookware oil, Kannan and Anand
5
looked at the effects of injection timing and pressure. They came to the conclusion that a 280bar
pressure for injection and 2.5CA bTDC advanced time of injection had a substantial impact on
cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and BTE. NO levels dropped, and opacity of smoke decreased
as well. Using 20% by amount of Pongamia diesel fuel that uses biodiesel, Jaichandar and
Annamalai 6 assessed the entire impact of impact of combustion chamber shape and injection
pressure on a DI diesel engine’s characteristic. Geometries for re-entrant combustion chambers that
are spherical and toroidal were tested. The NOx emissions increased, according to the findings but
a decrease in fuel usage and brake thermal efficiency for toroidal chambers. Due to this of improved
combustion brought on by air flow in a toroidal chamber, significant reductions were seen in CO,
UBHC, and smoke intensity. Later, the same group investigated how utilizing a toroidal geometry
of a combustion chamber similar biodiesel mixture, with timing by 2CA BTDC improved
performance and emissions 7. When Saravanan et al 8 analysed the raw data using analysis of
variance. To determine the entire effects of injection pressure, timing, and EGR on NOx emissions
from a diesel engine with direct injection running on crude methyl ester of rice bran oil, they found
Those EGR were most effective at time for injections with medium loads were most effective at
full loads.
Li et al.'s 9 examination of the impact of piston shape on the combustion and discharges
from a biodiesel-powered engine diesel. Omega, shallow depth, and hemispheric were taken into
consideration. They came to the conclusion that geometrical bowl with a smaller a large area is
appropriate lowered engine speeds, whereas one of generates a significant squeeze is advantageous
while the engine is running at a high pace. In order to use kapok methyl ester in a engine diesel,
Vedharaj et al 10 adjusted the burning bowl geometries and discovered that a hemispherical chamber
delivered higher performance with a Blend with 25% by volume of biodiesel. Overall, it was
discovered that the torroidal chamber provided the best performance and emissions. combustion
chambers that are re-entrant low injection pressure of 230 bars have demonstrated their best
performance when using dual fuels running a DI diesel engine on Port injection of producing gas
into honge methyl ester, according to Yaliwal et al. 11. In a recent study, Viswanathan and
Pasupathy 12 examined three cylinders designs, including in a DI diesel engine, torroidal,
hemispherical, and trapezoidal when each was fueled separately Using neem oil, pumpkin seed oil,
and orange oil methyl ester. The results showed that a toroidal bowl geometry engine and methyl
ester fuel for orange oil higher qualities for performance, combustion, and emissions. In accordance
with Soni and Gupta 13, the piston geometry for a hemispherical bowl was superior to the piston
geometry of the re-entrant bowl at varied spray directions and torque circumstances.
ANOVA was used in a statistical analysis by Saravanan et al. 14 to determine the impacts
of the DI diesel engine's injection timing, pressure, and EGR running on mixes of isobutane and
diesel. It was discovered that injection timing had the second-largest influences NOx emissions,
after EGR. Variations in injection timing significantly impacted BTE and smoke emissions.
Different injection pressures had relatively little impact on this engine's output and emissions.
Because there are a natural Emissions of smoke and NOx are in competition, simultaneous reduction
of both is frequently difficult for diesel engine manufacturers. It is vital to determine the ideal set
of variables that will reduce smoke emissions while having the fewest effects possible regarding
NOx emissions and efficiency. Further reading of the literature revealed that optimising engine
parameters was necessary for getting improved efficiency and reduced emissions. There are many
possible parameter combinations in a contemporary diesel engine operating in an ordinary rail that
could necessitate arduous engine testing methods that take time, effort, and money. Orthogonal
Taguchi arrays can be useful in this situation to decrease. The quantity of trials with outcomes that
are largely correct. Manufacturing companies have used Taguchi's method for parametric
optimisation for decades 15. It offers trustworthy quality control and lowers the number of
experimental experiments 16. Using Taguchi design, numerous research has been done to optimize
engine efficiency and emission specifications 17, 18, 19. With the aim of reducing smoking and NOx
emissions without sacrificing performance in a diesel engine, DI, Brooks et al. 20 studied using
