EEMUA 147 Recommendations for refrigerated liquefied storage tanks.

Recommendations for refrigerated
liquefied gas storage tanks
PUBLICATION 147
Edition 3
Released by IHS. NOT FOR RESALE

Recommendations for refrigerated liquefied gas storage tanks
Publication 147
Edition 3
Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association.

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All rights reserved.

ISBN 978 0 85931 213 4
First published 05-2016
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EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
Recommendations for refigerated liquefied gas storage tanks Publication147
Engineering Equipment and Materials

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II EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
Publication147 Recommendations for refigerated liquefied gas storage tanks
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EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association III
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................................................... IX
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Definitions of terms ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Categorisation of storage systems ...................................................................................................................2
2.1 Definitions of containments .................................................................................................................................................................... 2

2.1.1 Single containment .......................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Double containment ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2
2.1.3 Full containment ................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
2.1.4 Membrane tanks ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Double concrete tanks................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
2.3 Refrigerated/cryogenic or pressurized storage ......................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Risk assessment for tank Class/Type selection ........................................................................................................................... 12
3. Design considerations .................................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Design ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Safety requirements and special provisions ................................................................................................................................ 13
3.2.1 Typical considerations .................................................................................................................................................................. 13
3.2.2 Basic requirements for pressure and vacuum relief .................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Leakage and spillage ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
3.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
3.3.2 Risk of external leakage to atmosphere ............................................................................................................................. 18
3.3.3 Local internal leaks ......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.4 Internal condensation .................................................................................................................................................................. 18
3.3.5 Overfilling ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
3.3.6 Other operational issues ............................................................................................................................................................. 19
3.3.7 Spillage .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
3.4 Lightning protection................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Effect of radio transmissions, static electricity & cathodic protection systems ....................................................... 20
3.6 Earthquakes.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
IV EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
4. Hydrostatic and leak testing .......................................................................................................................... 21
4.1 General.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
4.2 Inner tank testing ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
4.3 Testing of outer steel tanks of double and full containment ............................................................................................ 21
4.4 Filling rates and level checks ................................................................................................................................................................ 21
4.5 Outer concrete tank testing.................................................................................................................................................................. 21
4.6 Pneumatic testing ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
5. Tank Commissioning ...................................................................................................................................... 22
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

5.2 Status of tank at start of commissioning ....................................................................................................................................... 22
5.3 Preparation for commissioning .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
5.3.1 Operating manual........................................................................................................................................................................... 23
5.3.2 General steps .................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
5.3.3 Preparation of the tank ................................................................................................................................................................ 23
5.3.4 Installation of the pumps............................................................................................................................................................ 24
5.4 Drying of tank ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
5.5 Purging ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
5.5.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
5.5.2 Types of inert gas ............................................................................................................................................................................ 25
5.5.3 Purging tanks from air to inert atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 25
5.5.4 Purging tanks from inert to hydrocarbon atmosphere ............................................................................................. 26
5.5.5 Drying and purging procedure ............................................................................................................................................... 26
5.6 Commissioning of the tank heating system ............................................................................................................................... 26
5.7 Cool-down ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
5.7.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
5.7.2 Preparation for cool-down......................................................................................................................................................... 27
5.7.3 Cool down rates ............................................................................................................................................................................... 27
5.7.4 Cool down procedures ................................................................................................................................................................ 27
5.8 Commissioning of the submerged pumps.................................................................................................................................. 28
5.9 Completion of commissioning ........................................................................................................................................................... 28
EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association V
6. Operations ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

6.2 Prevention of overpressure ................................................................................................................................................................... 29
6.3 Prevention of vacuum .............................................................................................................................................................................. 29
6.4 Tank heating system ................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
6.5 Liquid in annulus ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
6.6 Prevention of rollover ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30
6.7 Refilling after maintenance ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
6.8 Prevention of condensation ................................................................................................................................................................. 31
7. Maintenance and inspection.......................................................................................................................... 32
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

7.2 Safety ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
7.3 Tank design and construction details ............................................................................................................................................. 32
7.4 Operating history ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 32
7.5 External inspection .................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
7.5.1 General .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
7.5.2 Inspection plan ................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
7.6 Maintenance planning............................................................................................................................................................................. 34
7.7 Review of tank performance ................................................................................................................................................................ 34
7.8 Foundations ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
7.8.1 Visual inspection .............................................................................................................................................................................. 35
7.8.2 Paving and drainage ..................................................................................................................................................................... 35
7.8.3 Settlement........................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
7.8.4 Foundation heaters........................................................................................................................................................................ 35
7.8.5 Product spillage collection sump (where provided)................................................................................................... 35
7.8.6 Elevated bases................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
7.9 Wall ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
7.9.1 Visual inspection .............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
7.9.2 Buttresses............................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
7.9.3 Thermal imaging ............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
7.10 Concrete roof.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
7.10.1 Visual inspection ........................................................................................................................................................................... 36
7.10.2 Rain water drainage (where provided) ............................................................................................................................ 36
7.10.3 Operational fittings ..................................................................................................................................................................... 37
7.10.4 Protective coating and spill protection (where provided).................................................................................... 37
VI EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
7.10.5 Access and emergency egress.............................................................................................................................................. 37

7.10.6 Roof platform .................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
7.11 Equipment items ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
7.12 Inspection check list and suggested inspection frequency ............................................................................................ 37
7.13 Internal inspection................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
7.13.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
7.13.2 Initial inspection of suspended deck................................................................................................................................. 40
7.13.3 Inspection from suspended deck........................................................................................................................................ 40
7.13.4 Inner tank inspection ................................................................................................................................................................. 41
8. De-commissioning .......................................................................................................................................... 42
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

8.1.1 Need for Decommissioning ...................................................................................................................................................... 42
8.1.2 Duration................................................................................................................................................................................................ 42
8.1.3 Liquid removal .................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
8.1.4 Purging.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 43
8.1.5 Warm-up .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
8.2 Decommissioning procedure .............................................................................................................................................................. 45
8.2.1 Outline of decommissioning .................................................................................................................................................... 45
8.2.2 Procedure ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
8.2.3 Equipment and instruments ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
8.2.4 Liquid removal by pumping ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
8.2.5 Tank isolation (Stage 1) ............................................................................................................................................................... 47
8.2.6 Vaporisation of remaining liquid ............................................................................................................................................ 47
8.2.7 Tank isolation (Stage 2) ............................................................................................................................................................... 47
8.2.8 Inerting and warm-up of tank.................................................................................................................................................. 48
8.2.9 Simultaneous decommissioning of submerged pumps .......................................................................................... 48
8.2.10 Tank isolation (final stage) ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
References ............................................................................................................................................................ 50
Related standards ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 51

Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
EEMUA Publication: Feedback Form .................................................................................................................. 55
EEMUA Publications Catalogue .......................................................................................................................... 56
EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association VII
List of Figures
Figure 1 Scheme of tank categories for Refrigerated Liquefied Gas products ........................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Scheme of tank categories for RLG products (cont.) ............................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3 Scheme of tank types for RLG products (cont.) ........................................................................................................................ 5
Figure 4 Detail of a Type 2 above ground single containment storage tank.............................................................................. 6
Figure 5 Detail of a Type 3 above ground double containment storage tank ........................................................................... 6
Figure 6 Detail of a Type 4 above ground full containment storage tank .................................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Detail of a Type 5/Type 8 above ground full containment storage tank ................................................................... 7
Figure 8 Detail of a Type 6/Type 7 above ground full containment storage tank ................................................................... 8
Figure 9 Typical detail of a Type 1 above ground membrane storage tank ................................................................................ 8
Figure 10 Typical detail of a Type 11 in-ground membrane tank...................................................................................................... 9
Figure 11 Artist impression of a double concrete tank with no liner ........................................................................................... 10
Figure 12 Selection diagram refrigerated storage systems ................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 13 LNG tank designed and constructed to best practice principle ................................................................................ 15
Figure 14 Supported concrete foundation slab........................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 15 Concrete foundation slab elevated from ground .............................................................................................................. 16
Figure 16 Arrangement of pressure control valves to flare ................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 17 Prevention of an overfill.................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 18 Floating of the inner tank ................................................................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 19 Typical example of condensation in dome roof for butane gas ............................................................................... 31
List of Tables
Table 1 Oxygen concentration end-points for purging from air..................................................................................................... 25

Table 2 Minimum temperature reached ....................................................................................................................................................... 26
Table 3 Summary of inspections........................................................................................................................................................................ 38
Table 4 Combustible gas and points for purging .................................................................................................................................... 44
VIII EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
Preface
Early designs of tanks for refrigerated liquefied Background

gases were traditionally single containment,
which means that the liquid containing tank was
surrounded by a low bund wall at a considerable When Edition 1 of EEMUA 147 was published in
distance. Where double wall tanks were used the the mid-1980s it was the first publication in the
outer wall was mainly intended to contain the world to define the various types of Refrigerated
insulation. Liquefied Gas (RLG) tanks available and define
the full containment tank. It provided design and
Since the mid-1970s it has become increasingly construction recommendations which were later
common practice in a number of countries, adopted into a number of internationally accepted
including the United Kingdom, to surround the Standards. There are now numerous tanks that
primary liquid container by a secondary container have been constructed to these Standards and
at a close distance. The secondary container operated successfully and safely for many years.
is intended to prevent release of the liquefied
products into the surrounding area in case of As a consequence of this, Edition 2 did not
leakage or damage to the primary container. This replicate this data but concentrated instead on
philosophy results in increased safety for the recommendations on the operation, inspection
surrounding area. and maintenance of RLG tanks, and included the
new double concrete tanks design options.
These tanks generally have secondary containers
made from low temperature steel, pre-stressed The latest Edition 3 expands on the inspection
concrete or reinforced concrete with an earth advice and includes a new Section 7.5 External
embankment. More recent developments have inspection. It draws on the recommendations
led to the publication of EEMUA 207(1) which gives given in its sister publication EEMUA 159: Above
recommendations for design, construction and ground flat bottomed storage tanks. Guide to
operation of double concrete tanks. inspection, maintenance and repair.
EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association IX
X EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
1. Introduction
1.1 Scope Contractor

The Contractor, for the purpose of this document,
The purpose of this EEMUA Publication is to is the Company with which the Purchaser agrees a
supply the outline information necessary for the proposal for the design, construction, testing and
categorisation, inspection and maintenance of commissioning of a tank for storing a refrigerated
single, double and full containment tanks for the liquefied gas. The document, in the interest of
bulk storage of refrigerated liquefied gases down simplicity, considers the Contractor as being
to -165° C, and essentially at atmospheric pressure. responsible for all works, materials, equipment and
service.
Liquids covered by the scope of this document
include Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), ethylene, Roll-over
ethane, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and similar Roll-over is the uncontrolled mass movement of
hydrocarbons, together with ammonia. a stored liquid, caused by an unstable state of
stratified liquids of different density, temperature
or composition throughout the depth of the liquid.
1.2 Definitions of terms It is generally accompanied by a large release of
vapour inside the tank.
Bund wall
A low wall of earth or concrete surrounding the Accidental loads
storage tank at a distance appropriate to contain These loads include impacts from explosions, flying
spilled liquid. objects, acts of sabotage or fires.
Purchaser Cryogenic temperature

Purchaser, for the purpose of this document, is the Very low temperature (below -100 °
C).
Company or its agents which prepare and agree a
proposal with a Contractor or Contractors for the
design, construction, testing and commissioning of
a tank for storing a refrigerated liquefied gas. It is
not the purpose of this document to define terms
of reference or to allocate responsibilities between
contracting parties when the Purchaser is not to be
the owner or operator of the storage plant.
Boil-off
Boil-off is the process of vaporisation of very small
quantities of refrigerated liquid by heat conducted
through the insulation surrounding the storage
tank.
Embankment
A bank of selected earth and other materials placed
against the outer face of a reinforced concrete tank
or high wall.
EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association 1
2. Categorisation of storage systems
The first Edition of this Publication described the The outer tank will not be designed to contain
world s first categorisation of storage tanks suitable vapour released due to product leakage from the
for storing refrigerated or cryogenic liquefied inner tank (See Figures 1 and 5).
gases. The second Edition further develops this
concept by introducing tank Type/Classes based 2.1.3 Full containment
on a safety evaluation. The smaller the risk during
an incident the higher the classification, i.e. Class A double wall tank designed and constructed
B represents higher risk compared to Class A. so that both inner and outer tanks are capable
Storage categories and classifications are defined of containing the refrigerated liquid stored. The
in this Chapter. outer wall is located at approximately 1 to 2 metres
distance from the inner wall (See Figures 2 and
6 ‒ 8).
2.1 Definitions of containments
The inner tank stores the refrigerated liquid under
2.1.1 Single containment
normal operating conditions. The outer roof is
supported by the outer wall.
Either a single or double wall tank designed and
constructed so that only the containing element in
The outer tank is capable of containing the
contact with the refrigerated product is required to
refrigerated liquid and vapour resulting from
meet the low temperature ductility requirements
product leakage from the inner tank.
for storage of the product. The outer wall (if any)
of a single containment storage system is primarily
This category can be sub-divided into different
for the retention and protection of insulation and
classes:
is not designed to contain liquid in the event of
product leakage from the inner container.
• Class A(1): A full containment tank where
the outer metal or concrete container/
A single containment tank will be surrounded by a
component may not be able to resist
traditional bund wall to contain any leakage (See
accidental loads from outside;
Figures 1 and 4).
• Class A(2): As Class A(1), but the inner tank
2.1.2 Double containment is constructed as a pre-stressed concrete
container, without a metal liner;
A double wall tank designed and constructed • Class B(1): A full containment tank where
so that both inner and outer walls are capable the outer concrete container is designed and
of containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To constructed to resist all accidental loads from
minimise the pool of escaping liquid the outer outside, such as: impacts from explosions,
wall should generally be located at a distance not flying objects, acts of sabotage or fires and
exceeding 6 metres from the inner wall. The inner the inner tank is ‒ under normal operation ‒
tank stores the refrigerated liquid under normal a liquid tight container; and
operating conditions. The outer tank contains the • Class B(2): As class B(1) but ‒ but the inner
refrigerated liquid product leakage from the inner tank is constructed as a pre-stressed concrete
tank. container, without a metal liner.
2 EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
The following Figures give an indication of the The membrane is in turn welded to a carbon steel
available and developed tank categories. Types 1 liner on the inside of the dome roof. There are
and 2 correspond to single containment and Type both in-ground and above ground membrane
3 for double containment. Full containment is tanks. (See Figure 3 and 9 ‒ 10).
further divided into two Classes and then Types 4
to 11. Note that Type 11 is an in-ground type that Most approval Authorities consider the above
has been primarily used in Japan. ground membrane tanks as equivalent to full
containment tanks. However, other Authorities
2.1.4 Membrane tanks may instead treat them as single containment
tanks and may impose the addition of a bund wall.
Membrane tanks consist of a single wall pre-
stressed concrete tank that is lined with a stainless Membrane tanks are sometimes referred to as total
steel membrane which is both liquid and gas tight. integrity tanks.
RLG
Tanks
* Including half in-ground Tanks
Above Ground Tanks*
Single* Double Full

containment containment containment
Type 2 Type 3 See next figure

9% Ni Steel Inner Tank, 9% Ni Steel Inner Tank,
Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Outer Tank
Outer Tank + low dykes and/or high pit dykes
(pre-stressed concrete
Outer Tank)
9% Ni Steel Inner Tank 9% Ni Steel Inner Tank
Carbon Steel High pit dykes (pre-stressed

