Hydraulics Engineering

Dimensional Analysis and

Similitude
Prepared by:
Dr. Ishtiaq Hassan

1. Principle of Similarity
2. Rayleigh’s Method
3. Buckingham’s Pi-theorem
Motivation
• Often difficult to solve problem by analytical and numerical
methods. Also data, are required for validation.
• Need of experiments

• Difficult to perform experiments at actual scale (prototype), so

they are performed at another scale (model)

• Develop rules for design of experiments and interpretations of

experimental results.

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Dimensional Analysis
• In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a
geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype. In such
cases, care must be taken to properly scale the results. We introduce here a
powerful technique called dimensional analysis.

• The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are:

➢ To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments
(physical and/or numerical).
➢ To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance.
➢ To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters.

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Similitude:
• Similitude is defined as similarity between the model and the prototype
in every respect, which mean model and prototype have similar
properties or model and prototype are completely similar.
• How to carry out model tests and how to transfer model results to prototype.
• Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering Models.
• Usually, it becomes impossible sometime to obtain a pure theoretical solution of
hydraulic phenomenon.
• Therefore experimental investigations are often performed on small scale models,
called model analysis.

• Model: is a small scale replica of the actual structure.

• Prototype: the actual structure or machine.
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Principle of Similarity
• Before discussing the technique of dimensional analysis, we first explain the
underlying concept of dimensional analysis—the principle of similarity.

• There are three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a

model and a prototype, which are:

➢ Geometric Similarity of geometric dimensions

➢ Kinematic Similarity of velocities
➢ Dynamic Similarity of forces

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Principle of Similarity
1. Geometric Similarity
• One of the desirable features in model studies is that we have geometric similarity,
which means that the model and its prototype have identical shapes but differ only in
size.
• The important consideration is that the flow patterns must be geometrically similar.
• If subscripts p and m denote prototype and model, respectively, we define the length
scale ratio as:
𝐿𝑝
𝐿𝑟 =
𝐿𝑚
In case of rivers, the horizontal space is usually limited by the available floor space and this same
scale used for vertical dimensions may produce a stream of shallow depth. In such cases, we need to
use a distorted model which means that the vertical scale is larger than the horizontal scale.
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Principle of Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
• Geometric similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic
similarity.

• Kinematic similarity implies that the ratio of the

velocities at all corresponding points in the flows
are the same. The velocity scale ratio is
𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑟 =
𝑉𝑚
and this is constant of kinematic similarity.

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Principle of Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
• As time T is dimensionally L/V, the time scale ratio is
𝐿𝑟
𝑇𝑟 =
𝑉𝑟
and in similar manner the acceleration scale ratio is
𝐿𝑟 𝑉𝑟2
𝑎𝑟 = 2 =
𝑇𝑟 𝐿𝑟

➢ You may think of geometric similarity as length-scale equivalence and

kinematic similarity as time-scale equivalence.
➢ Just as the geometric scale factor can be less than, equal to, or greater than
one, so can the velocity scale factor.
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Principle of Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity
• It is said to exist between model and prototype if ratio of forces at the
corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal.

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑣 𝐹𝑔
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
= = = 𝐹𝑟
𝐹𝑖 𝑚 𝐹𝑣 𝑚 𝐹𝑔
𝑚

Note:: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model and

prototype should also be same/parallel.

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Dimensions and Units
• A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity without numerical values,
while a unit is a way to assign a number to that dimension. For example,
length is a dimension that is measured in units such as feet (ft), centimeters
(cm), meters (m), kilometers (km), etc. There are seven primary dimensions
(also called fundamental or basic dimensions).
Dimension Symbol SI Unit
Mass M kg (kilogram)
Length L m (meter)
Time T s (second)
• Examples:
Force [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ], Discharge [𝐿3 𝑇 −1 ], Density [𝑀𝐿−3 ],
Viscosity [M𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ], Kinematic viscosity [𝐿2 𝑇 −1 ]
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Dimensional Homogeneity
• We’ve all heard the old saying, ‘You can’t add apples and oranges.’ This is
actually a simplified expression of a far more global and fundamental
mathematical law for equations, the law of dimensional homogeneity (or
PDH), stated as, “Every additive term in an equation must have the same
dimensions”.