numerous injections, EGR as well as the intake boost pressure utilising incorporated DoE and
optimization techniques. Utilizing this strategy resulted in simultaneous reductions of 12% and
15% in NOx and smoke emissions. According to Parlak et al. 21, a model using ANN forecast Inside
a DI diesel engine, the BSFC and exhaust temperature for varied timings for injection with a 2%
error rate. According to Al-Hinti et al. 22, a neuro-fuzzy interface system can be utilised to
accurately forecast how boost pressure will affect an engine's characteristics. Through the use of
DOE, Park et al. (2010b) was able to significantly enhance a DI diesel engine's efficiency and
emissions. Biodiesel usage and regular fuel that is diesel, Kegl et al. 23 improved a diesel engine's
fuel injection system. Design considerations included the nozzle geometry and the cam profile's
form, and the injection control settings. Unaffected by the type of fuel utilised, optimisation has
been found to considerably enhance the injection process.
Bunce et al. 24 optimisation of the fuel rail pressure, SOI, EGR, and air-fuel ratio tried to
lower NOx discharges from a modern diesel engine running on neat biodiesel made from soy. With
little to no change in fuel consumption, they were competent cut PM pollutants and NOx emissions
by 5 to 42% by 50% compared to diesel. Karnwal et al. 25 used a L9 orthogonal array experimental
design and a Taguchi approach using GRA to determine the ideal amounts of the following factors:
compression proportion, nozzle pressure, time of injection, and proportion of thumba
biodiesel/diesel blend. The experimental findings showed that the injection timing of 20°, nozzle
pressure of 250 bar, and a 30% by volume mix of thumba biodiesel and diesel yielded the most
favourable performance and the lowest emissions. With RSM, Ganapathy et al. 26 examined how
timing of the injection, torque at the load, and engine speed affected the emissions of a running
diesel engine, including BSFC, BTE, maximum pressure, CO, HC, and NOx on A methyl ester of
jatropha. A 333 complete factorial design with 27 runs laid the groundwork for the experimental
strategy. The process of optimising made use of a genetic algorithm constructed in C++. The errors
were determined to be within 2% and the ideal settings experimentally confirmed. Lee et al. 27 built
their experiments on the basis of three controls are needed to create a cogeneration system-powered,
highly effective low emission diesel engine. They received 6% better efficiency when compared to
systems of a similar type. Al-Dawody et al. 28 noticed that the optimal combination contained
methyl ester of soybeans 20% in diesel after using a variety of optimisation techniques. They
showed how to use a multiple-parametric optimisation due to the Rosenbrok methodology a 50%
reduction in NOx emissions, and this method was later empirically supported. Beatrice et al. 30
improved the injection parameters via Light-duty diesel engine DoE that burns a mixture of
bioethanol, rapeseed methyl ester, and diesel fuel. DOE sought to increase engine performance
while reducing exhaust pollutants.
Although several studies on the decrease of BSFC, CO, HC, Smoke density, NOx, and
raising BTE emissions of the diesel engine have been conducted, such studies have been limited to
the analysis of either a fuel or a design factor about engine emissions. It is critical to Research the
effects of fuel properties and engine design on how successfully diesel engines control emissions
because both elements are crucial for the engine's BSFC, CO, HC, Smoke density, NOx, and BTE
emissions. This is required to determine the influencing factor the most influence on the engine's
diesel BSFC, CO, HC, smoke density, NOx, and BTE. In the current study, an effort was made to
determine how changing both the diesel engine's design and fuel parameters at the same time would
affect the engine's ability to control BSFC, CO, HC, Smoke density, NOx, and BTE with only a
minimal impact on its performance in the partially premixed combustion mode. It is vital to
combine all of these comments into a single comparable function that will include all of the
process's quality features because this entails the optimisation of many responses. The Desirability
Function combines competing multiple reactions like BSFC, CO, and HC, smoke density, NOx,
and BTE, into one dimensionless performance metric. To find multi-response optimisation using
just this one identical function, the current work applies the desirability approach. the primary goals
Throughout this study are, in short, to (i) determine the factor that will have the greatest impact on
the engine's BSFC, CO, HC, smoke density, NOx, and BTE, and (ii) identify the best set of
parameters to minimize BSFC, CO, HC, smoke density, NOx, and maximize BTE.