Outer Tank low dykes concrete Outer Tank Shell)
Figure 1 Scheme of tank categories

for Refigerated Liquefied Gas (RLG) products
Full
containment Tanks
Class A (1) Class A (2)
Type 4 Type 5 Type 6 As Type 4, 5 or 6

9% Ni steel 9% Ni Steel 9% Ni Steel Inner Tank, But with
inner tank, Inner Tank, concrete Outer Tank pre-stressed
9% Ni Steel pre-stressed earthen embankment concrete
Outer Tank concrete Outer Tank Inner Tank
9% Ni Steel without
Inner Tank a metal liner
9% steel 9% Ni Steel
Inner Tank Inner Tank
Reinforced concrete
9% Steel Outer Pre-stressed Outer Shell earthen
Shell and Bottom concrete Outer Shell embankment
Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Carbon Steel

Outer Roof Outer Roof Outer Roof
Class B (1) Class B (2)
Type 7 Type 8 Type 9 Type 10

9% Ni Steel 9% Ni Steel Double conrete Double concrete
Inner Tank, Inner Tank, Tank with metal Tank without metal
concrete Outer pre-stressed liner in concrete liner in concrete
Tank earten concrete Outer Tank Inner Tank InnerTank
embarkment
9% Ni Steel Pre-stressed Pre-stressed

9% Ni Steel Inner Tank concrete Inner Shell concrete Inner Shell
Inner Tank
Pre-stressed Pre-stressed Pre-stressed

Reinforced concrete Outer Shell concrete Outer Shell concrete Outer Shell
concrete Outer
Shell earthen
embankment Reinforced Reinforced Reinforced
concrete Outer Roof concrete Outer Roof concrete Outer Roof
Reinforced
concrete Outer Roof
Figure 2 Scheme of tank categories for RLG products (cont.)

Note: only the shell of a concrete tank is pre-stressed. The floor is reinforced concrete
RLG
Tanks
Membrane Tanks
Above Ground Tanks* In Ground Tanks
Type 1 Type 11
Stainless Steel Stainless Steel
membrane and membrane and
pre-stressed concrete concrete tank
Membrane/ Membrane/
insulation/pre-stressed insulation/
concrete Outer concrete Outer
Tank Shell Tank Shell
- Ground
Figure 3 Scheme of tank types for RLG products (cont.)

Note: Stainless Steel and 9% Ni materials are usually only used for cryogenic storage tanks
(e.g.: tanks storing LNG, LIN, LOX LAR, Ethylene, etc.). For low temperature storage tanks
(e.g.: tanks storing LPG, Ammonia, etc.) low temperature carbon steel is generally used.
The types of tanks and insulation shown are typical for LNG storage tanks. For other cryogenic or low
temperature products only certain types of tanks and insulation are generally used.
CS Roof
AL Suspended Deck
Fibreglass Blanket
Perlite Powder
CS Outer Tank
Bund Wall
9% Ni Inner Tank
Heater
Foamglass Insulation
Figure 4 Typical detail of a Type 2 above ground single containment storage tank
CS Roof
AL Suspended Deck
Fibreglass Blanket
Weather Shield
Perlite Powder
PC High Dyke
CS Outer Tank
9% Ni Inner Tank
9% Ni
Secondary
Barrier Foamglass Insulation
Heater
Figure 5 Typical detail of a Type 3 above ground double containment storage tank
CS Roof
AL Suspended Deck
Fibreglass Blanket
Perlite Powder
9% Ni Outer Tank
9% Ni Inner Tank
Heater
Figure 6 Typical detail of a Type 4 above ground full containment storage tank
CS or RS Roof
AL Suspended Deck
Fibreglass Blanket
Perlite Powder
Vapour Barrier
PC Outer
Tank Wall
9% Ni Inner Tank
9% Ni
Secondary
Barrier
Heater
Figure 7 Typical detail of a Type 5/Type 8 above ground full containment storage tank
CS or RC Roof
AL Suspended Deck
Fibreglass Blanket
Heater
RC Wall
Earthen
Berm
9% Ni Inner Tank
Perlite Powder
Vapour
Barrier
Figure 8 Typical detail of a Type 6/Type 7 above ground full containment storage tank
CS or RC Roof
FG Blanket
AL Suspended Deck
PCont Wall
PUF Insulation
SS Membrane
Heater
Figure 9 Typical detail of a Type 1 above ground membrane storage tank
CS or RC Roof
FG Blanket
AL Suspended Deck
RC Wall
PUF Insulation
SS Membrane
Heater Heater
RC SLAB
Impermeable Layer
Bottom Heater
Figure 10 Typical detail of a Type 11 in-ground membrane storage tank
All such storage tanks are primarily designed the exemplary safety record achieved by the gas
and constructed to contain the refrigerated or industry using the existing types of storage tanks.
cryogenic product under operational conditions.
Tanks constructed with the steel outer roofs EEMUA Publication 207 is double concrete tank
(whether constructed from 9% nickel steel or design guidelines which is the result of mutual
normal carbon steel) or steel outer tanks may not work between its Storage Tank Committee
provide containment against accidental loads. and experts from the civil engineering and gas
industries.
2.2 Double concrete tanks

In the USA a civil code was published(2) that
included industry minimum design and
A recent development supported by a number of
construction requirements for concrete structures
civil engineering Contractors and engineering firms
that can be exposed to cryogenic temperatures.
working in the cryogenic gas sector is the double
concrete type of tank ‒ see Figure 11. Here the
9% nickel steel inner tank is exchanged for a
pre-stressed concrete inner tank. The concrete
inner tank may or may not be equipped with an
internal liner/liquid tight metal barrier depending
on which concept was patented by the designer.
At the time of this edition no European or
International norms, Codes or Standards are
available to provide best industry practice to guide
the designer. This may lead to a weakening of
Figure 11 Artist impression of a double concrete tank with no liner
2.3 Refrigerated/cryogenic or
pressurized storage
Large volumes of products that are in the gaseous
phase at ambient temperature and have a flash
point lower than 0ºC are most economically stored
at their boiling point in refrigerated or cryogenic
storage. In this case storage takes place nominally
at ambient pressure.
Where the volume of the stored/shipped product

is small or availability of the product in the gaseous
phase is required at short notice, then pressurised
storage may be more economical. The re-
gasification process of refrigerated and cryogenic
liquids is not spontaneous.
Appendix I of EEMUA 190(3), shown here as Figure

12, shows a decision flow chart and methodology
to assist in achieving the most economical storage
facility, i.e. refrigerated or pressurised storage.
Start
Publication147
Total volume
N
of product to be
stored > 10,000 m3
(1)
Refrigerated storage Pressurised storage

Frequent
N movement of
product
Select product
Product to Go to Go to pressurised properties
N Go to pressurised Y
be stored in Refrigerated storage storage
storage
one unit (3)
Storage of gas Propane (C3)

Y N Y
mixtures considered only
(2)
N Butane (C4)
Green field
Existing site only
project
Y Mixture C3/C4
Liquefaction Site Pressurised

N Go to
Unit & boil off available for N storage
pressurised
gas compressors liquefaction
storage
existing unit (4)
Y Y Above ground N
storage allowed
(6)
(1) in case or refrigerated storage: consider end-product Y
International
only. Volume < 10,000 m3 not economical
N Go to
tender procedure N
pressurised Site available with
for storage Unit (2) creates difficulties for refrigerated storage in respect
storage adequate separation/
available? (5) of variations in boil off rating and stratification in storage
safety distances
tank
Y
(3) maximum 80,000 m3 refrigerated storage capacity for
Y
one unit
Existing
capacity of flare, N
Select product (4) in the range of 10,000 m3 to 20,000 m3 the cost drainage, fire protection
properties advantage of refrigerated storage to pressurised storage systems can be
may be marginal depending on the costs for auxiliary expanded?
equipment
storage of single Y
Refrigerated
product gases
storage (5) limited available contractors to build refrigerated tanks
(no mixtures) Above ground
Covered storage
according to BS EN 14620 storage
Storage of gas (6) legislation in some countries mandate for covered Mounded or
Pressurised Spheres or bullets
mixtures (mounded and submerged) storage vessels only submerged
storage pressurised storage
considered storage
EEMUA Copyright © 2016 The Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
Figure 12 Selection diagram refrigerated storage systems
Recommendations for refigerated liquefied gas storage tanks
11
2.4 Risk assessment for tank 4.2.5.2 Probabilistic

The probabilistic approach shall consist of:
Class/Type selection • listing of potential hazards of external and
internal origin;
To select the most appropriate Class/Type of tank • collecting failure rate data;
it is necessary to carry out a full risk assessment. • determination of the frequency of these
Section 4.2 of EN 14620-1(4) provides a complete hazards;
guide to the selection process based on a risk • determination of the effects on event
assessment of different tank Types/Classes. It is consequences and probabilities of
not the intention to duplicate the details of the available mitigation measures;
Standard here but the risk assessment should • examination of the potential knock-on
include: effects;
• Site selection: • determination of the consequences of
o Consider length of pipe connection to/ each hazard;
from receiving and supply sources; • determination of risk by multiplying
o Local regulations and safety distances; frequency and consequence and summing
o Site and soil conditions; over all scenarios;
o Earthquake propensity and impacts; • comparison of risk levels with
• Pre-selection of storage type: predetermined target values.
o Remoteness of tank; 4.2.5.3 Deterministic
o Materials of main components; The deterministic approach consists of:
o Risks to property and life; • listing of hazards;
• Hazard identification: • establishment of credible scenarios;
o External threats to tank integrity e.g. • determination of the consequences;
snow, wind, earthquake, lightning, flood, • justification of the necessary safety
ambient temperature, aircraft crash; improvement measures to limit the risks.
o Internal threats to tank integrity e.g.
mechanical, equipment failure or • Changes:
operational and maintenance errors; o Potential changes e.g. changes of hazards,
o Consequence of failure e.g. effects on new plant built nearby later;
people or adjacent plant or off site plant, o Changes based on findings. Repeat risk
environmental damages; assessment if there are any;
• Methodology ‒ Please see full text from • Determination of actions; and
Section 4.2.5 of EN 14620-1 below: • Risk profiles.
4.2.5 Methodology Note: For full details refer to EN 14620.

4.2.5.1 General
The methodology of the risk assessment shall
be either probabilistic or deterministic.
3. Design considerations
3.1 Design given in EN1473:2007 and other documents. This