• All theoretical equations that relate physical quantities must be dimensionally

homogeneous. That is, all the terms in an equation must have the same
dimensions. This principle is known as the principle of dimensional
homogeneity (PDH).

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Nondimensionalization of Equations
• The law of dimensional homogeneity guarantees that every additive term in
an equation has the same dimensions. It follows that if we divide each term
in the equation by a collection of variables and constants whose product has
those same dimensions, the equation is rendered nondimensional. “Each
term in a nondimensional equation is dimensionless.”

• In the process of nondimensionalizing an equation of motion,

nondimensional parameters often appear—most of which are named after
a notable scientist or engineer (e.g., the Reynolds number and the Froude
number). This process is referred to by some authors as inspectional
analysis.

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Nondimensional Parameters
• Dimensional variables are defined as dimensional quantities that change or vary
in the problem. (e.g., V, p)
• Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables are defined as quantities that
change or vary in the problem, but have no dimensions; an example is angle of
rotation, measured in degrees or radians which are dimensionless units. (e.g., 𝜃)
• Dimensional constants may vary from case to case but are held constant during
a given run. For example, Gravitational constant g, and unit weight, 𝛾 are
dimensional constant.
• Pure constants have no dimensions and never did. They arise from mathematical
manipulations. (e.g., 2)
𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔
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Types of Forces encountered in Fluid Phenomenon
• Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in
the flowing fluid.
• Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to
viscosity and surface area of flow.
• Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration
due to gravity.
• Pressure Force, Fp: It is equal to product of pressure intensity and
cross-sectional area of flowing fluid.
• Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of surface tension
and length of surface of flowing fluid.
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Types of Forces encountered in Fluid Phenomenon

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Nondimensional Parameters
Reynolds Number
• For the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces, we call the resulting parameter the
Reynolds number, or R, in honor of English physicist and professor Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912).
𝐹𝐼 𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝜌 𝐿𝑉𝜌 𝐿𝑉
𝐑= = = =
𝐹𝑉 𝐿𝑉𝜇 𝜇 𝑣

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Nondimensional Parameters
Froude Number
• When we consider inertia and gravity forces alone, we obtain a ratio called a Froude
number, or F, in honor of British naval architect William Froude (1810-1897).
𝐹𝐼 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝑉 2 𝑉
𝐅= = 3
= =
𝐹𝐺 𝜌𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿

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Nondimensional Parameters
Reynold’s Number
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐹𝐼 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐑= = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑉 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜏×𝐴

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐿 = 𝝆𝑽𝑳
𝑑𝑢 𝑉 𝜇 × 𝑉𝐴 𝝁
𝜇 ×𝐴 𝜇 𝐴
𝑑𝑦 𝐿

𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
= = 𝐑𝑚
𝜇 𝑚
𝑣 𝑚

𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
= = = 𝐑𝑝 Rm = Rp
𝜇 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝
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Reynold’s Model Law
• It is based on Reynold’s number and states that Reynold’s number for
model must be equal to the Reynold’s number for prototype.

• Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous forces are

dominant. These problems include:

• Pipe Flow
• Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies
etc.

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Reynold’s Model Law
• As we have studied in previous slides that:
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝐑𝑚 = 𝐑𝑝 OR =
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑝

𝑣𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑽𝒓 𝑳𝒓
= ⇒ 𝑣𝑝 = 1 ⇒ =𝟏
𝑣𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 × 𝒗𝒓
𝑣𝑚

𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑣𝑝
Where: 𝑉𝑟 = ; 𝐿𝑟 = ; 𝑣𝑟 =
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑣𝑚

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Reynold’s Model Law
Example:
• A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of specific
gravity 0.90 and viscosity 3×10-2 poise at the rate of
3000litre/sec. Tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe
using water at 20o C.
• Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model.
• Solution?