2. Material and Method

2.1 Fuel characteristics and preparation of biodiesel
Biofuel Lab provided the biodiesel for the current study. Using methanol and potassium hydroxide
(KOH) tablets as the alcohol and catalyst, respectively, a transesterification reaction was used in
this lab to manufacture biodiesel from oil. Additionally, 99% pure ethanol for this study was
bought from a nearby provider. The fuels in the containers were manually blended. Tables 1
respectively, indicate the significant characteristics of the ethanol and fuel blends that were
produced, as well as oil methyl ester (biodiesel). The Chennai retail location of Hindustan
Petroleum is where the diesel was purchased. We bought methyl ester from Green Fuels India. The
supplier of the ethanol was Merck Millipore in India. In order to create three blends, 10%, 50%,
and 60% by vol. of ethanol were added to diesel and mixed splash to create Bu 10, Bu 50, and Bu
60, respectively. The characteristics the costs of these biodiesels were then determined using the
recommended ASTM techniques and are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of fuel.

Property Diesel Biodiesel Ethanol

Viscosity 3.49 4.8 1.2
 Density 834 881 752
Low Heating value 43.2 37.8 27.8
Cetane Number 50 56 8
Oxygen Content 0.3 11 25

2.2 Experiments setup

Figure 1 depicts the experimental setup's layout. In the writer earlier writings, a thorough One
could discover a description of the engine's instruments and Table 2 lists the test engine's
specifications. For the experiments, a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, direct-injection
diesel engine was employed. For the purpose of confirming the experimental data, the instruments'
range, accuracy, and uncertainties were also presented. The hemispherical piston of the engine was
initially installed during the engine's initial nine testing. Before capturing the data, the engine was
always given some time to operate and establish steady condition. To be able to guarantee the fuel
left at the gasoline delivery system from the previous trial is used up, this was also done prior to
refueling with test mixes. The torroidal piston was afterwards installed. Every test was run on the
same day; the average value of the three times was utilized to guarantee reproducibility with
respect to experimental uncertainty. Table 6 displays the unprocessed statistics on the reactions
after 9 trials. Categorical factors were moved to the front of the factor columns, followed by
numerical factors, and each component was assigned a parameter symbol ranging from A to H for
statistical analysis. Due to their mutual exclusion, the response variables, including BSFC, CO,
HC, smoke density, NOx, and BTE, must be optimized to a single dimensionless value. The
desirability technique is used in the current study to determine this figure. Then, using an engine,
the optimal Experimental evidence supported the factor levels this function anticipated.

Figure 1. Engine setup.

 (a) Engine head (e) Engine wheel
(b) Dynamometer shaft (f) Compression ratio adjust screw
(c) Encoder (g) Inlet cooking water for engine
(d) Fuel injector (h) Exhaust gas calorimeter

Table 2. Engine specification.

Name of specification Specification of setup

Type Direct injection diesel engine
Cylinder and stroke One and four
Fuel injection pressure 220, 240, 260 bar
Fuel injection timing 23.5° b TDC
Type of cooling Water
Bore and stroke 87.5 mm and 110 mm
Speed 1500 rpm
Compression ratio 17.5:1
Oriented Vertical

2.3 Uncertainty analyses

The calibration of the test bed, the quality of the observations, and the random fluctuation of the
instruments used all have an impact on the uncertainties of the experimental parameters. The
measurement uncertainties for parameters that are directly measured are determined by the
accuracy of the experimental tools as shown in Table 3. The measurement accuracies of the
measured parameters and the root-mean-square method's premise are used to calculate the
measurement uncertainties for calculated parameters. Total uncertainty = ± Square root
of[(uncertainty of Temperature sensor)2 +( uncertainty of Pressure sensor)2 + (uncertainty of Load
censor)2+(uncertainty of Fuel measurement)2+(uncertainty of BTE)2+(uncertainty of
Smoke)2+(uncertainty of BSFC)2+(uncertainty of CO)2+(uncertainty of HC)2+(uncertainty of
NOx)2]. 3.5% is the total percentage of uncertainty.

Table 3. Uncertainty.
Instruments Uncertainty (%)
Pressure sensor ±0.5
Encoder ±0.2
Speed sensor ±1.0
Temperature sensor ±0.15
Burette for fuel measurement ±1.0
Load cell ±0.2
 CO2 ±1.0
BTE ±1.5
SFC ±2.0
EGT ±1.5
O2 ±0.3
CO ±0.3
NOx ±0.5
HC ±0.1

2.4 Taguchi Method

Design by Taguchi is an effective technique that pinpoints the ideal variable settings with a
minimum number of trials, reducing testing time and money. Figure 2 depicts the process
flowchart for this design. High levels of BSFC, CO, HC, NOx, and BTE are frequently observed
in the exhaust of biodiesel-fueled engines. The parameters that influence the engine's BSFC, CO,
HC, smoke density, NOx, and BTE levels include the peak combustion temperature, the length of
time gas from combustion spends within such a high temperature inside the combustion chamber,
and the oxygen is available. The factors for the current target must be those that have an impact
on these criteria. By raising the combustion temperature, fuel-bound oxygen in biodiesels enhances
combustion quality by boosting even in fuel-rich areas, there is still oxygen available and
decreasing BSFC, CO, HC, smoke density, and NOx levels while increasing BTE levels. The
addition of n-butanol may have a cooling impact by boosting BTE levels while decreasing BSFC,
CO, HC, smoke density, and NOx levels due to increased latent heats of vaporization Emissions.
The main fuel injection time, which controls the temperature of the airflow when injecting fuel,
and fuel injection pressure, which alters the fuel particle size distribution, both have an impact on
the combustion temperature. The ratio of the premix and the time of injection change the heat
produced by combustion in mixed combustion mode, which changes the combustion temperature.
The amount of air allowed during induction is decreased when EGR is introduced, which
changes the quantity of combustible oxygen available and affects the temperature of combustion.
In CI engines, air swirl plays a significant role in determining how the fuel and air move in relation
to one another during combustion and, consequently, how hot the combustion is. The piston's shape
is responsible for the air swirl. Fuel injection pressure, Fuel percentage, and Load are determined
to be the influencing factors for the current inquiry in light of all the aforementioned parameters.
The engine will try three levels of the selected elements to see how each one affects the intended
target. The factors are at three levels, including diesel, B20, and B100, are chosen as the main fuel
injection pressure of 220, 240, and 260 bar. Biodiesel blends of 40%, 60%, and 80% are chosen
as factors at three different levels, along with diesel, B20, and B100. Considering the elements at
three levels, including diesel, B 20, and B 100, are chosen for a cargo of biodiesel that is a blend
of 20%, 50%, and 80%. Based on the aforementioned inferences, factor levels were selected, and
Table 4 lists the components taken into consideration and their weights. Orthogonal Taguchi array
beneficial to reduce and increase all tests conducted to be run by doing the test while
simultaneously adjusting all the elements. L9, which is displayed in Table 2, is the suggested
orthogonal array for a single two-level component and one factor with three levels.

Figure 2. Process flowchart for this design.

Table 4. Includes levels and factors.

Controlled variables Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
FIP (bar) 220 240 260
FF (% by volume) 40 60 80
Load (%) 20 50 80
Table 5. L9 orthogonal array.

Exp. No. Parameter Level

B1 B2 B3
FIP (bar) FF (% by volume) Load (%)
1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 1 2
5 2 2 3
6 2 3 1
7 3 1 3
8 3 2 1
9 3 3 2
Different factors are given to different columns of the OA L9 presented in Table 5, and Table 6
shows the factor's levels at the corresponding column. The engine parameters findings
demonstrated that as stated in Table 7 as based on studies.

Table 6. Factors assigned to L9 columns.

Parameter Level
Exp. No. B1 B2 B3
F I P (bar) F F (% by volume) Load (%)
1 220 40 20
2 220 60 50
3 220 80 80
4 240 40 50
5 240 60 80
6 240 80 20
7 260 40 80
8 260 60 20
9 260 80 50

Table 7. Engine evaluation findings.