value is normally also applied to any operational
The tank should be designed in accordance with areas within the facilities where gas escapes of
either EN 14620 Parts 1 to 5, API 625(5), API 620(6) greater than 10 seconds may be expected.
or ACI 376. Guidance and recommendations for
design, construction and operation of double When the tank roof is constructed from reinforced
concrete tanks can be found in EEMUA 207. concrete it is normally accepted that an open pool
fire is a non-credible event. The robustness of a
concrete roof offers resistance against the impact
3.2 Safety requirements and from flying objects and any other circumstance
special provisions where outside pressures are exerted to the roof. In
these cases smaller safety distances can be applied
3.2.1 Typical considerations when considering fire scenarios from/near P/V-
vents, a fire at the pump manifold installed on a
In the First Edition of this Publication and in roof platform and between tanks and any other
EN 14620 no reference is made to the required set part of the storage facility.
pressures of the emergency relief system in relation
to the maximum design pressure of the tank under As an example, when considering the effects of
consideration. However, this is an important a LNG tank fire where the tank outer surface is
parameter for the operational safety of the total constructed from carbon steel or 9% nickel steel,
storage system. The same is true for fires from/ the normal safety distance that should be taken
near the pressure relief vents. Both these aspects into account is approximately 1.5 * tank diameter
are important in assessing the safety distances (Note in some circumstances safety distances of 2.5
between tanks and any other part of the facilities. to 4 * tank diameter will have to be considered).
It is common practice to use a safety distance of 0·5 These distances may be reduced to 0.5 * tank
* diameter of a full containment tank type diameter for full containment tanks constructed
(EN 1473:2007(7) + NFPA 59A(8)) where such a tank with a monolithic pre-stressed concrete outer tank
is equipped with a pre-stressed concrete outer tank and reinforced concrete outer roof. However, in all
and a reinforced concrete outer roof. cases a full risk assessment should be conducted
and the appropriate safety distance determined.
From available research on tank fire scenarios, it
was established that when tanks are only equipped In practice, the selected safety distance is strongly
with steel outer roofs, then an open pool fire would dependent on access for emergency equipment
be the prevailing parameter for determining the and the tank foundation concept (ring, raft or
lay-out of the total storage tank facility. For these piled).
tanks, such a fire may be initiated by a roof failure
caused by excessive external and internal pressure, Higher initial costs for a sound and robust tank
reduced internal pressure, damage to the roof by design may be offset by a smaller footprint,
flying objects, explosions as well as fires from P/V- reduced site preparation, shorter lengths of
vents. In order to adhere to EEMUA s guidelines, the (cryogenic) pipelines as well as the lesser
an open pool fire should be taken into account in requirements for (cooling) water spray systems.
determining the total storage facility layout. The
heat radiation to the outer surfaces of such tanks is
The heat radiation criterion is approximately Where ignition occurs the fire front will burn back
1·5kW/m2 for the following location types: towards the source with a maximum flame velocity
of approximately 10 to 15m/s. Eventually, this will
• Areas with a high population; result in a total tank fire (open pool fire). However,
• Areas where important work may be since it is difficult to assess the exact LFL, most
executed under most operational conditions; tank installations containing LNG storage tanks
• At the plot fence lines where critical off-plot are designed using a limit of half the theoretical
areas exist; LFL value. In addition, the presence of concrete
• Access roads that have to remain open structures for the outer tank and outer roof may
during the case of credible and non-credible eliminate the risk for an open pool fire.
emergency conditions ; and
• Areas too difficult or too dangerous to be Some users and owners of tanks that are only
evacuated by work staff at short notice. constructed from carbon steel or 9% nickel
steel outer tanks and roofs may consider them
Operators may require separation distances of 2.5 unsuitable for most planned locations even though
to 4 * tank diameter for 1·5 kW/m2 heat radiation these tanks are categorized as full containment
based on the open pool fire scenario depending according to EN 14620.
on prevailing weather and local site conditions.
Figures 13 to 15 below show an LNG tank that can
For the scenario where gas clouds escape from be regarded as satisfying best practice principles.
a storage tank (vapour cloud scenario) the According to the earlier referenced EN norm this is
vaporization rate of the cold methane (in the case categorized as a full containment tank constructed
of an LNG-tank) is low as it needs significant heat with a pre-stressed concrete outer tank and a
from the surroundings for vaporization to take place. reinforced concrete outer roof. This tank concept
Initially the methane flows over the edge of the is not only capable of carrying all operational
tank and spreads out over the facility depending on loads and load combinations and most (if not all)
wind velocity and direction. The absorption of heat accidental loads. This type of storage tank allows
progresses through time and the cloud becomes for the smallest (safety) distances to be used.
progressively lighter than the surrounding air. At the
end of the vaporization period the cloud consists of
an air/vapour mixture. It should be noted that the
cloud could only be ignited when the methane/
air ratio is between the Lower Flammability Limit
(LFL) and the Upper Flammability Limit (UFL). LFL
is equal to the lowest ignition level under which
the gas mixture has an excess of oxygen and too
little product vapour to ignite. UFL is equal to the
upper ignition level above which the gas mixture
contains too little oxygen and an excess of product
vapour to ignite. The distance from the tanks to
the LFL boundary, at or near ground/sea level, is
a maximum of 250m with an average of 100m
depending on weather conditions.
Figure 13 Typical LNG tank designed and constructed to best practice principle
Note: The tank can also be constructed on an elevated concrete slab or a concrete slab
fully supported by the soil. In the latter case a heating system is installed in order to prevent
frost heaving induced by the freezing water in the (sub) soil (see figures below).
Figure 14 Supported concrete foundation slab

Note: The concrete slab may also be piled.
Upper Concrete Slab
Concrete Slab
Columns
Lower Concrete Slab

Piles
BEARING STRATUM DOUBLE CONCRETE SLAB TYPE
PILE FOUNDATION TYPE
Figure 15 Concrete foundation slab elevated from ground

Note: it is common practice to store LOX, LIN and LAR in single containment tanks
3.2.2 Basic requirements for pressure The hydrocarbon vapour outflow from internal
and vacuum relief positive pressure relief valves can be ignited by one
of the following:
3.2.2.1 Spare venting capacity
• Lightning: Except for emergency relief
Internal positive pressure relief valves and internal associated with power failure or atmospheric
negative pressure relief valves for refrigerated pressure drop which may occur during a
storage tanks should be provided with interlocked thunder storm, the probability of lightning
block valves and spare positions, so that a faulty occurring simultaneously with the opening
pressure relief valve can be exchanged without the of a relief valve is negligible. Leaking relief
opening of the tank to atmosphere. See Figure 16. valves increase the probability of lightning
ignition. The snuffing system connected
3.2.2.2 Relief of compressed vapour to the discharge pipework may be used to
extinguish the ignited vapours; or
There are two means of relieving the compressed • Adjacent tank fire: The expansion of
vapour of a tank system as follows. vapour in the dome of the tank subject to
radiation from an adjacent tank fire could
• Relief to controlled system: Vapour relieved cause the atmospheric relief valve to open.
from the pressure relief valve of a tank should If the venting vapour ignites, the additional
be conducted to a location such as a flare radiation from the vent fire causes further
system where it is safely discharged; and expansion thus requiring additional venting
• Relief to atmosphere: Vapour should be capacity, and results in high roof-plate
safely vented directly to atmosphere, temperatures. If necessary, use should be
provided that this is accomplished without made of adequate water spray/exposure
creating the following problems: protection facilities.
o Formation of flammable toxic mixtures
at ground level or on elevated structures
where personnel are likely to perform their
duties; and
o Ignition of the relieved vapours at point of
emission.
L = Locked Closed
To Atmosphere
LO = Locked Open
Vacuum
Spare
Spare Breaker
Position
Position
LO
L LO
L
PC
PVC Let-Down to
Common System
Motor-Operated Valve
Boil-Off Header
Low Pressure Flare/Vent Header
Figure 16 Arrangement of pressure control valves to flare

(pressure relief valve to atmosphere, vacuum breaker valves, locked block valves and spare position)
3.3 Leakage and spillage When larger spills are to be taken into account,
measures are normally taken to limit the surface
3.3.1 General area (pool diameter) of the spill and hence the rate
of vapour formation. These may take the form
Both the volume of the leak or spill and the nature of concrete guard walls, earth bunds, or a system
of the product should be taken into account of channels leading to a remote collection area.
when considering the consequence of leakage Some tanks are located below ground level for
or spillage. All spilled refrigerated liquids will similar reasons.
evaporate at a rate which is directly related to the
surface area of the spilled liquid. Small leaks and Vapour cloud generation should be avoided for
spills may require forced ventilation of potential other reasons than those associated with fire and
pockets of gas, for instance under the bases of explosion. Ammonia, for instance, can be highly
above-ground tanks. This is particularly the case poisonous in comparatively small concentrations
for heavy gases such as butane or propane. In this and thus requires special consideration. Dense
connection, gases such as methane, which are vapour clouds can also cause suffocation and
lighter than air at ambient temperature are usually the low temperature of the liquid and vapour is a
denser than air when they are first evacuated, and hazard.
are thus capable of forming a low lying vapour
cloud.
3.3.2 Risk of external leakage to appropriate, to provision of suitable protective

atmosphere layers of liquid proof thermal insulation over the
outer tank bottom, or provision of low temperature
The risk of leakage can be minimised by taking the quality steel for the outer tank bottom and
following steps: the lower shell course. In the double and full
containment tanks, by definition, suitably low
• Limiting both the number and size of, or temperature quality steel must be provided for
preferably avoiding, all connections on the the outer tank bottom, shell or the liners, unless,
tank below the maximum liquid level; in the case of outer concrete tanks, the concrete is
• The use of emergency remote control and/ designed for direct contact with the liquid.
or automatic fail safe shut-off valves on liquid
connections on the tank and other important 3.3.4 Internal condensation
locations;
• The double valving of all liquid connections In tanks containing product gas in the annular
on the tank below the maximum liquid level, space, the possibility of condensation of the
the first being as near to the tank shell as product gas in the inter-bottom space and the
practicable; and inter-shell annulus exists. The presence of product
• The use of welded connections upstream of liquid on the outer tank floor may result in flotation
the first shut-off valve on each connection of the inner tank and significant damage to inner
below the maximum liquid level. and outer tanks. Instrumentation enabling the
operator to be warned of the existence of such
3.3.3 Local internal leaks condensation and means of its removal should be
considered (See Figure 18, Chapter 6) at the tank
The recommendations in this Publication and design stage and specified if the probability of
related Codes and Standards for storage tanks are condensation is realistic.
naturally designed to ensure that the tanks are
liquid-tight. At certain locations, where the outside temperature
in winter can drop below the atmospheric
It is therefore in that respect important to highlight boiling point of the product, say -5° C for butane,
the need for attention to detail in the design, condensation in the tank against the underside of
construction and testing of each tank bottom and the roof will occur. Large quantities of condensate,
its attachment to the lowest course of the shell. comparable with a very heavy rain, may drop down
The recommendations made should be applied to on the suspended deck. Therefore drainage holes
both inner and outer metal tanks, leak-tightness are to be provided in the deck so that the liquid
being further confirmed by vacuum box testing can enter the inner tank. A drain protection system
of the welds in the inner tank after the hydrostatic should be provided above the annular space, so
test. that the condensate is directed to the inner tank,
because no liquid should enter the annular space.
Any local cooling in the tank inter-bottom space (See Figure 18, Chapter 6).
could lead to unacceptably high local thermal
stresses in the outer tank bottom. To prevent the
possibility of outer bottom failure due to thermal
stress, consideration should be given, where
3.3.5 Overfilling 3.3.6 Other operational issues
The maximum allowable liquid level (design liquid Reference is made to Chapter 6 to the following
level) is calculated by using time intervals based issues:
on local operating conditions so that a stepwise
overfill protection system exists. • Prevention of overpressure;
• Prevention of vacuum;
The typical levels to be noted are shown in Figure • Tank heating system;
17. The distances a, b and c should be determined • Liquid in annulus;
on the basis of the selected time intervals (e.g. one • Prevention of roll over; and
hour) and the pump-in rate. • Refilling after maintenance.
3.3.7 Spillage
Where necessary the outer tank is protected

from adverse effects of any accidental spillage of
product onto the tank roof and shell.
Tank Rim (Top of Shell)

> 300 mm
Maximum allowable Liquid Level (Design Liquid Level)
High-High Level, Emergency Alarm/Trip (LHHA (CO))

Tank Height
High Level (LHA)
Normal Maximum Operating Level
Figure 17 Prevention of an overfill

Note: Areas on the tank roof where the spillage is most likely to occur are the pipework flange joints.
Where necessary, the tank areas where such 3.5 Effect of radio
spillage is possible should be protected by
provision of low temperature steel roof plating or transmissions, static electricity
product catchment trays, liquid proof insulation & cathodic protection systems
and suitable drainage directing the spillage to a
safe disposal area. The size of these trays should In some circumstances a hazard may exist when
take account of wind dispersion. a flammable substance is stored in the vicinity of
certain types of radio transmitters. Radio waves
3.4 Lightning protection can induce sufficient energy in steel members to
cause incendiary sparks at distances up to 20 km
The structure should be provided with adequate (based on MF broadcast radio transmitter of
protection to prevent damage and fire from 150 kW and a Group llC Gas) from certain high
lightning. The requirements of local codes power transmitters. Normal provision of on-site
pertaining to fire caused by lightning should radio systems, amateur and CB radios should not
be observed in full. Where tankage is required create a hazard at distances above 200m. If there
to be protected against lightning the following is any doubt on the possibility of a hazard existing
recommendations are made: then expert advice should be sought.
See PD CLC/TR 50427(9).
• Provided there is a minimum steel thickness
of 5 mm, a lightning discharge should not Static voltages can also be built up in unearthed
penetrate the tank and the absolute value of metalwork with a danger of spark creation.
the earthing of a vertical storage tank is not
important as far as the tank is concerned. Cathodic protection systems for buried steelwork
Where it is necessary to earth a storage tank can also give rise to break sparks. If any of these
for other reasons, e.g. because of installed hazards are relevant to a particular location a more
electrical equipment, static discharge, or detailed study should be undertaken. Enhanced
protection of the supporting structures, the earthing provisions may be necessary to overcome
absolute value of the earthing resistance the danger thus arising.
should be determined;
• Electrical appliances and cabling either on 3.6 Earthquakes
or in tankage should be electrically earthed.
Any metal part which may be electrically For information on earthquakes see EN 14620.
isolated from the tank, e.g. by a gasket or
even by a rust layer, should be bonded to the
tank by the shortest possible route; and
• Where tanks or pipelines are cathodically
protected, either spark arresters, enclosed
spark gap devices or similar devices should
be fitted across any insulated flanges.
4. Hydrostatic and leak testing
4.1 General 4.3 Testing of outer steel tanks

of double and full containment
For the hydrostatic test procedure reference can be
made to EN 14620-5:2006. Full hydrostatic testing
Depending on the design Code used, a hydrostatic
ensures:
test may be required for a steel outer tank. If that is
the case then, unless otherwise agreed, the outer
• The inner and outer tanks are well designed,
tank should be hydrostatically tested to the water
constructed and have a good margin of
level required by the design code.
safety;
• The foundation of the tank is well designed
When the outer and inner steel tanks are tested
and constructed and has a good margin of
simultaneously great care should be taken with
safety;
the removal of the water to prevent damage to the
• The inner and outer tanks are liquid tight; and
inner tank. The liquid level in the annular space
• Peak stresses in the steel introduced during
shall always be kept equal to or lower than that of
fabrication will be reduced under ambient
the inner tank to prevent compressive stresses in
temperatures.
the inner tank shell or bottom uplift. The bottom
insulation of the inner tank must be adequately
The composition of the test water should be
protected against the danger of liquid penetration
determined before any hydrostatic test is carried
during testing.
out and measures taken if necessary to avoid
corrosion. Potable water is preferred.
4.4 Filling rates and level
4.2 Inner tank testing checks
Unless otherwise agreed the inner tank should be Tank filling rates and all related checks for
hydrostatically tested to the water level required by foundation levels of the inner and outer tanks
the specific design Code used. should be agreed between Purchaser and
Contractor (See EN 14620).
In accordance with EN 14620 all joints should be
checked for leakage. However, small leaks in the 4.5 Outer concrete tank testing
bottom may not be readily detected. For this
reason it is recommended to repeat the vacuum A hydrostatic test of outer tanks constructed of
box test of the bottom plate welds after the pre-stressed concrete, or reinforced concrete in
hydrostatic testing. conjunction with an earth embankment, does
not need to be carried out unless specified by the
Purchaser.
4.6 Pneumatic testing