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Reynold’s Model Law

1 poise = 0.10 kg/m.s

1 Liter = 10-3 cubic meter
Specific gravity = ratio of density of matter / water density

In case of pipes, L (length) is replaced with D (diameter) in

Expression for Reynold’s number.

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Reynold’s Model Law
◼ Solution:
◼ Prototype Data: F o r p ip e f lo w ,

◼ Diameter, Dp= 1.5m

A c c o r d in g to R e y n o ld s ' M o d e l L a w

 m Vm D m  pVpD p  pD p  m
◼ Viscosity of fluid, μp= 3x10-2 poise
Vm
=  =
m  Vp mDm 
◼ Discharge, Qp =3000litre/sec
p p

−2
9 0 0  1 .5 110
◼ Sp. Gr., Sp=0.9
Vm
= −2
= 3 .0
Vp 1 0 0 0  0 .1 5 3  1 0
◼ Density of oil=ρp=0.9x1000
Qp 3 .0
=900kg/m3 S in c e V p =
Ap
=
 / 4 (1 .5 )
2

◼ Model Data:
◼ Diameter, Dm=15cm =0.15 m
◼ Viscosity of water, μm =1x10-2 poise
= 1 .6 9 7 m / s
 V m = 3 .0 V p = 5 .0 9 1 m / s
a n d Q m = V m A m = 5 . 0 9 1   / 4 ( 0 .1 5 )
2

◼ Density of water, ρm=1000kg/m3n

= 0 .0 8 9 9 m / s
3

◼ Velocity of flow Vm=?

◼ Discharge Q =? Hydraulics Engineering Department of Civil Engineering,

Nondimensional Parameters
Froude’s Number
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐹𝐼 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ×
𝐅= = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝐺 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ×
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉𝑄
𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑔 𝜌 × 𝐴𝐿 × 𝑔 𝐴𝐿 × 𝑔

𝑉 × 𝐴𝑉 𝑉 2 𝑉2
= ⇒ 𝐅=
𝐴𝐿 × 𝑔 𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿

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Nondimensional Parameters
Froude’s Number
• Although this is sometimes defined as a Froude number, it is more common
to use square root so that V is in the first power, as in the Reynolds number.
• Thus a Froude number is:
𝐹𝐼 𝑉
𝐅= =
𝐹𝐺 𝑔𝐿
𝑉 𝑉
= 𝐅𝑚 = 𝐅𝑝 =
𝑔𝐿 𝑚 𝑔𝐿 𝑝

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Froude’s Model Law
• It is based on Froude’s number and states that Froude’s number for model
must be equal to the Froude’s number for prototype.
• Froude’s Model Law is used in problems where gravity forces are dominant
to control flow in addition to inertia forces.

• These problems include:

• Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels
etc.
• Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
• Waves on surface of fluid
• Motion of fluids with different viscosities over one another
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Froude’s Model Law
• As we have studies in previous slides:
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
𝐅𝑚 = 𝐅𝑝 OR = gm = gp = g
𝑔𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑔𝑝 𝐿𝑝

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑽𝒓
= ⇒ = ⇒ =1 ⇒ =𝟏
𝐿𝑚 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝐿𝑝 𝑳𝒓
𝑉𝑚
𝐿𝑚

𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
Where: 𝑉𝑟 = ; 𝐿𝑟 =
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚

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Froude’s Model Law
Example:
• In the model test of a spillway, the discharge and velocity of flow over the
model were 2 m3/s and 1.5 m/s respectively.
• Calculate the velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times
the model size.