Parameter Level
 Exp FIP FP Load BTE BSFC CO HC NOx SD
No. (% by (%)
(bar) volume)
1 220 40 20 22.01 498 0.104 52 590 50
2 220 60 50 30.06 644 0.122 38 604 44
3 220 80 80 16.50 530 0.108 46 582 34
4 240 40 50 26.05 418 0.099 34 604 30
5 240 60 80 15.30 312 0.112 48 620 20
6 240 80 20 17.16 688 0.098 49 640 40
7 260 40 80 22.58 578 0.104 32 610 22
8 260 60 20 20.42 468 0.118 56 660 46
9 260 80 50 13.22 472 0.094 44 754 26

3. Results and discussion

In order to create models using multiple regression, the raw data for BSFC, CO, HC, smoke
density, NOx, and BTE acquired from the 9-engine testing, are displayed in Table 2. ANOVA
accustomed to measure the impact of all 3 parameters on these responses. The desirability function
was used to estimate the ideal combination of the parameter 3 and confirmatory tests were run to
confirm the prediction.
Parameters normal probability maps and ANOVA

Brake thermal efficiency

Figure 3 (a) showed normal probability maps for the BTE. For an ANOVA to be valid, normality
is required. The replies' residuals can be shown to follow a normal distribution. The fuel fraction,
followed by the pressure for fuel injection and load, has the greatest effect on the engine's BTE,
according to ANOVA from Table 8. Since the nature of the fuel-air mixture impacts the quality of
combustion, as was previously mentioned, the fuel fraction has a big effect on the BTE of the
engine. Since both Methley ester and ethanol/diesel mixes are oxygenated when compared to
diesel, the pressure for fuel injection also has an effect on the performance of the engine 21, 22, 23.
The percentage contribution of the effect of engine parameters on BTE is shown in Figure 3 (b).
 Fuel Fuel
injection fraction
pressure (% by
(bar) volume)

Load (%)

Fuel injection pressure (bar)

Fuel fraction (% by volume)
Load (%)

Figure 3 (a). Normal probability plots BTE. Figure 3 (b). Shows the % contribution to BTE.

Table 8. BTE ANOVA.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Contribution

A 2 4.898 4.898 2.449 0.40 0.716 11.5 %
B 2 20.647 20.647 10.324 1.67 0.374 48.84%
C 2 4.386 4.386 2.193 0.36 0.738 10.37 %
Residual Error 2 12.328 12.328 6.164
Total 8 42.260

Brake specific fuel consumption

Figure 4 (a) showed normal probability maps for the BSFC. ANOVA results from Table 9 show
that, the fuel injection pressure possesses the best impact on the engine's BSFC, followed by the
fuel fraction and load. As was already mentioned, the quality of the air-fuel mixture affects the
quality of combustion; hence the fuel injection pressure significantly affects the engine's BSFC 23,
24, 25
. The fuel fraction also has an impact on the engine's performance since Methley ester and
ethanol/diesel mixtures are relative to oxygenated pure diesel. In Figure 4 (b), the percentage the
impact of engine variables for the BSFC is depicted.
 Fuel injection
pressure (bar)
Fuel fraction (%
by volume)
Load (%)

Figure 4 (a). Normal probability plots BSFC. Figure 4. (b) Shows the % contribution to BSFC.

Table 9. BSFC ANOVA.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Contribution

A 2 5.151 5.151 2.576 0.25 0.803 15.08%
B 2 4.647 4.647 2.323 0.22 0.819 13.61%
C 2 3.378 3.378 1.689 0.16 0.861 9.89%
Residual Error 2 20.967 20.967 10.484
Total 8 34.142

CO emission
Figure 5 (a) showed normal probability maps for the CO emission. The fuel fraction, preceded by
the pressure for fuel injection and load, has the biggest effect on the engine's CO, according to
ANOVA from Table 10. The nature of the fuel-air mixture affects the quality of combustion, as
was already said; therefore the fuel fraction has a big effect on the engine's performance CO.
Considering that Methley ester and ethanol/diesel mixtures are oxygenated as compared to pure
diesel, the fuel percentage also has an impact upon the efficiency of the engine 25, 26. The percentage
impact of engine parameters on CO is shown in Figure 5 (b).
 Fuel injection
pressure (bar)

Fuel fraction
(% by volume)

Load (%)

Figure 5 (a). Normal probability plots CO. Figure 5 (b). Shows the % contribution CO.