The tank should be pneumatically tested in
accordance with EN 14620.
5. Tank Commissioning
5.1 Introduction • internal fittings and instruments should be

examined for correct installation and operation;
See requirements that are included in EN 14620. • the pump wells and associated foot valves
should be checked for correct installation and
This Chapter presents guidance for the operation;
commissioning of concrete storage tanks. This • the cool-down spray ring, splash plates
guidance has been specifically prepared for the full and nozzles should be checked for proper
containment type tanks but may also be used for installation and cleanliness; and
single containment and membrane tanks. • elevations of level gauge calibration points
relative to the tank calibration datum should
The phrase pre-commissioning is used for the be thoroughly checked and recorded.
stages prior to the introduction of cold gas into the
tank. However, in this document commissioning Leak detection instrumentation in the annular
comprises the whole chain of procedures for space should be checked before and after
bringing the tank, from its as built condition, installation of insulation.
into its normal operating condition, containing a
minimum amount of product. The following external inspection should also be
carried out:
The purpose of purging a liquefied hydrocarbon
gas storage tank is to replace the air in the tank • a thorough check of the associated piping
by an inert atmosphere, to exclude the possibility and instrument systems against the Process
of an explosive atmosphere inside the tank when Engineering Flow Sheet should be carried
product vapour is introduced. Purging also out. Special attention should be paid to
removes the water vapour from the tank, thus the pressure and vacuum relief systems,
preventing the formation of ice on instruments and the instrumentation protecting the tank
equipment during cool-down and operation. against overfill of the inner tank, high and low
pressure and the pump protection. Relief
valve settings should be tested;
5.2 Status of tank at start of • fire protection, firefighting, fire and gas detection
commissioning and (nitrogen) purge equipment should be
checked for fully operational condition;
All tank testing and calibration should have been • all construction equipment and surplus
completed and a final internal inspection should materials should be removed from the tank
be carried out. This should include: site; operating areas and platforms should be
free of debris, tools and extraneous materials
• the inner tank and, where applicable, the which could impede operations and cause
annular space should be visually inspected unsafe conditions;
to ensure that the inner tank has been • earthing and bonding should be checked
thoroughly swabbed to remove all traces of and tested;
water and that the tank and insulation are free • permanent gaskets and orifice plates should
from any obvious physical damage, clean and be installed; and
free from any scale, debris, dirt, scaffold planks, • personal protective equipment should be
plate markers and other foreign matter; available.
5.3 Preparation for • hydrocarbon purging of the various spaces

as per above. To initiate cool down of the
commissioning tank this purge operation may be carried out
with cold vapour, with hydrocarbon vapour
5.3.1 Operating manual sampling points and procedures established;
• cool-down of the tank to its normal operating
An operating manual for the whole loading system
conditions with a liquid product stream; and
should be prepared. The drying, purging and
• commissioning of loading pumps.
cool-down procedure of the tank should form part
of this manual. This procedure should include the 5.3.3 Preparation of the tank
following items:
Before the start of the drying and purging
• a general introduction, describing the operation, isolation of the tank is an essential
purpose of drying, purging and cool down requirement. All hydrocarbon gas and liquid
of the tank and the conditions which have lines to and from the tank should be spaded,
to be reached, with respect to moisture and disconnected or blinded off. A spade/blind list
oxygen content etc. at the various stages of should be made and the phasing for spading/
the commissioning operation; unspading and the locations of the spades/blinds
• a description of the temporary auxiliary should be indicated on the diagrams included in
equipment, instruments and piping required; the operations manual. Reliance should not be
this description should include a diagram on placed on any valve for tank isolation.
which all essential equipment is indicated;
• any special safety/classification requirements; The following line systems are generally included
• a tank preparation checklist, itemising all in the spading and blinding programme:
requirements before commissioning. This
should include a spade/blind list; and • rundown or receiving line(s);
• step-by-step operating instructions • loading line(s) at the manifold connections;
accompanied by a number of sketches • circulating lines;
detailing valves to be opened/closed etc. and • spill-back lines;
indicating the routing of the purge gas and • boil off vapour line (incl. recycle line);
gas/liquid cool-down flows during each stage • high pressure control line to tank farm vent
of commissioning. or flare system; and
• hot gas/liquid supply line for vacuum
5.3.2 General steps protection.
The general steps to be taken are:

The following detailed steps should be considered:
• drying and purging of the inner tank, the

• a temporary pressure relief valve with
dome space, the annular space, the pump
a setting in the range 30 to 50 mbarg
wells, the instrumentation, the piping
should be installed on the spare relief valve
systems etc. in connection with the tank.
connection;
Sampling points and procedures should be
• a flow meter should be installed to measure
established for measuring both moisture and
the purge medium flow rate;
oxygen content of the purged air;
• sampling points for control of the drying/ 5.4 Drying of tank

purging operation should be established at
the vents; Drying is essentially a dilution process. The
• a portable oxygen analyser and a portable atmosphere in a tank contains moisture (some
dew point instrument should be calibrated 1000 ppmv). In order to achieve effective drying
and made available; of a tank to a specified water dew point of -27°C
• a calibrated pressure recorder should be (less than 500 ppmv moisture content) a minimum
available for the inner tank pressure; and of five tank volumes of dry air or purge gas is
• any temporary piping required for required.
commissioning should be installed.
Drying with air having a dew point of -40° C
5.3.4 Installation of the pumps (50 ppmv moisture content) should start as soon
as possible after the tank is closed up. A
The operating pumps should be installed before
continuous flow of dry air should be established
purging starts. The pump manufacturer provides
into the bottom of the inner tank and released
instructions for installation and removal and in
via the annular purge ring. The drying can
most cases a representative of the manufacturer is
be completed in combination with the purge
present during installation.
operation using dry inert gas, generally nitrogen.
Pump installation comprises the following steps:

Note that drying operations should include a
continuous purge until cool-down is well established
• insulation test the pump motor and cables
to minimise the effects of continued water vapour
prior to assembly;
loss from the concrete prior to freezing.
• lower and raise pump with cable attached
to check hoisting and cable handling
equipment and also the operation of the foot 5.5 Purging
valve;
• hand turn impeller to verify free rotation; 5.5.1 General
• install cover plate and adjust hanger, check
closure of foot valve with spacer installed on The replacement of one gas by another in an
hanger; enclosed tank system may take place either:
• maintain dry conditions in the pump well
with a flow of dry air until tank purging • by displacement (the so-called piston effect);
commences; or
• final insulation test all motors and cables • by dilution (mixing).
from starter;
• commission undercurrent/overcurrent In practice, most tank purging operations are
protection; and combinations of displacement and dilution actions.
• check pump minimum flow control loops
and operation of motorised valves. As the most efficient method of purging a tank
is the displacement process, the procedure to be
followed should be such as to create favourable
conditions inside the tank system to promote a
piston flow.
Once purging is commenced it should be The purging end point data with a 20% safety
continued to completion without interruption. factor are given in this Table, in terms of
However, should it be necessary, to suspend the percentage of oxygen for the purging of tanks in
operation, steps need to be taken to ensure that preparation for reception of various hydrocarbon
a positive pressure is maintained so a vacuum products. The safety factor of 20% allows for the
condition is prevented. possibility of sampling error and non-uniformity of
oxygen distribution inside the tank system.
5.5.2 Types of inert gas
Table 1 Oxygen concentration end-points for
The success of a drying and purging operation purging from air
depends on the inert gas selected for use. Product Percent oxygen
(volume) below which the
The inert gas should not be combustible and mixture is not flammable
should contain less than 0.5% volume of oxygen. (20% safety factor included)
It should not be corrosive and to accomplish an Methane 9.7
effective drying of the tank, the dew point of Ethane 8.8
the inert gas should be -40°C. Nitrogen (in bulk Propane 9.1
or from an air separation plant) is the preferred N-Butane 9.7
medium. For LNG and pure component storage Isobutane 9.6
(e.g. ethylene, propylene, ammonia) it is the Ethylene 8.0
only acceptable purge medium. For liquefied Propylene 9.2
petroleum gas (LPG) tanks, dry inert gas may be Butadiene 8.3
used.
Note: To allow a higher degree of safety, it is
recommended that the purging operation
5.5.3 Purging tanks from air to inert
should proceed until an oxygen level of less than
atmosphere
5% volume is reached.
It is convenient to control the purging operation
by determining the oxygen content of the purged On completion of purging, a positive pressure
gas. Inert gas is supplied to the tank, until the should be maintained to prevent vacuum
oxygen concentration at all locations inside the conditions being created by changes of ambient
tank has decreased to a level where no mixture of conditions.
the contents with the product would be flammable
or cause off specification product after cool-down, Throughout the purging operation and on
e.g. ethylene, propylene. completion, the tank is not safe for entry without
breathing apparatus. Notices to this effect must be
The maximum allowable oxygen levels to ensure prominently displayed at all potential entry points
a non-flammable mixture as indicated by the US and vents.
Bureau of Mines (28) are given in Table 1.
5.5.4 Purging tanks from inert to 5.5.5.2 Purging ancillary piping and equipment
hydrocarbon atmosphere
All piping inside the tank and the pressure and
Normally, the inert gas is displaced by product vacuum relief valves should be purged by venting
vapour before liquid is introduced. This prevents any to atmosphere and allowing the purge gas to flow
undercooling that may take place during the cool- through the lines until the required endpoints have
down. This is especially important for LPG tanks. been reached. All lines connected to the tank up
to the physical disconnection or to the position of
Table 2 Minimum temperature reached the blinds should be purged.
Min. Temp. °
C ABP °
C
After the purging has been completed the tank
Methane -180 -161
should be sealed-off and kept under a purge gas
Ethane -120 -89
atmosphere at a slight overpressure. It may be
Ethylene -130 -104
necessary to maintain the pressure in the tank by
Propane -80 -42
addition of purge gas at intervals.
Propylene -85 -48
N-butane -45 -1
Atmospheric pressure changes may cause venting
Butadiene -50 -5
and vacuum breathing with ingress of humid air if
purge gas is not topped up. The topping up purge
Note: The presence of an inert gas atmosphere
gas should be supplied directly into the inner tank.
results in low hydrocarbon partial pressure and
therefore a liquid boiling point significantly below
the atmospheric boiling point (ABP) of the liquid. 5.6 Commissioning of the tank
An estimation of the minimum temperature
heating system
reached by an inert or nitrogen atmosphere during
the initial stage of cool-down is summarised in
When a tank has been provided with a heating
Table 2.
system to protect the tank structure against frost-
heave, this system should be commissioned before
5.5.5 Drying and purging procedure
the cool-down operations start.
5.5.5.1 Inner tank and annular space

The set points of the heater controls and alarms
should be as follows:
The inner tank and the annular space should be
purged to an oxygen content of 5% volume or less
• the temperature control system should be
and dried to a water dew point of -27° C monitored
adjusted such that the concrete base slab
at the various sample points. For tanks with an
temperature under the inner tank shell is
annular space filled with perlite, the 27°C cannot
controlled between +5° C and +10° C; and
be obtained in a reasonably short time, so -10°C
• for temperature alarms, the low alarm should
has been deemed acceptable.
be +2° C and the high alarm 10°C above the
normal high reading temperature.
The insulation space, located under the inner tank
bottom, should be venting to atmosphere via vent
The normal high reading alarm should be adjusted
lines provided for this purpose. No specific oxygen
when the foundation temperatures have stabilised,
or dew point requirements are specified.
usually after a few months.
The heating system should not be immediately o the temperature indicators located at the
activated after cool-down. In the days following bottom and annular space, if applicable;
the cool-down, the foundation temperatures o the level instruments (servo/radar-
should be carefully monitored. operated and back-up level instruments)
and, where applicable, liquid detection
For additional information see EN 14620. instruments located in the annular space
(such as DP-level gauge);
• cold gas and liquid systems should be
5.7 Cool-down
operable. Cold liquid should be lined up to
5.7.1 General the cool-down liquid spray ring. Cold gas
should be lined up to the cold gas purge
During the cool-down operation, a full record piping system if present;
should be made of all temperatures, pressures and • line up the auxiliary systems;
levels relevant to the operation. • bottom heating should be put into operation;
• all hydrocarbon gas and liquid lines to/from
When the impurities present in the vent gas the tank should be connected and blinds
are acceptably low to prevent off specification removed; and
product in the tank and when the bottom • nitrogen supply to the tank should be
plate temperatures approach normal storage disconnected (except where used for
temperature, introduction of liquid product instrumentation).
through the normal inlet piping system can be
started.
5.7.3 Cool down rates
During cool-down, the temperature of points on

The tank cool-down operation is considered
the inner and outer surface of the tank wall and
complete when liquid has formed on the bottom
base should be monitored. The rate of flow of
of the tank to a depth specified by the designer.
cool-down liquid should be adjusted to ensure
5.7.2 Preparation for cool-down that temperature differentials remain within limits
specified by the designer.
The tank, its piping and all parts connected to the
tank, including the strainers, should be prepared
5.7.4 Cool down procedures
for cool-down as follows:
Warm gas should be introduced first. This should
prevent any undercooling that may take place.
• remove the temporary relief valve from the
spare relief valve position;
The inert gas should be vented to flare via the tank
• ensure that the pressure control system to
pressure control system. The vented gas should be
flare is operational;
analysed periodically to measure the purge gas and
• confirm the following instruments are
hydrocarbon concentrations until the required end
operational:
point has been reached. When the hydrocarbon
o pressure instruments on tank and cool
concentration of the vented gas is above 90%
down line;
volume, start the cooling by introduction of liquid
o the temperature indicators of the inner
through the cool-down spray ring.
tank shell and bottom;
When the composition of the vented gas reaches 5.9 Completion of

the design value, the boil-off compressor should
be lined up and taken into operation. The pressure commissioning
control of the tank should be adjusted to its normal
operating level. In cases where the vent gases are discharging into
a flare relief system, the boil-off compressor should
The cool-down rate should be monitored and, be lined up and taken into operation as soon as
in the case of the level exceeding that specified the composition of the vent gas has reached the
by the designer, the flow of liquid should be design specification.
temporarily stopped. When the temperature
indicators on the inner tank bottom reach the The pressure control system of the tank should be
normal storage temperature, accumulation of adjusted to its normal operating level.
liquid on the inner tank bottom should start. Once
the liquid height has reached the level specified The functioning of all instruments should be
by the designer further product can be introduced checked.
through the main inlet line. Cool down is
considered complete when filling via the main inlet The whole tank should be visually inspected for
line is possible. any irregularities such as leakage, cold spots and
physical defects. It is very important to maintain
an extra close watch on the tank operating
5.8 Commissioning of the conditions for a certain period of time, e.g. two
submerged pumps fillings. Shortcomings in tank construction,
instrumentation, insulation etc., may come to light
After the drying, purging and cool-down during the initial stages of tank operation.
operations of the tank have been completed and a
liquid level is established, the commissioning of the When all the above activities and operations have
pumps should be carried out as follows: been carried out, all systems and equipment
are functioning properly, the tank has been
• when the liquid level is around 3 metres commissioned and is in its normal operating
above the pump suction, start the pump. condition. Liquid flow can be increased to design
Verify correct pump rotation by measuring values.
pump performance, e.g. head versus current;
• after initial start of the pump, the tightness of
the cover flanges, hanger seals and flanges in
the discharge piping, should be checked; and
• start each loading/discharge pump in turn
and keep running for approximately 30
minutes.
6. Operations
6.1 Introduction 6.4 Tank heating system

The recommendations in the subsections The tank heating system should be operated
that follow are applicable to tanks storing all according to EN 14620- 1:2006 Clause 7.1.9, 7.1.10
refrigerated liquefied gases. Since the majority and Annex D. An alarm system should be provided
of tanks presently in service are single or double to monitor heater circuit failures not detected by
containment, the recommendations are based on the circuit breakers.
experience with these types, but can be applied to
other designs.
6.5 Liquid in annulus
6.2 Prevention of overpressure Liquid may enter the annular space between the
inner and outer tank due to spillage from the inner
LNG tanks normally have a maximum operating tank or a leak of the inner tank, both of which are
pressure of 80% to 85% of their design pressure. abnormal conditions. Liquid in the annulus may
The normal operating pressure is maintained by damage the outer tank and the insulation.
the boil-off compressor and gas/liquid supply.
If liquid is detected in the annulus, liquid removal
Relief systems are provided so that the pressure should be undertaken so that the level in the inner
cannot exceed the design pressure by more than tank is higher than in the annulus, to prevent
10%. This may require that the relief valves start to bulging of the tank bottom and other damage.
open at a lower pressure than the design pressure. Liquid in the annulus may be removed by pumping
Safety relief valves should vent to the atmosphere. where appropriate and if provisions have been
made for this. Small quantities of liquid may be
evaporated by hot gas or nitrogen flowing into a
6.3 Prevention of vacuum
purge ring or other entry point.
The gas/liquid supply maintains the pressure in

Detection of liquid in the annulus relies on
the normal operating pressure range. Should
monitoring of the under tank heating system and/
the pressure drop below this, then the boil-off
or in temperature sensors in the annulus.
compressor is designed to be tripped and liquid
removal from the tank stopped. In addition, a
vacuum breaking gas supply system may be used.
Vacuum relief valves should be set to open so that

the internal pressure does not fall to more than
2.5 mbar below the vacuum design pressure. This
is, however, an emergency condition which in
practice is unlikely to occur.
Inner Tank
Level in
Annulus
Bottom Bulging Upwards

Level in
Inner Tank
Resultant Liquid Pressure
Figure 18 Floating of the inner tank
6.6 Prevention of rollover preferentially at the liquid surface creating a

lower density top layer. This mechanism is
Rollover is when two stratified layers of different known as auto-stratification. Rollover can be
density spontaneously move to a stable prevented by keeping the nitrogen content
stratified position. For further discussion of this below 1% and/or by mixing the liquefied gas
phenomenon see EN 1160:1997(10). in the tank. The boil off should be monitored
as a large boil off may indicate that a roll over
The mechanisms by which these layers can is imminent; and
form and means of predicting, monitoring and • The addition of appropriate instrumentation
preventing are: like LTD instrument (Level, Temperature and
Density) will allow continuous monitoring
• a denser liquefied gas than the bottom heel of the level, temperature and density of the
is bottom filled, or a lighter liquefied gas stored product and predict whether a roll
than the heel is top filled. Rollover can be over may occur unless appropriate action is
prevented by appropriate top or bottom taken, e.g. mixing.
filling which results in mixing;
• liquefied gas containing a significant
amount of nitrogen (generally in excess of
1%) is stored in the tank. Nitrogen boils off
6.7 Refilling after maintenance 6.8 Prevention of condensation

After all repairs and inspections have been At certain locations, where the ambient
completed, the tank should be refilled using the temperature in winter can drop below the
commissioning procedure (See Chapter 5). atmospheric boiling point of the product, e.g. -5°C
for butane, condensation in the tank against the
underside of the roof will occur (See Figure 19).
Condensation - Dropping Down
Annular Condensation Protection
Suspended Roof
Drain Holes
Inner Tank
Liquid
Outer Tank
Figure 19 Typical example of condensation in dome roof for butane gas
Due to the condensation the pressure in the system and should be carried out before each
tank will drop. All operating conditions are to be winter. During the winter period regular sampling
evaluated so that regular opening of the vacuum should be done to check the composition of the
relief valves is prevented. Gas injection into the gas in the space between inner suspended roof
dome may be considered as an active protection and outer roof.
7. Maintenance and inspection
7.1 Introduction The following instruments should also be available:
The recommendations in the subsections • portable oxygen analysers;

that follow are applicable to tanks storing all • portable hydrocarbon detectors; and
refrigerated liquefied gases. Since the majority • barograph to measure atmospheric pressure
of tanks presently in service are single or double changes.
containment, the recommendations are based on
experience with these types, but can be applied to 7.3 Tank design and
other designs.
construction details
7.2 Safety In order to define the inspection requirements, the
following tank design and construction information
Before the start of decommissioning, the tank needs to be studied and taken into account:
should be cordoned off with warning signs
indicating that the tank is out of service. Areas • Full tank description including detailed
where hydrocarbon or inert gas can be expected drawings; and
should be clearly defined and signed, e.g. around • Detailed data sheets containing all relevant
vents or temporary relief valves etc. asbuilt information.
The following equipment should be available:

7.4 Operating history
• a flow meter to measure the purge medium
In order to define the inspection requirements, the
flow rate;
following operating history information needs to
• a temporary pressure relief valve with a
be studied and taken into account:
setting in the range of 30 to 50 mbarg or as
dictated by the approved decommissioning
• Information concerning instances of over-
procedure
pressure and under-pressure outside the tank
• pressure recorders;
design parameters;
• temporary piping to inject warm gas or
• Gas leakage or liquid spillage from fittings;
inert gas into the tank and to purge the tank
• Reports of operating difficulties, sticking
to flare, to a safe location or to the boil-off
valves, tank overfilling, frozen and plugged
compressor;
pipelines etc.;
• sampling equipment for monitoring and
• Mechanical damage to the tank, its
control of the purging operation;
accessories and adjacent piping;
• equipment/piping to purge the lines
• Any modification or refurbishment work; and
connected to the tank; and
• Any unusual temperature readings in
• inert gas and air supply systems (as
foundation heating systems (where
necessary).
applicable).
7.5 External inspection

7.5.2.2 Foundation Heating System
7.5.1 General
i) Examine randomly selected conduit
A thorough visual external inspection should be junction boxes for damage, etc.
carried out every 12 months. ii) Check condition of fuses.
iii) Check foundation heating controls.
During normal tank operation, plant operators iv) Compare ammeter readings for each phase
should immediately report to the inspection with original design values.
authority any abnormal condition or situation they v) Record voltage readings for each phase.
observe, e.g. leakage, abnormalities with the base vi) Check each thermocouple or remote
heating system, excessive vapour recovery, cold indicating device reading used to control
spots on shell or roof, instances of over or under- foundation heating. Compare with
pressure, etc. Any such reported abnormalities temperature indications in control room.
should be investigated as soon as possible. vii) Check switchgear operation.
viii) Check records of power consumption of
The external inspection should be carried out with heating system.
the tank in service and preferably with the tank in a ix) Check foundation heating records.
static condition, i.e. no fluid inflow or outflow and
the tank pressure within its normal operating limits. 7.5.2.3 Condition of Outer Tank
7.5.2 Inspection plan i) Check outer tank paint surface condition.

ii) Check paint condition on shell stiffeners,
7.5.2.1 Condition of Tank Foundation stairways, structural members and nozzles.
iii) Check for signs of distortion or damage to
i) Carry out level survey of outer shell-to- the shell or roof.
bottom junction or the foundation. This iv) Check for corrosion or mechanical damage
should be compared with original level at the bottom plate extension beyond the
survey when tank was constructed. shell, and at the anchor bolts and chairs.
Examine for any signs of buckling at the v) Check visually for frost or ice spots on the
base. outer shell or roof.
ii) Check condition of ring wall or pile cap vi) Carry out a thermographic survey on the
(cracked, spalled, exposed, etc.). outer tank to verify the general condition of
iii) Check drainage away from ring wall. the insulation.
iv) Check erosion settlement and frost heave of vii) Check condition and integrity of insulation
ground around tank foundation. cladding.
v) Check condition of grout around the outer
shell.
vi) For elevated piled tanks, check the
underside of the pile cap for ice in winter.
The junction of the pile to cap should be
examined for spalling, cracking and traces of
corrosive product from the reinforcing bar.
7.5.2.4 Nozzles and Piping 7.5.2.7 Other Fittings
i) Check for frost or ice build up on thermal i) Check and test the condition of any fire
distance pieces. protection device on the tank.
ii) Check the condition of any expansion ii) Check and test that steam lances are
bellows regarding corrosion, unusual functional (where fitted).
distort-ions, ice build up or other damage. iii) Check sources of possible liquid escape
iii) Check for rotation of nozzles. Movement which could impinge on the tank and
would indicate frost heave on the inner tank check condition of any protection devices
or deterioration of the foundation. provided e.g. mats, catchtrays, etc.
iv) Check pipe supports connections to roof or
shell.
7.6 Maintenance planning
v) Check piping insulation.
vi) Check condition and settings of spring
Typically, a storage tank is designed to operate
supports and compare with data sheet
such that it remains in service for many years.
settings.
However, a plan should be in place to define,
vii) Check trace heated nozzles and adjacent
action and record where necessary routine
piping for localised corrosion.
inspections and maintenance activities during the
operating life of the tank.
7.5.2.5 Structures
Check condition of roof platforms, walkways and 7.7 Review of tank performance
handrails.
Prior to major maintenance or inspection of the
7.5.2.6 Pressure and Vacuum Relief Valves and tank, a review of the tank operation should be
Instrumentation conducted.
i) Check pressure and vacuum relief valves for Attention should be focused on the following
icing, mechanical damage, corrosion and areas:
leakage.
ii) Check and test that steam lances are • review of operational history of the tank
functional (where fitted). structure, surrounds and ancillaries;
iii) Check sources of possible liquid escape • review of maintenance records since the last
which could impinge on the tank, and major inspection; and
check condition of any protection devices • note any reported incidents, for example,
provided, e.g. mats, catchtrays, etc. spillages.
7.8 Foundations
In this Section, the foundations are defined as the
base slab up to the first wall construction joint and
includes the area immediately surrounding the
tank at ground level.
7.8.1 Visual inspection Electrical checks should be carried out to identify

any deteriorating or damaged heating elements
The foundations should be inspected for evidence and they should be replaced as necessary. Test
of broken, spalled and cracked concrete. The data including insulation test, amperage and
condition of any crash barriers that provide leakage current measurements should be
protection to the base heaters should be noted compared with the as-built measurements to
and replaced and repaired as necessary. provide an indication of the extent of deterioration.
7.8.2 Paving and drainage 7.8.5 Product spillage collection sump

(where provided)
The area at base of tank should be checked for the
correct slope to encourage rain water to flow away Provision may have been made on some tanks for
from the tank. Any obstruction to the free flow of the collection of product spillage at the tank roof
water should be cleared and sunken areas repaired level and its drainage to a sump at ground level.
as necessary. In this case the sump should be subject to the
following inspection and maintenance:
7.8.3 Settlement
• remove tramp (unwanted detritus) material;
A set of settlement measurements should be made • inspect walls and base for indications of
for the base slab during construction, hydrotesting, leakage;
commissioning and periodically during the life of • inspect and test the level control and
the tank. The tank elevation should be measured at temperature monitoring system for adequate
a minimum of eight equally spaced target points on operation and carry out adjustments as
the periphery of the base slab. Two tubes placed on required; and
orthogonal axes in the base slab during construction • test the drainage system for correct
are used to measure the inclination of the base slab, operation.
the inclination being measured and recorded by an
inclinometer travelling through the two tubes. 7.8.6 Elevated bases
The settlement measurements should be repeated Elevating tank base slabs generally avoids the
and recorded for comparison with previous use of base heaters. The airspace can become a
measurements, using both the targets and trap for wind borne material which, if allowed to
inclinometers. accumulate, can bridge the space. The thermal
insulating properties of this material may lead to
7.8.4 Foundation heaters a lowering of the slab temperature which may
eventually affect the strength of the concrete
Note: Check the correct isolation of electrical reinforcement.
equipment prior to carrying out electrical checks.
Checks should be required to ensure that a safe
The seals at the external terminations of the base atmosphere is present in the airspace prior to entry.
heating conduits should be checked for signs of
water ingress and physical damage and the seal The underside of the tank slab should be inspected
repaired or replaced as necessary. for degradation of the concrete, particularly
cracking at the slab-to-pile cap junction.
The underside of the elevated slab should be 7.9.3 Thermal imaging

inspected for evidence of icing which may be
caused by a tank thermal insulation failure. In Infrared thermal imaging technology may be
these cases the degradation of the concrete and used to map the temperature profile of the outer
the possible failure of the thermal insulation system concrete surface of the tank. For example, this
should be evaluated by an appropriately qualified remote inspection technique is a valuable tool
engineer and repaired or monitored as advised. that can readily identify local cold spots caused by
bridging of the annular space insulation. Equally,
7.9 Wall thermal imaging may be used for temperature
profiling of the roof and under the base of an
In this Section, the wall is defined as the cylindrical elevated tank.
section connecting the base slab to the roof and
includes the buttresses and structural attachments. 7.10 Concrete roof
7.9.1 Visual inspection 7.10.1 Visual inspection
In addition to a general visual inspection of the The roof surface should be examined for evidence
walls, particular attention should be paid to the of concrete cracking and spalling. In particular,
areas where the tank wall may be susceptible to attention should be paid to the following areas:
deterioration in preference to the main structure.
• roof surface below the pressure relief valve
These areas include: vents, where heat damage may occur; and
• closures following formwork tie-bar removal; • the surface below the pump platform where
• construction joints; and accidental product spillage may have caused
• closure joint for the construction temporary local spalling of the reinforced concrete.
opening.
7.10.2 Rain water drainage (where
7.9.2 Buttresses provided)
The grouting associated with the closure of the Where roof rain water drains have been provided
pre-tensioning cables should be inspected for they should be checked to ensure that a free flow
cracking, loss of material and water ingress. Loose of water to ground level can be maintained. Pipes
material should be removed, surfaces prepared and that cannot be fully visually inspected should be
made good with grout. proved to be clear by another mechanism, for
example by flushing.
7.10.3 Operational fittings These access structures should be inspected and

maintained to ensure that correct fixing to the
Roof nozzles, particularly those in liquid supporting structure is maintained, protective
service should be inspected for indications of coatings are intact and that any corrosion is
deterioration. identified and eliminated. Structural fastenings
such as bolting, and tread and floor plate clips,
Deterioration of the seal between the nozzle and should be checked to ensure that they are secure
the concrete roof should be looked for. On liquid and that missing components are replaced.
lines, obvious deterioration may be indicated
by icing indicating a breakdown of the thermal 7.10.6 Roof platform
insulation.
Roof platforms constructed in reinforced
7.10.4 Protective coating and spill concrete as an integral part of the roof should be
protection (where provided) inspected for cracking, spalling and exposure of
steel reinforcement. Roof platforms fabricated
Where roof concrete protective coatings have been from structural steel should be thoroughly
provided they should be inspected for damage inspected noting that minor product spillage may
and repaired as necessary. Where provided, have degraded the structure and its corrosion
particular attention should be paid to the product protection. A visual inspection of structural steel
spill catchment system located below the pump (including load bearing fire-proofed members),
platform. This should be free of tramp material and floor plates, handrails and toe boards should be
tested to ensure liquid tightness and free drainage. undertaken as a basic requirement.
7.10.5 Access and emergency egress 7.11 Equipment items