• Solution? Vr = 6
Vr=Vp/Vm Ap=?
Vm = 1.5m/s Vp = Vr x Vm Lr2 = Ap/Am
Lr = 36 Vp = 6 x 1.5 = 9m/s
Vr/(Lr)1/2 = 1
Qp = Ap x Vp
Am = Qm/Vm = 2/1.5 =

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Froude’s Model Law
Example:
• In the model test of a spillway, the discharge and velocity of flow over the
model were 2 m3/s and 1.5 m/s respectively.
• Calculate the velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times
the model size. F o r D is c h a r g e
• Solution? Q
( Lr ) = (36 )
p 2 .5 2 .5
=
◼ For Model Qm

Discharge over model, Qm=2 m3/sec Q p = (36 )

2 .5
 2 = 15552 m / sec
3
◼

◼ Velocity over model, Vm = 1.5 m/sec F o r D y n a m ic S im ila r ity ,

◼ Linear Scale ratio, Lr =36 F r o u d e M o d e l L a w is u s e d

Vp
= Lr = 36 = 6
◼ For Prototype Vm
◼ Discharge over prototype, Qp =? V p = 6  1 .5 = 9 m / s e c
◼ Velocity over prototype Vp=?
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Methods of Dimensional Analysis
• If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the
relation among the variables can be determined by the following two methods:
i. Rayleigh’s Method
ii. Buckingham’s π (pie) Theorem

Rayleigh’s Method:
• It is used for determining expression for a variable (dependent) which
depends upon maximum three to four variables (independent) only.
• If the number of independent variables are more than 4 then it is very
difficult to obtain expression for dependent variable.

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Methods of Dimensional Analysis
Buckingham’s π (pie) Theorem:
• Since Rayleigh’s Method becomes laborious if variables are
more than fundamental dimensions (MLT), so the difficulty is
overcome by Buckingham’s π- Theorem which states that:

“If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a

physical phenomenon and if these variables contain m
fundamental dimensions then the variables are arranged into (n-m)
dimensionless terms which are called π-terms.”

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Rayleigh’s Method
• To illustrate the basic principles of dimensional analysis, let us explore the
equation for the speed V with which a pressure wave travels through a fluid.
• We must visualize the physical problem to consider what physical factors
probably influence the speed.
• Following are the physical quantities which can affect the speed V of pressure
wave:
𝐿 𝐹 𝑀 𝑀 𝐿2
𝑉= , 𝐸𝑣 = 2 = 2
,𝜌 = 3 ,𝑣 =
𝑇 𝐿 𝐿𝑇 𝐿 𝑇
• Clearly, adding or subtracting such quantities will not produce dimensionally
homogeneous equations. We must therefore multiply them in such a way that
their dimensions balance. So let us write:
𝑉 = 𝐶𝐸𝑣𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝑣 𝑑 → (A)

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Rayleigh’s Method
• To solve the previous equation for exponents a, b and d, substitute the
dimension into that equation:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
𝐿 𝑀 𝑀 𝐿2
=
𝑇 𝐿𝑇 2 𝑇3 𝑇
• To satisfy dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of each dimension must be
identical on both sides of this equation. Thus,
For M: 0=a+b
For L: 1 = -a – 3b + 2d
For T: -1 = -2a - d
• Solving these equations, we get:
a = ½, b = -½, d=0
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Rayleigh’s Method
• By putting the calculated values of exponents into Eq. A, we get the following
relationship:
𝐸𝑣
𝑉=𝐶
𝜌

• This is the basic form of relationship for speed of the pressure wave. It also
determines that the wave speed is not affected by the fluid’s kinematic viscosity.

• Dimensional analysis along such lines was developed by Lord Rayleigh, The
method is now-a-days superseded by the Pi Theorem.

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Method of Repeating Variables
Introduction
• In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one π that we call the
dependent π, giving it the notation π1. The parameter π1 is in general a
function of several other π’s, which we call independent π’s.
• The functional relationship between π’s is:
𝝅𝟏 = 𝒇 𝝅𝟐 + 𝝅𝟑 , … ,
where k is the total number of π’s. 𝝅𝒌
• To ensure complete similarity between the model and the prototype, each
independent π of the model (subscript m) must be identical to the
corresponding independent π of the prototype (subscript p), i.e.,
𝝅𝟐 𝒎 = 𝝅 𝟐 𝒑 , 𝝅 𝟑𝒎 = 𝝅 𝟑𝒑 , 𝝅𝒌𝒎 = 𝝅𝒌𝒑
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Method of Repeating Variables
Introduction
• To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be
geometrically similar, and all independent π groups must match between
model and prototype.
• Under these conditions the dependent π of the model (π1m) is guaranteed to
also equal the dependent π of the prototype (π1p).
• Mathematically, we write a conditional statement for achieving similarity,
If, 𝝅𝟐𝒎 = 𝝅𝟐𝒑 , 𝝅𝟑𝒎 = 𝝅𝟑𝒑 , 𝝅𝐤𝒎 = 𝝅𝐤𝒑