Table 10. CO ANOVA.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Contribution

A 2 0.7295 0.7295 0.36474 2.39 0.295 15.96%
B 2 3.4037 3.4037 1.70186 11.13 0.082 74.39%
C 2 0.1330 0.1330 0.06650 0.43 0.697 2.91%
Residual Error 2 0.3058 0.3058 0.15292
Total 8 4.5720

HC emission
Figure 6 (a) showed normal probability maps for the HC emission. According to ANOVA from
Table 11, the load, followed by the pressure for fuel injection and fuel fraction, has the greatest
impact within the engine HC. As was already said, the nature of the fuel-air mixture influences the
quality of combustion; as a result, the load significantly impacts the engine's HC. The amount of
fuel also affects how well an engine performs because Methley ester and ethanol/diesel
combinations are oxygenated in comparison to pure diesel 27, 28. Figure 6 (b) displays the
percentage impact of the engine's parameters on HC.
 Fuel injection
pressure (bar)

Fuel fraction
(% by
volume)
Load (%)

Figure 6 (a). Normal probability plots HC. Figure 6 (b). Shows the % contribution of HC.

Table 11. HC ANOVA.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Contribution

A 2 0.3087 0.3087 0.1543 0.06 0.940 1.38%
B 2 5.5744 5.5744 2.7872 1.16 0.463 24.95%
C 2 11.6367 11.6367 5.8184 2.42 0.292 52.10%
Residual Error 2 4.8076 4.8076 2.4038
Total 8 22.3274

NOx emission
Figure 7 (a) showed normal probability maps for the NOx emission. The fuel injection pressure,
load, and fuel fraction have the biggest effects on the engine's NOx, according to ANOVA from
Table 12. As was previously said, the nature of the fuel-air mixture affects the quality of
combustion, and as a result, the pressure used to inject the fuel has a substantial impact on the
engine's NOx emissions. Because Methley ester and ethanol/diesel mixtures are oxygenated in
contrast to pure diesel, the amount of fuel also has an impact on how well an engine operates 29, 30.
The percentage impact of engine parameters on NOx is shown in Figure 7 (b).
 Fuel injection
pressure (bar)
Fuel fraction (%
by volume)
Load (%)

Figure 7 (a) Normal probability plots NOx. Figure 7 (b). Shows the % contribution of NOx.

Table 12. NOx ANOVA.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Contribution

A 2 1.8598 1.8598 0.9299 4.05 0.198 49.07%
B 2 0.8252 0.8252 0.4126 1.80 0.357 21.75%
C 2 0.6274 0.6274 0.3137 1.37 0.422 16.63%
Residual Error 2 0.4589 0.4589 0.2294
Total 8 3.7713

Smoke density
Figure 8 (a) showed normal probability maps for the smoke density. The load has the biggest
influence on the engine smoke density, preceded by the pressure for fuel injection and fuel fraction,
according to ANOVA from Table 13. The load significantly affects the engine performance smoke
density because, as was already said, the quality of the air-fuel combination impacts the quality of
combustion. The amount of fuel used has an impact on an engine's performance as well because
Methley ester and mixes of ethanol and diesel are oxygenated in comparison to pure diesel. The
percentage impact of engine settings on smoke density may be shown in Figure 8 (b).
 Fuel injection
pressure (bar)
Fuel fraction (%
by volume)
Load (%)

Figure 8(a). Normal probability plots SD. Figure 8 (b). Shows the % contribution of smoke
density.

Table 13. Smoke density ANOVA.

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Contribution

A 2 20.0539 20.0539 10.0269 4.40 0.185 30.04%
B 2 0.5432 0.5432 0.2716 0.12 0.894 0.813%
C 2 41.5879 41.5879 20.7940 9.12 0.099 62.30%
Residual Error 2 4.5604 4.5604 2.2802
Total 8 66.7453

Table 14 lists the parameter values used to evaluate the model. R-squared (coefficient of
determination) values give an indication of how well the experimental and predicted values match.
The complete set of response data has a strong match using the models because all values are near
to 1. High Adj. R-squared values demonstrate that the model is accurate. Each and every model
are accurate since their Adj. The R-squared values exceed 0.9. Values of accuracy greater than 4
suggest the use of these models for navigating the design space. The study used ANOVA to assess
the influence of several factors on emissions and engine performance. Statistical significance was
seen in each response model.

Table 14. Model assessment.

Parameters R-Sq(adj) R-Sq S

BTE 0.00% 70.83% 2.4828
BSFC 0.00% 38.59% 3.2378
CO 73.24% 93.31% 0.3910
HC 13.87% 78.47% 1.5504
NOx 51.33% 87.83% 0.4790
 Smoke density 72.67% 93.17% 1.5100
Grey relational analysis
The research outcomes used in this instance include BSFC, CO, HC, smoke density, NOx, and
BTE. While BSFC, CO, HC, smoke density, and NOx must be minimized, a response's BTE should
be maximized. Smoke density, CO, HC, NOx, and BTE are given the labels Higher-the-better and
Lower-the-better, respectively, in order to perform Grey Relation Analysis on data. An issue
involving the optimization of a single identical goal function replaced the multi-objective
optimization GRA problem. The Taguchi as a consequence technique is used to determine the
ideal a medley of process variables while taking into account the highest GR grade as shown in
Table 15 (Normalized values and response deviation patterns) and Table 16 (Grey relationship
coefficients). Based on the Grey association coefficients, the rank of the variables is shown in Table
17.

Table 16. Normalized values and response deviation patterns.

Exp. No. BTE BSFC CO HC NOx Smoke Density

1 0.521971 0.505319 0.642857 0.166667 0.953488 0

2 1 0.117021 0 0.75 0.872093 0.2
3 0.194774 0.420213 0.5 0.416667 1 0.533333
4 0.761876 0.718085 0.821429 0.916667 0.872093 0.666667
5 0.123515 1 0.357143 0.333333 0.77907 1
6 0.233967 0 0.857143 0.291667 0.662791 0.333333
7 0.555819 0.292553 0.642857 1 0.837209 0.933333
8 0.427553 0.585106 0.142857 0 0.546512 0.133333
9 0 0.574468 1 0.5 0 0.8

Table 16. Lists the Grey relationship coefficients and their corresponding grades.

Exp. No. BTE BSFC CO HC NOx Smoke Density

1 0.511233 0.502674 0.583333 0.375 0.914894 0.333333

2 1 0.361538 0.333333 0.666667 0.796296 0.384615
3 0.383076 0.463054 0.5 0.461538 1 0.517241
4 0.677393 0.639456 0.736842 0.857143 0.796296 0.6
5 0.363244 1 0.4375 0.428571 0.693548 1
6 0.394934 0.333333 0.777778 0.413793 0.597222 0.428571
7 0.52956 0.414097 0.583333 1 0.754386 0.882353
8 0.466224 0.546512 0.368421 0.333333 0.52439 0.365854
9 0.333333 0.54023 1 0.5 0.333333 0.714286
 Table 17. Rank.

Exp. No GRD Rank

1 0.536744 7
2 0.590408 4
3 0.554152 6
4 0.717855 1
5 0.653811 3
6 0.490939 8
7 0.693955 2
8 0.434122 9
9 0.570197 5

4. Conclusion
The results of this study provide a complete overview that adds to the improvement of the
characteristics of compression-ignition (CI) engines and demonstrate the impact of different fuel
injection pressure on both engine performance and exhaust pollutants. The primary discoveries
are:
 A study was undertaken to examine the effects of pressure during fuel injection, fuel
percentage, and load on the performance and emissions of a light-duty direct injection (DI)
diesel engine fueled by mixes of methyl ester and diesel, as well as ethanol.
 The present study used a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array to conduct experiments, whereby
variables and their respective levels were considered. Specifically, the factors were fuel
injection pressure at 240, 260, and 220 bar, fuel percentage at 40, 60, and 80 blend, and
load at 20, 50, and 60%.
 In order to optimise the engine's performance, an improvement was conducted with the
objective of minimising Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), Carbon Monoxide
(CO) emissions, Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, smoke density, and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
emissions.
 The improvement included determining the ideal combination of selected parameters and
their respective quantities.
 Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) is a very efficient technology used for enhancing the
performance and reducing emissions of an engine.
 The recommended conditions for optimising engine performance and reducing emissions
are a fuel injection pressure of 220 bar, a fuel percentage of 40% by volume, and a load of
80%.
Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding
author upon reasonable request.

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Conflict of interest
The authors assert that there are no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Informed consent
This essay examines the ethical considerations surrounding consent in the context of biodiesel
research techniques.