Access to the tank roof normally includes the Items common to refrigerated liquefied gas storage
following structures: tanks include the piping, instrument and electrical
equipment, thermal insulation and mechanical
• main access stairway from grade to roof equipment. For guidance on the maintenance
platform; of these items, refer to EEMUA Publication 159
• the access walkways to the roof from the Appendix F.
pump platform;
• the emergency escape route (normally
located diametrically opposite the main roof 7.12 Inspection check list
access); and and suggested inspection
• a walkway round the roof periphery.
frequency
Table 3 gives a summary of the inspections
discussed above, together with a suggested
inspection frequency.
Table 3 Summary of inspections

Component Item Inspection Frequency
Foundation Concrete Inspect the foundations for evidence of broken, Annually
spalled or cracked concrete.
Crash barrier Check for damage. Ensure that they are fit for Six monthly
purpose .
Area at base Check area at base of tank slope, clear obstructions Annually
of tank and and repair depressions.
drainage
Settlement Repeat and record the settlement measurements Annually (see
for comparison with previous measurements using ACI 376)
both the targets and inclinometers.
Heater Check the seals at the external terminations of the Six monthly
base heaters for signs of water ingress and physical
damage and repair or replace the seal as necessary.
Carry out electrical checks to identify any
deteriorating or failed heating elements and replace
as necessary.
Spillage Remove tramp material. Six monthly
collection sump Inspect walls and base for indications of leakage.
(where provided) Inspect and test the level control and temperature
monitoring system for adequate operation and carry
out adjustments as required.
Test the drainage system for correct operation.
Elevated bases Check the air space between the underside of the Six monthly
tank slab and grade for build-up of tramp material.
Inspect the underside of the tank slab for
degradation of the concrete particularly cracking at
the slab/pile cap junction.
Inspect the underside of the elevated slab for
evidence of icing which may be caused by a tank
thermal insulation failure.
Component Item Inspection Frequency

Wall Concrete General visual inspection paying particular attention Annually
to: closures following formwork tie-bar removal;
construction joints; closure joint for the construction
temporary opening.
Buttresses Inspect the closure of the pre-tensioning cables for Annually
cracking, loss of material and water ingress.
Concrete and Thermal imaging Six months
buttresses after the tank is
in service and
at least annually
thereafter.
However,
thermal system
monitoring to
be done weekly
Roof Concrete Examine the roof surface for evidence of concrete Six monthly
cracking and spalling, paying particular attention to:
the surface below the pressure relief valve vents; the
surface below the pump platform.
Rain water Check roof rain water drains for free flow of water to Annually
drainage (where grade.
provided)
Operational Check for deterioration of the seal between the Annually
fittings nozzle and the concrete roof.
Check thermal insulation for indications of icing.
Protective Inspect roof concrete protective coatings for Six monthly
coatings and spill damage and repair as necessary.
containment Inspect spill catchment system located below the
(where provided) pump platform to ensure liquid tightness and free
drainage.
Access and Visually inspect for satisfactory fixing to the Six monthly
emergency supporting structure, damage to protective coatings
egress and corrosion.
Check structural fastenings, bolting, and tread and
floor plate clips
Roof platform Concrete platforms to be inspected for cracking, Six monthly
spalling and exposure of steel reinforcement.
abricated roof platforms to be inspected, noting that
minor spillage of product may have degraded the
structure and its corrosion protection.
Visual inspection of structural steel, floor plates,
handrails and toe boards.
7.13 Internal inspection From the roof manway, visually examine the
supporting rods of the suspended deck for any
7.13.1 General signs of distress. Any signs of deflection in the top
level of the insulation system located on the deck
The decommissioning and internal inspection of should be investigated further before access to the
RLG tanks is a potentially hazardous operation, suspended deck is provided.
especially for an open topped inner tank, and there
exists an associated risk of causing damage to the From the inner tank bottom examine the entire
tank and insulation system. Corrosion is known underside of the suspended deck for any unusual
not to occur in the dry, inert, low temperature distortion or potential problems. When it has been
conditions inside the tank. established that the suspended deck is intact the
full inspection of the deck may proceed.
No technical justification for conducting routine
internal inspections of RLG tanks can be provided 7.13.3 Inspection from suspended deck
so long as the tanks are operated within their
design/ operational limitations that should be The following checks should take place when
confirmed by the external inspection and the carrying out inspection from the suspended deck:
operating history.
• Check that support rods are not slack;
When the operating history of a certain liquefied • Examine roof structure visually for any
gas in refrigerated storage tanks indicates that the distortion or damage;
possibility of corrosion cannot be excluded, e.g. • Examine undersides of roof plates around
as stress corrosion has been experienced in some roof nozzles and other roof attachments;
refrigerated ammonia tanks, it is recommended • Examine the deck insulation for damage or
that the types of internal inspections and their depressed areas indicative of movement.
intervals are agreed between the user and the Measure depth and compare with original;
authorities. • Visually examine all piping between roof
and suspended deck. Particular attention
Where internal inspections are considered to be should be paid to distorted or bent pipes.
necessary, the following paragraphs suggest a Where pipe is insulated check the insulation
number of checks which may be carried out if so attachment to the pipe;
agreed. • Check perlite level in the annular space
between inner and outer shell for signs of
7.13.2 Initial inspection of suspended compacting (where relevant);
deck • Check the integrity of the seal between
suspended deck and inner shell; and
It is important for an initial inspection of the • Check all vent openings located in the deck
deck to be performed to ensure its integrity is to ensure that they are not blocked.
acceptable to permit a full inspection to proceed.
7.13.4 Inner tank inspection
The following checks should take place when

carrying out inner tank inspection:
• Check for the presence of deck insulation or

any other foreign matter on the bottom;
• Examine the bottom plate surface and
internal piping and supports for damage;
• Visually examine the bottom lap welds
annular plate butt welds, shell to bottom
welds and any attachments welded to the
bottom plates;
• Visually examine shell welds and shell plate
surfaces for any signs of corrosion;
• Examine the shell surface for any unusual
buckling or distortion. If shell nozzles are
present, crack detect any shell nozzle welds;
• Make a level survey across at least four
diameters. Also survey any raised or
depressed areas to determine whether
settlement or heave has occurred;
• Survey the level of the annular plates at the
shelltobottom junction to determine whether
the shell support foundation is intact;
• Leak test the bottom and shelltobottom
welds with a vacuum box; and
• Carry out ultrasonic thickness survey of the
shell strakes, the annular plates and the
bottom plates.
8. De-commissioning
8.1 Introduction Documents available from the American Gas

Association (AGA)(11),(12),(13) give useful information
This Chapter discusses the procedures which and recommendations for the decommissioning of
should be undertaken to ensure that a double refrigerated tanks.
concrete storage tank is safely decommissioned
through removal of the liquid and purging the tank Note: Enquiries regarding references (12) to (14)
to inert air or atmospheric air. should be directed to AGA.
8.1.1 Need for Decommissioning 8.1.2 Duration
In general, decommissioning of refrigerated gas Total time required to carry out tank
storage tanks should be carried out only when decommissioning depends mainly on the size and
required by authorities, or for repairs, as there is type of tank concerned
always added risk associated with warm-up and
cool-down operations.
8.1.3 Liquid removal
8.1.3.1 Removal of liquid by pumping

When decommissioning a tank, external inspection
methods and instrumentation control, e.g.
In the abnormal case that liquid is present in the
temperature measurement, ice formation, boil-off
annular space, this liquid should be removed first.
measurements, etc., should be used to monitor the
It should be ensured that the liquid level in the
condition of the tank.
annulus is always below that in the inner tank to
prevent floating of the inner tank, bulging of the
Normally, decommissioning comprises the
tank bottom and other damage.
procedure involved in converting the tank from
operating conditions into an ambient state (with
The cold liquid inlet lines, e.g. rundown, circulation
breathable atmospheric conditions.
lines etc., should be isolated. Warm product lines, if
However, if the work to be undertaken inside
any, should remain in service to prevent a vacuum
the tank is not extensive, e.g. small repairs or
in the tank.
only inspection, then the decommissioning may
be limited to placing the tank under an inert
The liquid should be transferred to another storage
atmosphere. The internal work to be carried
tank or ship, initially with loading pumps and finally
out should follow stringent safety procedures.
with the circulation pump, if available.
Specialist firms should be involved.
During the last phase of pumping, flow should

Decommissioning is the responsibility of the
gradually be reduced to avoid pump cavitation
owner. The process involves four essential but
with the low flow protection valves closed.
separate operational steps, carried out in the
However, this flow should never be below the
following sequence:
minimum continuous flow of the pump required
to maintain pump prime as indicated on the
• removal of the stored liquid;
performance curve of the pump. Pumping should
• warming-up of the tank;
always be stopped as soon as cavitation is detected
• purging with nitrogen; and
(e.g. by ammeter, noise, vibrations, unstable flow).
• purging with air.
The liquid level at the end of the pump-out phase During these operations the inner tank
should be as low as possible, since vaporising the temperatures should be monitored and controlled.
liquid is a time consuming process. Vaporisation may be considered completed when
all the TI s are 10°
C above the product boiling
8.1.3.2 Removal of liquid by vaporisation point.
The remaining liquid in the tank can only be 8.1.4 Purging

removed by vaporisation. The liquid risers should
be isolated at the main pipe track by closing the 8.1.4.1 General
block valves at the tie-in points. If the block valves
are left open at the connections to the tank roof, The displacement process is difficult to apply
liquid cannot vaporise to the transfer tank but will when purging the tank into air, as the density of
go back into the tank. the inert gas (normally nitrogen) does not differ
significantly from air so that mixing can take place
The vaporisation rate can be accelerated by to a considerable extent.
supplying additional heat into the tank. This can
be done by the following methods: Purging of an annular space which contains
perlite is more complex, as the perlite powder is a
• heating the concrete bottom slab with granular, finely divided, material with vapour in the
any available electrical heating system; interstitial spaces (voids and pores). Hydrocarbons
continuous heating should be used; are also absorbed onto the surface of the perlite
• injection of hot gas (see below) into the particles. Therefore the temperature of the perlite
liquid risers and the inner tank, as close bed should be warmed up to near ambient
as possible to the bottom to ensure good temperatures to remove the hydrocarbons
vapour/liquid contact. At a later stage, absorbed onto the perlite surface. The inert gas
injection of hot gas into the annular space may also, preferentially, flow through the resilient
(not recommended if perlite filled) may be blanket rather than through the perlite bed.
introduced, but this should be monitored
carefully to prevent condensation and/ The required volume of inert gas should be 1.5
or over-pressuring. This hot gas can be to 5 times the outer tank volume to accomplish a
supplied by the liquefaction plant, the feeder satisfactory tank purge.
or the boil-off compressor; in the latter
case the possibility of a high temperature 8.1.4.2 Purging a tank from a hydrocarbon
trip of the boil-off compressor should be atmosphere to an inert atmosphere
considered; and
• injection of dry nitrogen in the same way as The purpose of inerting (creating an inert
for hot gas . However, this procedure should atmosphere) is to avoid the presence of any
be applied carefully to butane/propane tanks flammable hydrocarbon/air mixture in the tank
to avoid the risk of sub-cooling of the inner during subsequent air purging. It can also be used
tank. as a method for allowing entrance for inspection
or minor repair , using the appropriate safety
procedures.
The complete tank should be purged, including Table 4 Combustible gas and points for purging
the inner tank, outer tank, dome space and all Recommended percentage of combustible gas
insulation materials, e.g. perlite, glass wool, sand below which no mixture is flammable when air
etc. Since continued desorption of hydrocarbons is added in any amount
from the insulation materials can be expected
Purge medium CO2 N2
to take place over an extended period, sampling
Hydrocarbon % volume % volume
during the latter stages must be carried out
Methane * 11.0
carefully using appropriate safety procedures.
Ethane 9.0 5.0
Ethylene * 5.0
On LNG tanks, the purge operation has to be
Propane 9.0 5.0
carried out up to ambient temperature in order
Propene * 3.0
to achieve hydrocarbon desorption from the
Butane 7.0 4.0
perlite. As a guide, it is useful to predict an order
Butadiene * 4.0
of magnitude of the diffusion rate and of the time
Isobutane 7.0 4.0
required to purge the annular space into nitrogen.
Pentane 3.0 2.0
It is a suitable method to control the progress of the * Not applicable (no CO2 purge)
purge operation by determining the hydrocarbon To allow a higher degree of safety, it is
concentration in the tank. Representative samples recommended to apply a safety factor of 50% on
should be taken frequently from the vent pipes the allowable combustible concentration
and from a number of locations representative of
conditions in all parts of the tank. It should be noted that the recommended
endpoints in Table 4 are a percentage of the
In the latter stages, inert gas flow is stopped and theoretical value due to:
samples are taken after a soak period of one or two
days, in order to detect any further desorption and • the uncertainty of obtaining representative
possible migration of hydrocarbons. samples; and
• the risk of trapped hydrocarbon.
The hydrocarbon content can be determined by
laboratory analysis or by gas detectors. The gas 8.1.4.3 Purging tanks from an inert atmosphere into
detector devices should be of a type suitable to an air atmosphere
ensure accurate hydrocarbon detection in an
atmosphere without oxygen. The purpose of purging into air is to allow entry for
inspection and/or repair under normal atmospheric
At the end of purging, hydrocarbon content in conditions without the use of breathing apparatus.
inert gas should be such that during subsequent This purge should be extended to all spaces of the
purging with air, the tank atmosphere remains tank.
non-flammable. The maximum allowable levels of
hydrocarbons to ensure a non-flammable mixture,
as determined by the US Bureau of Mines are
given in Table 4. Hydrocarbon end points (20% of
theoretical value) are indicated, according to the
purge medium.
Continuous desorption of hydrocarbons and 8.2 Decommissioning

nitrogen from the porous insulation materials
can be expected. Dry air should be used. It is procedure
convenient to control this purge operation by
determining the oxygen content of representative
8.2.1 Outline of decommissioning
samples taken under the same conditions as
In general, the decommissioning comprises the
during the inert gas purge.
following main steps:
Purging into air is considered to be complete
• removal of liquid by means of pumping;
when, after a soak period of one or two days,
• tank isolation (Stage 1): liquid lines into the
the oxygen content of samples remains at 21%
tank should be isolated by closing the block
volume, taking into account the risks of trapped
valves at the tie-in point with the main pipe
hydrocarbon/inert gas mixture and the uncertainty
track;
of obtaining representative samples.
• vaporisation of remaining liquid in the tank
8.1.5 Warm-up and associated piping;
• tank isolation (Stage 2): with the exception
Warm-up of LPG tanks takes place by the normal of pressure relief valve connection(s) and hot
heat in-leak and by the purge gas during the gas lines used for warm-up of LNG tanks, all
inerting. other vapour and liquid lines are spaded off;
• inerting and warm-up of the complete tank;
Warm-up of LNG tanks is more cumbersome • removal of submerged pumps (if necessary);
because of the low storage temperature and large • tank isolation (Final Stage): all associated lines
quantities of perlite insulation material. are physically isolated by spades or blinds;
and
Stresses in the inner tank bottom and shell plates • purging with air.
should be controlled by adhering to the following
limits:
8.2.2 Procedure
The decommissioning procedure should include

Maximum temperature rise should not exceed a
the following items:
rate of 5°C per hour for all refrigerated product
tanks as monitored at each temperature indicator
• a listing of the temporary auxiliary
point, a target rate of approximately 3° C per hour is
equipment, instruments and piping required
recommended;
to monitor/record and carry out the
emptying and purging operations;
• any special safety/classification requirements
as regards the equipment and procedures,
together with a checklist for daily follow up;
• step-by-step operating instructions with
schematics detailing the procedures to be
followed;
• a spade/blind list indicating the timing and
location of all spade and blind installation;
• an arrow diagram indicating timing and 8.2.4 Liquid removal by pumping

critical path activities; and
• an organogram showing the parties and 8.2.4.1 Assumed status
personnel involved and their respective
responsibilities. The tank is assumed to be in a operating condition
with the pressure being automatically controlled, the
8.2.3 Equipment and instruments boil-off gas routed to the boil-off compressor and the
circulation of tank contents being maintained.
Before the start of decommissioning, the tank
should be cordoned off with warning signs 8.2.4.2 No liquid in the annular space (normal)
indicating that the tank is out of service. Areas
where hydrocarbon or inert gas can be expected The following steps to remove the liquid should be
should be clearly defined and signed, e.g. around taken:
vents or temporary relief valves etc.
• cold liquid entrance is prevented by closing
The following equipment should be available: the block valves at the tie-in point from
the main pipe track, but all the other valves
• a flow meter to measure the purge medium downstream of these block valves are left
flow rate; open to allow liquid vaporisation into the tank;
• a temporary PRV with a setting in the range • transfer the liquid to another tank or ship
of 30 to 50 mbarg; with loading or loading pumps down to the
• pressure recorders; low-level alarms and then stop these pumps;
• temporary piping to inject warm gas or • pump-out of the liquid is continued with
inert gas into the tank and to purge the tank the circulation pump only. Any switch
to flare, to a safe location or to the boil-off to another tank or ship should be done
compressor; without stopping this circulation pump, the
• sampling equipment for monitoring and protection for low-level alarm cut-out should
control of the purging operation; be overridden;
• equipment/piping to purge the lines • reduce the pump-out flow gradually, keeping
connected to the tank; and the low-flow bypass valve closed. However,
• inert gas and air supply systems (as the flow rate should never be below the
necessary). minimum continuous flow required to
maintain pump prime as indicated on the
The following instruments should also be available: performance curve of the pump. If no
indication is given on the performance curve,
• portable oxygen analysers; a minimum of 25% of the flow at the pump s
• portable hydrocarbon detectors; and rated duty point capacity should be assumed;
• barograph to measure atmospheric pressure • during the last two steps, close supervision
changes. should be exercised and the pump should
be stopped as soon as any abnormal
phenomenon, e.g. vibration, unstable flow,
unstable absorbed power or cavitation is
noticed; and
• the liquid level at the end of this pump-out The set point of the electrical heating system may
phase should be as low as possible since be adjusted to enhance vaporisation. Gradually
liquid vaporisation is a time consuming inject hot gas or nitrogen into the inner tank
process. A minimum level between 20 through the purge pipe or a pump well. Control
and 30 cm would generally be considered the gas flow so as to ensure that the specified
acceptable, i.e. down to approximately the rate of temperature increase is not exceeded.
foot valve opening. The boil-off gas is sent preferentially to the boil-
off compressor. The de superheater should be
8.2.4.3 Liquid in the annular space (abnormal) checked to see if it is working properly to allow
for the higher temperature of the boil-off gas.
In order to prevent lifting of the inner tank, The tank pressure is controlled by the pressure
the liquid level in the annular space must be control system to the boil-off compressor and to
maintained lower than that of the inner tank. On the flare. Vaporisation is complete when all TIs of
LPG tanks, a pump well is normally provided in the inner tank bottom plates are 10° C above the
the annular space. After installation of a pump, product boiling point, although some small liquid
liquid removal from the annular space and possibly pockets can still remain. All outer tank bottom
the inner tank may start. No pumping facilities temperatures should be above 0° C to ensure there
are provided in the annular space of LNG tanks. is no liquid remaining underneath the inner tank.
Vaporisation is the primary means of removal.
8.2.7 Tank isolation (Stage 2)
8.2.5 Tank isolation (Stage 1)
During this operation, the tank pressure remains
The following steps should be taken: controlled by a PCV to the flare, and the relief
system to atmosphere. The flare is still in service.
• close all block valves of the rundown line,
warm product line, unloading line, circulation The following steps should be taken:
line, pump discharge line;
• relevant valves should be locked closed and/ • spade-off all liquid lines at the tie-in point
or MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) fuses taken out; at the main pipe track
and Note: those lines previously spaded in Stage
• the pumps should be electrically 1 of tank isolation should be thoroughly
disconnected. rechecked;
• purge with nitrogen the part of these lines
8.2.6 Vaporisation of remaining liquid downstream of the blinds into the tank.
Ensure that control valves are open initially
The remaining liquid in the tank and in the and then closed so that all bypass lines are
attached lines can only be removed by purged; and
vaporisation which is a time consuming process. • close the block valves at the connection to
During this operation, the TI s of the inner tank the tank after purging.
shell and bottom, and the temperatures of the
concrete wall and bottom slab should be recorded
on an hourly basis. The tank should be still
protected against overpressure and vacuum.
8.2.8 Inerting and warm-up of tank • periodically stop nitrogen injection and
analyse the hydrocarbon content in the
8.2.8.1 Monitoring annular space after a soak period of about six
hours. Control the flow of nitrogen according
During this phase, TIs of the inner should be to the purging efficiency.
controlled within the limits specified.
Purging should continue until the required end-
The following measurements should be monitored points are obtained.
and recorded:
Purge all tank piping systems, process pipes,
• the temperature indicators of the inner instrumentation pipes, dead ends, etc., and pump
tank shell and bottom (hourly) and the wells.
temperatures of the concrete bottom slab
(per shift); Inerting is completed when, after a soak period
• the vapour temperature (hourly); of one or two days at ambient temperature, the
• the pressure in the different parts of the tank hydrocarbon content of all samples remain below
(hourly); the LFL (Lower Flammability Limit).
• the pressure differential between spaces
above and below the inner tank bottom plate 8.2.9 Simultaneous decommissioning of
and the bottom liner (hourly); and submerged pumps
• the hydrocarbon content in the purged
vapour and inside the tank (once per shift). Before the tank is purged into air, submerged
pumps should be removed according to the
8.2.8.2 Procedure following steps:
During this step, i.e. inerting with nitrogen, install • ensure the pump is electrically disconnected
all necessary temporary connections. from the supply (switchgear house);
• disconnect the pump from the electrical
The following steps should be taken for inerting system at the junction box;
with nitrogen and warm-up: • raise the pump, thereby closing the foot
valve;
• nitrogen is injected into the bottom of the • remove the cover plate;
inner tank via the purge pipe. The nitrogen • remove the pump from the well; and
flow should be controlled manually to • close the well gain.
meet the boil-off compressor capacity and
temperature constraint; All pumps should be prepared for storage in the
• the boil-off compressor should be stopped, workshop, i.e. they should be dried and cleaned.
the tank isolated and the hydrocarbon/ Replacement of the bearings before re-installing
nitrogen mixture sent to the flare; the pumps in the tank should be considered.
• when the hydrocarbon content in the purged Pumps and electrical/support cables should be
gas from the inner tank is below 5% volume, kept clean and dry by storing in plastic bags
purging of the annular and insulation bottom (vapour tight) with desiccant inside.
space may start; and
8.2.10 Tank isolation (final stage) reaches an acceptable level, gradually open
the annular space purge line and insulation
All lines are to be isolated from the tank by a bottom space to atmosphere;
physical air gap or positive isolation. The tank • regularly check the oxygen content of the
remains protected against overpressure by the annular space by stopping air purging for
relief system and against vacuum by the vacuum about six hours and test for drop in oxygen
breakers. level;
• when the oxygen content of all samples
The following steps should be taken: is above an acceptable level, close all the
purge lines and isolate the temporary relief
• install a temporary PRV with a setting in valve. The tank remains protected against
the range of 30 to 50 mbarg on the spare overpressure by the process relief valves to
vacuum breaker nozzle or other nozzle atmosphere;
connected to the dome space; • slowly increase the tank pressure to value just
• slowly reduce the pressure in the tank to (to below the relief valve setting by injecting air;
prevent lifting of the bottom plates) in order • purge to atmosphere all tank piping, process
to allow spading; pipes, instrumentation pipes, dead ends etc.;
• close all block valves in the vapour lines at • air purging is completed when after a soak
the tie-in point with the main pipe track and period of one or two days, the oxygen
on the top of the tank; purge these lines with content of all samples is at an acceptable
nitrogen; and level;
• space-off all lines as close as possible to the • upon completion of air purging and before
tank roof. Ensure there is good ventilation first entrance, gradually decrease the pressure
with air during this operation in order after which the manholes can be opened;
to avoid suffocation risks. Gas masks or and
breathing apparatus should be worn. • the first entrance into the tank is then
possible.
8.2.11 Purging into air
Note: Hydrocarbons may still be trapped in the
Dry air is required for this operation. In order to bottom insulation space.
enhance the piston effect the air temperature
should be as low as possible. During the period that the LNG tank is out of
operation, dry air must be supplied continuously to
Purging into air should entail the following steps: the annular space in order to dilute and purge any
desorbed hydrocarbons and keep the perlite dry.
• all purge lines from the annular space and the Depending on the work and the time involved in
insulation bottom space are closed; the activities to be carried out, it may be decided to
• inject air gradually into the inner tank change the supply of dry air to ambient air in this
through the purge line. Nitrogen/air is part of the tank, providing the insulation can be
vented through the temporary pressure relief kept dry.
valve;
• when the oxygen content of the purged gas
vented through the temporary relief valve
References 11. Purging Principles and Practice, American Gas

Association (AGA), 2001, AGA Report XK0101
1. EEMUA 207 Double concrete tanks for liquefied 12. The Decommissioning, Inspection and
gas. Guide to design, construction and Modification of LNG Storage Facilities, Chicago
operation, EEMUA, 2009 Bridge and Iron Company, P.E. Duus, G.E.Riley,
2. ACI 376-11 Code Requirements for Design and I.V. Lafave, 1983
Construction of Concrete Structures for the 13. Purging LNG Tanks Into and Out of Service:
Containment of Refrigerated Liquefied Gases, Consideration and Experience, Chicago Bridge
American Concrete Institute, 2013 and Iron Company, C.E. Hanke, I.V. Lafave, L.F.
3. EEMUA 190 Guide for the design, construction Litzinger, 1974
and use of Mounded Horizontal Cylindrical
Steel Vessels for Pressurised Storage of LPG at
Ambient Temperatures, EEMUA, 2005
4. EN 14620:2006 Design and manufacture of site
built, vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed steel
tanks for the storage of refrigerated, liquefied
gases with operating temperatures between
0° C and -165° C.
Part 1: General
Part 2: Metallic components (2011)
Part 3: Concrete components
Part 4: Insulation components
Part 5: Testing, drying, purging and cool-
down
5. API 625 Tank systems for refrigerated liquefied
gas storage, Edition 1, 2010
6. API 620 Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, 11th
Edition, 2012
7. EN 1473:2007 Installation and equipment
for liquefied natural gas. Design of onshore
installations
8. NFPA 59A: Standard for the Production, Storage,
and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG),
2013
9. PD CLC/TR 50427:2004 Assessment of
inadvertent ignition of flammable atmospheres
by radio-frequency radiation. Guide
10. EN 1160:1997 Installations and equipment for
liquefied natural gas. General characteristics of
liquefied natural gas
Related standards BS 5387 Specification for vertical cylindrical welded

storage tanks for low-temperature service: double-
These guidelines make reference to the following wall tanks for temperatures down to -196° C
related standards for the selection and design of (superseded by BS 7777:1993 Parts 1 -4)
tanks covered by this document.
BS 6656 Assessment of inadvertent ignition of
API 620 Q and R cover the design requirements for flammable atmospheres by radio-frequency
steel primary (inner) tanks and the steel parts of the radiation. Guide (superseded by PD CLC/TR
secondary (outer) tank. 50427:2004)
Appendix Q Low pressure storage tanks for
liquefied hydrocarbon gases BS 7777 Flat-bottomed, vertical, cylindrical storage
Appendix R Low pressure storage tanks for tanks for low temperature service. (superseded by
refrigerated products EN 14620-1:2006)
Part 1: Guide to the general provisions applying
Guide to Good Practice FIP/3/6 of the FIP for design, construction, installation and
organisation has been used as a basis for the design operation
requirement of pre-stressed concrete tanks. FIP ‒ Part 2: Specification for the design and
Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte merged construction of single, double and full
with CIB ‒ Comité Euro-International du Béton to containment metal tanks for the storage of
form Fédération Internationale du Béton (FIB) liquefied gas at temperatures down to -165° C
Part 3: Recommendations for the design and
Safety requirements are based on the Energy construction of prestressed and reinforced
Institute code for LPG, NFPA 59A for LNG and CIA concrete tanks and tank foundations, and for
Code of Practice for Large Scale Storage of Fully the design and installation of tank insulation,
Refrigerated Anhydrous Ammonia. tank liners and tank coatings
Part 4: Specification for the design and
EN 1992 Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. construction of single containment tanks for
General rules and rules for buildings the storage of liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen
and liquid argon
BS 6031 Code of Practice for earthworks, 2009,
ISBN 978 0 580 72749 8 BS 8004 Code of practice for foundations
(superseded by EN 1994-1:2004)
Withdrawn Standards that have been used on
existing tanks in the past BS 8007 Code of practice for design of concrete
structures for retaining aqueous liquids
BS 4741 Specification for vertical cylindrical welded (superseded by EN 1992-3:2006)
steel storage tanks for low-temperature service:
single-wall tanks for temperatures down to -50° C BS 8110. Structural use of concrete Code of practice
(superseded by BS 7777:1993 Parts 1 -4) for design and construction (superseded by EN
1992-1-1:2004)
BS 5337 Code of practice for the structural use of
concrete for retaining aqueous liquids (superseded BS CP 2004 Code of practice for foundations
by BS 8007:1987) (superseded by BS 8004:1986)
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earthquake resistance
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BS 4482 Steel wire for the reinforcement of Energy Institute, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Volume
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précontrainte. and handling of liquefied
FIP/3/6 1982* Preliminary recommendations for petroleum gas (LPG)
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BS 874: 1973 (1980) Methods for determining pipework and equipment
thermal insulating properties, BS 5970: 1981 Code of practice for thermal
with definitions of thermal insulation of pipework
insulating terms and equipment (in the
BS 2972: 1975 (1984) Methods of test for inorganic temperature range of ‒100° C
thermal insulating materials to +87° C)
BS 2989: 1982 Specification for continuously ASTM E 96 Water vapour transmission of
hot-dip zinc coated and iron materials
zinc alloy coated steel: wide ANSI C 165 Compressive properties of
strip, sheet/plate and slit thermal insulations
wide strip ANSI C 177 Steady-state thermal
BS 3177: 1959 (1969) Method of determining the transmission properties by
permeability to water vapour means of a guarded hot plate
of flexible sheet materials ANSI C 203 Breaking load and
used for packaging calculated flexural strength
BS 3533: 1981 Glossary of thermal insulating of preformed block-type
terms thermal insulation
BS 3927: 1965 (1967) Phenolic foam materials ASTM C 240 Cellular glass insulating block
for thermal insulations and ASTM C 303 Density of preformed block-
building applications type thermal insulation
BS 3958: Specification for thermal ANSI/ASTM C 547 Mineral fibre preformed pipe
insulating materials insulation
Part 1 to Part 6 ASTM C 548 Dimensional stability of low-
BS 4370: Methods of tests for rigid temperature thermal block
cellular materials and pipe insulation
Part 1 to Part 3 ANSI/ASTM C 552 Cellular glass block and pipe
BS 5111: (Part 1) Laboratory methods of test thermal insulation
for determination of smoke ANSI C 591 Rigid preformed cellular
generation characteristics of urethane thermal insulation
cellular plastics and cellular ANSI C 592 Mineral fibre blanket
rubber materials insulation and blanket type
pipe insulation (metal-mesh
covered) (industrial type)
ANSI/ASTM D 2341 Rigid urethane foam

ANSI D 2863 Minimum oxygen
concentration to support
candle-like combustion of
plastics (oxygen index)
ISO 2896 Rigid cellular plastics-
determination of water
absorption
* Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte

(HP), c/o Institution of Structural Engineers, 11
Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BH.
** National Fire Protection Association, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA.
*** Published by Eyre & Spottiswoode
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EEMUA Publications Catalogue 222 Guide to the Application of IEC 61511 to

Safety Instrumented Systems in the UK
All EEMUA Publications can be purchased on-line. Process Industries
To order a Publication, please contact EEMUA at 214 Toolbox Guide - Electrical Installation,
www.eemua.org, telephone: +44 (0)20 7488 0801, Inspection and Maintenance in Potentially
fax: +44 (0)20 7488 3499 or Explosive Atmospheres
e-mail: sales@eemua.org. List complete at time of
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publication list. Human-Computer Interfaces - A Guide to
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Issues
Asset and integrity
management 191 Alarm Systems - A Guide to Design,
Management and Procurement
232 Specifying, procuring & managing 3rd party
inspection service 189 A Guide to Fieldbus Application for the
Process Industry
231 The Mechanical Integrity of Plant Containing
Hazardous Substances: A Guide to Periodic 187 Analyser Systems - A Guide to Maintenance
Examination and Testing Management
206 Risk Based Inspection: A Guide to Effective 186 A Practitioner s Handbook - Electrical
Use of the RBI Process Installation, Inspection and Maintenance in
Potentially Explosive Atmospheres
193 Recommendations for the Training,
Development and Competency Assessment 178 A Design Guide for the Electrical Safety
of Inspection Personnel of Instruments, Instrument/Control Panels
and Control Systems
181 A Guide to Risk Based Assessments of In-situ
Large Ex e and Ex N Machines 175 Code of Practice for Calibration and
Validation of Process Analysers
161 Guide to the Selection and Assessment of
Silencers and Acoustic Enclosures 155 Standard Test Method for Comparative
Performance of Flammable Gas Detectors
159 Users Guide to the Inspection, Maintenance against Poisoning
and Repair of Above-ground Vertical
Cylindrical Steel Storage Tanks 138 Design and Installation of On-Line Analyser
Systems
148 Reliability Specification - Model clauses
for inclusion in purchasing Specifications for Materials selection, plant
equipment items and packages
design and construction
Automation and electrical 224 Quality assurance of safety-critical
equipment engineering equipment and materials:
A guide to risk-based procurement
226 Design and installation of on-line analyser
systems - a guide to technical enquiry and 218 Quality requirements for the manufacture/
bid evaluation supply of duplex stainless steels
197 Specification for the Fabrication of 105 Factory Stairways, Ladders and Handrails
Non-Primary Structural Steelwork for (incl: Access Platforms/Ramps)
Offshore Installations
104 Noise: A Guide to Information required from
194 Guidelines for Materials Selection and Equipment Vendors
Corrosion Control for Subsea Oil and Gas
Production Equipment 101 Lifting Points - A Design Guide
185 Guide for Hot Tapping on Piping and other

Equipment Pressure equipment
182 Specification for Integral Block and Bleed 223 Pressure equipment testing after repair,
Valve Manifolds for Direct Connection to modifications or re-rating: a guide to the
Pipework pressure test waiver
179 A Working Guide for Carbon Steel 211 Guidance on the Specification of pressure
Equipment in Wet H2S Service vessels
176 Specification for Structural Castings for Use 208 Guide to life-cycle management of
Offshore Pressure
158 Construction Specification for Fixed 204 Piping and the European Pressure
Offshore Structures in the North Sea Equipment Directive: Guidance for Plant
Owners/Operators
154 Guidance to Owners on Demolition of
Vertical Cylindrical Steel Storage Tanks and 196 Valve Purchasers Guide to the European
Storage Spheres Pressure Equipment Directive
149 Code of Practice for the Identification and 184 Guide to the Isolation of Pressure Relieving
Checking of Materials of Construction in Devices
Pressure Systems in Process Plants
177 Guide to the UK Pressure Systems Safety
147 Recommendations for the Design and Regulations (2000)
Construction of Refrigerated Liquefied Gas
Storage Tanks 168 A Guide to the Pressure Testing of In-Service
Pressurised Equipment
234 90/10 copper nickel alloy piping for offshore
applications (Incorporating EEMUA 144, 145 149 Code of Practice for the Identification and
and 146) Checking of Materials of Construction in
Pressure Systems in Process Plants
141 Guide to the Use of Noise Procedure
Specification
140 Noise Procedure Specification
133 Specification for Underground Armoured

Cable Protected against Solvent Penetration
and Corrosive Attack
Process pipework, valves and Storage and containment

machinery systems
230 Ageing rotating equipment: Guide for 217 Safe and effective operation of storage
maintenance and operation tanks for oil movements
213 Emission reduction from oil storage tanks
215 Industrial Cooling Tower Fans and and loading operations
Fin Fans ‒ Guide for Design, Maintenance
and Operation 207 Double Concrete Tanks for Liquefied Gas:
Guidelines on design, construction and
205 Guide to the Production Testing of operation
Valves for the Energy, Process, Oil and Gas
Industries 190 Guide for the Design, Construction and
Use of Mounded Horizontal Cylindrical
204 Piping and the European Pressure Bulk Storage Vessels for Pressurised LPG at
Equipment Directive: Guidance for Plant Ambient Temperatures
Owners/Operators
183 Guide for the Prevention of Bottom Leakage
200 Guide to the Specification, Installation and from Vertical Cylindrical Steel Storage Tanks
Maintenance of Spring Supports for Piping
180 Frangible Roof Joints for Fixed Roof Storage
199 On-Line Leak Sealing of Piping - Guide to Tanks: Guide for Designers and Users
Safety Considerations
159 Users Guide to the Inspection, Maintenance
196 Valve Purchasers Guide to the European and Repair of Above ground Vertical
Pressure Equipment Directive Cylindrical Steel Storage Tanks
192 Guide for the Procurement of Valves for Low 154 Guidance to Owners on Demolition of
Temperature (non-cryogenic) Service Vertical Cylindrical Steel Storage Tanks and
Storage Spheres
188 Guide for Establishing Operating Periods of
Safety Valves 147 Recommendations for the Design and
Construction of Refrigerated Liquefied Gas
185 Guide for Hot Tapping on Piping and other Storage Tank
Equipment
182 Specification for Integral Block and Bleed

Valve Manifolds for Direct Connection to
Pipework
164 Seal-less Centrifugal Pumps: Class 1
151 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps and

Compressors

EEMUA 147 Recommendations for refrigerated liquefied storage tanks.

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EEMUA 147 Recommendations for refrigerated liquefied storage tanks.

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Recommendations for refrigerated

liquefied gas storage tanks

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1.1 Scope .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Categorisation of storage systems ...................................................................................................................2

2.1 Deﬁnitions of containments .................................................................................................................................................................... 2

3. Design considerations .................................................................................................................................... 13

3.1 Design ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

4. Hydrostatic and leak testing .......................................................................................................................... 21

5. Tank Commissioning ...................................................................................................................................... 22

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

7. Maintenance and inspection.......................................................................................................................... 32

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

7.10.5 Access and emergency egress.............................................................................................................................................. 37

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Related standards ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 51

EEMUA Publication: Feedback Form .................................................................................................................. 55

EEMUA Publications Catalogue .......................................................................................................................... 56

Table 1 Oxygen concentration end-points for purging from air..................................................................................................... 25

Early designs of tanks for refrigerated liqueﬁed Background

1.1 Scope Contractor

Purchaser Cryogenic temperature

2. Categorisation of storage systems

Above Ground Tanks*

Single* Double Full

Type 2 Type 3 See next figure

9% Ni Steel Inner Tank 9% Ni Steel Inner Tank

Carbon Steel High pit dykes (pre-stressed

Figure 1 Scheme of tank categories

Class A (1) Class A (2)

Type 4 Type 5 Type 6 As Type 4, 5 or 6

Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Carbon Steel

Class B (1) Class B (2)

Type 7 Type 8 Type 9 Type 10

9% Ni Steel Pre-stressed Pre-stressed

Pre-stressed Pre-stressed Pre-stressed

Figure 2 Scheme of tank categories for RLG products (cont.)

Above Ground Tanks* In Ground Tanks

Figure 3 Scheme of tank types for RLG products (cont.)

Figure 9 Typical detail of a Type 1 above ground membrane storage tank

Figure 10 Typical detail of a Type 11 in-ground membrane storage tank

2.2 Double concrete tanks

Figure 11 Artist impression of a double concrete tank with no liner

Where the volume of the stored/shipped product

Appendix I of EEMUA 190(3), shown here as Figure

Refrigerated storage Pressurised storage

Storage of gas Propane (C3)

Liquefaction Site Pressurised

(1) in case or refrigerated storage: consider end-product Y

2.4 Risk assessment for tank 4.2.5.2 Probabilistic

4.2.5 Methodology Note: For full details refer to EN 14620.

3.1 Design given in EN1473:2007 and other documents. This

Figure 14 Supported concrete foundation slab

Upper Concrete Slab

Lower Concrete Slab

BEARING STRATUM DOUBLE CONCRETE SLAB TYPE