Then, 𝝅𝟏𝒎 = 𝝅𝟏𝒑

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Buckingham Pi (π) Theorem
• Buckingham used an upper case π (pi) to represent the product of variables in
each group in dimensional analysis, so this method is called the pi theorem or
the Buckingham pi theorem.
• Let X1, X2, X3, …, Xn represents n dimensional variables, such as, velocity,
density, and viscosity, which are involved in some physical phenomenon.
• We can write the dimensionally homogenous equation relating these variables as
𝑓 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … , 𝑋𝑛 = 0
in which the dimensions of each term are the same.
• We can rearrange this equation into
𝜙 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , … , 𝜋𝑛−𝑘 = 0
• Where ϕ (phi) is another function and each π is an independent dimensionless
product of some of the Xs.
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Buckingham Pi (π) Theorem

Step 1 𝑓 𝐹𝐷 , 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝑉, , 𝜇 = 0 and n = 5
The primary dimensions of each of the parameters in SI Units are:
Step 2
MLT and m = 3
Step 3 Calculate k, the expected number of π’s, k=5–3=2

Step 4 Selection of Repeating Parameters (or dimensional variables). ρ, V, D

Step 5 Construct π1 & π2 and manipulation. Check all π’s are dimensionless
Write the final functional relationship and check your algebra.
Step 6 The method of repeating variables cannot predict the exact
mathematical form of the equation. Experimentation.
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Buckingham Pi (π) Theorem
Method of Repeating Variables Concise Summary
Step 1 List the parameters in the problem and count their total number n.
Step 2 List the primary dimensions of each of the n parameters.
Set the reduction m as the number of primary dimensions.
Step 3
Calculate k, the expected number of π’s, k=n–m
Step 4 Choose m repeating parameters.
Step 5 Construct the k π’s, and manipulate as necessary.
Step 6 Write the final functional relationship and check your algebra.
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Buckingham Pi (π) Theorem
Guidelines for Choosing Repeating Parameters
1. Never pick the dependent variable. Otherwise, it may appear in all the π’s, which is undesirable.
2. The chosen repeating parameters must not by themselves be able to form a dimensionless group.
3. The chosen repeating parameters must represent all the primary dimensions in the problem.
4. Never pick parameters that are already dimensionless. These are π’s already, all by themselves.
5. Never pick two parameters with the same dimensions or with dimensions that differ by only an
exponent.
6. Whenever possible, choose dimensional constants (e.g., g), dimensional variables (e.g., t).
7. Pick common parameters (mass, velocity, density) since they may appear in each of the π’s
8. Pick simple parameters (mass, length, velocity) over complex parameters (μ) whenever possible.
Hydraulics Engineering Department of Civil Engineering,
Dimensions
of Fluid
Mechanics
Properties
 U is velocity

m m
Important Note:

L, U and density do not have all three (MLT) dimensions,

however, F and viscosity have all three (MLT) dimensions. So
these (F and viscosity) can not be combined to form a pi and
are to be dealt separately in each pi equation.
m

L, U and density do not have all three (MLT)

dimensions, however, F and viscosity have all three
(MLT) dimensions, so these are repeating and are
to be dealt with, in each pi equation.
Important Note:

S, t and So do not have all two (LT) dimensions, however, Vo and g

have all two (LT) dimensions. So, these (Vo and g) are to be dealt with
in each pi equation.

- S and t have different dimensions (no common) so are dependent,

BENEFITS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
BENEFITS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
BENEFITS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS