General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

1. Electrostatics
– What is Electricity
– Electric Charges
– Types of electric charges
– Ways of producing charges
– Detection of charges: electroscope
– Conductors, insulators and semiconductors
– Electric force: Coulomb’s law
– Principle of superposition of forces
– Vector analysis of coulomb’s law

1.1. What is Electricity

Generally, electricity is the study of electric charges. Electric charges can be at rest or in motion. The study of
electric charges at rest is called Electrostatic or static electricity while the study of electric charges in motion is
called Current electricity.

The topic and the next three are entire dedicated to the concept of electrostatic.

1.2 Electric Charges: Types of Charges

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field. The quantity of charges in an object is denoted by q or Q and its S.I units is Coulomb (C)

A number of simple experiments have demonstrated the existence of electric charges in matter. Some of these are;

(a) Rubbing the head of a ball pen or balloon vigorously on dry hair. One finds that the pen head attracts bits
of paper brought close to it.
(b) Scuffing of hand over a dry blanket or bed sheet during dry season. one notices a kind of electric spark
(c) Passing a comb over long dry hairs during the hot dry season. One notices that the dry hairs acquire
charges, resulting in stand-up hair style.
(d) Rubbing of plastic rods with fur
(e) Rubbing glass rod with silk

In all of the above, the objects acquire electric charges and are said to be electrically charged.

Types of electric charge

Two types of electric charge exist. They are;

• positive charge (+ve)

• negative charge (–ve)

Benjamine Franklin discovered electric charges and suggested the name for the types of charge.

To verify the existence of the two types of charge (positive and negative), a hard rubber rod rubbed on fur was
suspended in air with a string. When a glass rod that has been rubbed on silk was brought near the rubber rod, the
two attract each other. On the other hand, when two charged rubber rods (or two charged glass rods) were brought
near each other they repel each other. This observation shows that the rubber and glass rods have two different
types of charge on them.

The above observations led to a fundamental law of electrostatic, which says;

➢ like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

From this, it was concluded that;

➢ a glass rod rubbed with silk acquires positive charges

➢ a rubber or ebonite rod rubbed with fur acquires negative charge

Another important point to note is that electric charge is a conservative property of matter. This means that electric
charge is always conserved in an isolated system. When one object is rubbed against another, charge is not created
in the process rather there is a transfer of charge from one object to the other. While one object gains some amount
of negative charge, the other gains an equal amount of positive charge.

From the understanding of atomic structure, protons are positive charges and electrons are negative charges.
Electrons in the outer shell are free to move and are the ones transferred in the rubbing process. In the neutral state,
the number of electrons in equal to that of protons. When two objects are rubbed together, electrons are
transferred, one of the objects loses electrons while the other gains electrons. The object losing electron now has
excess of protons which implies positive charge while the one gaining electrons has excess of it which imply
negative charge.

1.3 Ways of producing electric charges

Electric charges can be produced through the following ways;

1. By friction or rubbing: When two objects are rubbed against each other, the friction between them produces
equal but opposite charges in them.
2. By contact or conduction: When an uncharged object (one that can conduct electricity) is placed in contact
with a charged object or vice versa for a period of time, the uncharged object becomes charged. The
uncharged object became charged by transfer of equal but opposite charges from the charged object to the
uncharged. That is, if a positively charged metallic rod is placed in contact with an uncharged neutral metallic
sphere on top of an insulator, the sphere becomes charged by negative charges. The process is shown in the
Figures 1.1a to 1.1c. The uncharged sphere is neutral, i.e equal number of charges which neutralized
themselves are present making it uncharged. The positively charged rod brought closed to it makes the charges
to realign themselves (i.e charge polarization), such that the negative charges in the sphere are attracted
towards the direction of contact of the rod while the positive charges are repelled towards the other side which
can be conducted away by earthing. When the rod is removed, the negative charges redistribute themselves
within the sphere, making it negatively charged.

- ++ ++- -- ++++ + -
- - --
+
++ + - -+ + - -- + -
- - +- ++ -- +++ ++ - -
++ ++ + - - -
+ + +++ ++
+++ +
++ ++ + ++
++ ++
++ +

Fig 1.1a Fig 1.1b Fig 1.1c

3. By induction: This is similar to contact or conduction method, the difference being that the charged object is
not placed in contact with the uncharged object rather placed close to it. Charges are transferred to the
uncharged object by induction, the charges are called induced charges.

1.4 Detection of charges: electroscope

An electroscope is an instrument used to detect the presence of electric charge on a body. Electroscope detects
charge by means of electrostatic force due to a test object placed close to it. The electroscope can also be use to
determine the nature of electric charge on an object.

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note
There are two types of electroscopes, they are;
❖ Pith-ball electroscope
❖ Gold-leaf electroscope
The gold-leaf electroscope is most common. A simple sketch of the gold-leaf electroscope is shown in Figure 1.2.

+ + +
+ + ++ +
+ ++
Metal disc

Metal rod
Insulator

Glass window

++
Gold leaves + ++

Earthing

Fig. 1.2: Gold-leaf electroscope

The gold-leaf electroscope basically consists of a metallic disc top, usually brass, on a vertical metallic rod, also of
brass. Two strips of flexible gold leaf are attached to the end of the rod. To gold leaves are enclosed in a glass
casing or bottle to protected them from air or draught. The glass casing is earthed and often placed on conducting
base.

The two gold leaves hang slackly or freely from the rod. When a charged object whose charge is to be detected is
brought very close to the metallic disc, the gold leaves spread apart or diverge from each other in an inverted 'V'
shape. This happens because some of the charges from the object have been conducted through the metal rod to the
leaves, making them to repel each other and diverge. When the object is removed, the leaves fall back to their
slack position. By this one can ascertain that the object is charged.

To determine the nature of charge on object, the electroscope, it is first charged, the leaves diverge from each
other. If the divergence of the leaves increases when a charged object is place over the disc, then the charge on the
object and that of the electroscope are the same. If the divergence of the leaves decreases, then the charge on the
object and that of the electroscope are different. That is, if the electroscope is charged by negative charges and a
negatively charged object is placed over the disc, the divergence of the leaves increases but for a positively
charged object over the disc, the divergence decreases. So, an increase in divergence of the leaves mean same
charges while a decrease in divergence means opposite charges.

1.5 Conductors, insulators and semiconductors

Matters or material objects have different abilities to allow electric charges to move or flow through them. Based
on their ability to allow electric charges to flow through them, objects can be classified as either conductors,
insulators or semiconductors.

Conductors: They are materials that allow easy flow of electric charges through them; thus, they can conduct
electricity. Examples of such conductors are metallic copper, aluminium, silver, acid, salt solution, etc.

Insulators: They are materials that do not allow the flow of electric charges through them; thus, they cannot
conduct electricity. Insulators are sometimes referred to as bad conductors. Examples are glass, rubber, dry wood,
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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

plastic, paper, etc.

Semiconductors: They are materials whose ability to allow the flow of electric charges through them is between
those of conductors and insulators. In a layman term, they are not conductors and they are not insulators, they are
in between. Semiconductors have partial ability to conduct electricity. Examples are germanium and silicon

1.6 Electric force: Coulomb’s law

Charged objects exert a force on each other. This force is known as electrostatic force or simply, electric force.
The nature of the force can either be attractive or repulsive depending on the types of charges possessed by the
objects. If the charge on both objects is the same, the force is repulsive (due to repelling nature of like charges). If
the charge on both objects is different, the force is attractive (due to repelling nature of like charges).
Charged object can exert attractive force on uncharged object. This is possible because of induced-charge effect.
The charge present in the charged body causes charge polarization within the molecules of the uncharged object.

The magnitude and direction of the electrostatic forces between two charged objects is given by Coulomb’s law.

Coulomb’s law: This states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
r

Figure 1.3: Coulomb’s law

Mathematically, for two point charges, 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 at r distance apart, the Coulomb’s law can be written as;
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 1.1
𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2

Here, F is the electrostatic force in S.I units of Newton (N), 𝑘 is a constant defined as
1
𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 ≈ 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 1.2
𝑜

𝜀𝑜 is also a constant known as permittivity of free space having value of 8.854 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2

The following points are noteworthy.

– The direction of the force is along the line joining the two charges
– Like charges give a repulsive force and it’s directed away from each other
– Unlike charges give an attractive force and it’s directed towards each other
– The electrostatic force obeys Newton third law. This means that the force that charge 𝑞1 exerts on 𝑞2 is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to that 𝑞2 exerts on 𝑞1
1
– The coulomb’s law is an example of inverse square law (i.e 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟 2).
– The electrostatic force, like every other kind of force, is a vector quantity and must be treated accordingly.
– If the distance between the charges is doubled, the magnitude of the force is reduced by a factor of ¼ and
vice versa.
– All units of quantities must be expressed in the right S.I units while solving any numerical
examples/exercises.

The following units conversion should be noted.

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 m

1 microcoulomb (μC) = 10–6 C
1 nanocoulomb (nC) = 10–9 C

E.g 1.1: Two charges of values -4 μC and +7 μC are 12 cm apart along the same straight line. Calculate the
magnitude of the electrostatic force between them.

Sol.
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2

𝑞1 = 4μC = 4 × 10−6 C; 𝑞2 = 7μC = 7 × 10−6 C; and 𝑟 = 12 𝑐𝑚 = 0.12 m

𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

4×10−6 ×7×10−6
⟹ 𝐹 = 9.0 × 109 0.122

0.252
⟹ 𝐹 = 0.0144 = 17.5 𝑁

E.g 1.2: What is the force between two equal charges of magnitude 3 nC at 50 cm apart.

Sol.
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2

𝑞1 = 3μC = 3 × 10−9 C; 𝑞2 = 3μC = 3 × 10−9 C; and 𝑟 = 50 𝑐𝑚 = 0.50 m

𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

9.0×109 ×3×10−9 ×3×10−9
⟹ 𝐹= 0.502

8.1×10−8
⟹ 𝐹= = 3.24 × 10−7 𝑁
0.25

E.g 1.3: Two charges each of value –e and +3e are separated by a distance of 1.5 m. Find the magnitude of the
electrostatic force between them. What is the nature of the force (Take vale of e = 1.602×10–19 C).

Sol.
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2

𝑞1 = −𝑒; 𝑞2 = +3e; and 𝑟 = 1.50 𝑚

𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

9.0×109 ×(−e)×(+3e)
⟹ 𝐹= 1.502

9.0×109 ×3𝑒 2 9.0×109 ×3(1.602×10−19 )

⟹ 𝐹= = = 1.92 × 10−9 𝑁
1.502 1.502

E.g 1.4: An electric force of 0.15 N exists between charges 1 μC and 5 μC. What is the distance separating them.

Sol.
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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2

𝐹 = 0.15 N; 𝑞1 = 1 × 10−6 C; 𝑞2 = 5 × 10−6 C; and 𝑟 =?

𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

9.0×109 ×1×10−6 ×5×10−6
⟹ 0.15 = 𝑟2

⟹ 𝑟 2 = work-on-exercise
⟹ 𝑟 = work-on-exercise

E.g. 1.5: Calculate the magnitude of the electric force acting between the charges shown below
4/ m
5

𝒒𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝝁𝑪 𝒒𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝝁𝑪
Figure 1.4: Example 1.5

Sol.
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 𝑟2

𝑞1 = _____ C; 𝑞2 = ______ C; and 𝑟 = _____𝑚

𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

9.0×109 ×________×_________ leave that girl and focus on your study
⟹ 𝐹= = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦
_______2

⟹ F = 7.4 𝑁 (are you sure of this answer is correct, why not leave that phone a solve immediately)

E.g. 1.6: What is magnitude of electrostatic force exists between the proton and electron in a hydrogen atom,
assuming that they are 5.3×10–11 m apart (Charge of proton and electron is 1.602×10–19 C).

Sol.
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2

𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1.602 × 10−19 C and r = 5.3×10–11 m

𝑘 = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2

9.0×109 ×1.602×10−19 ×1.602×10−19
⟹ 𝐹= (5.3×10−11 )2

⟹ 𝐹 = work-on-exercise

In example 1.5 above, what will be the ratio of the electric force, Fe, to that of the gravitational force, Fg. Take
mass of proton = 1.67×10–27 kg, mass of electron = 9.11×10–31 kg and gravitational constant G = 6.67×10–11
Nm2/kg2

1.7 Principle of superposition of forces

It is possible to have a system of more than two changes, say charge 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … In such a system, it is often
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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

required to find the total electric force on charge on any of the charges due to the others. In such a case, the
principle of superposition of forces is applied. The principle assumes that the total force exerted on any one of the
charges is the vector sum of the force exerted by each of the remaining charges.

In the case of three charge, say 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , charge 𝑞1 exerts a force on 𝑞2 and also on 𝑞3 . Charge 𝑞2 also exerts a
force on 𝑞1 and 𝑞3 . Finally, charge 𝑞3 exerts a force on 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 .

Let 𝐹12 be the force on charge 𝑞1 exerts by 𝑞2

𝐹13 be the force on charge 𝑞1 exerts by 𝑞3
𝐹21 be the force on charge 𝑞2 exerts by 𝑞1
𝐹23 be the force on charge 𝑞2 exerts by 𝑞3
𝐹31 be the force on charge 𝑞3 exerts by 𝑞1
𝐹32 be the force on charge 𝑞3 exerts by 𝑞2

By Newton’s third law;

the force 𝐹12 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to 𝐹21 and vice versa. That is; 𝐹12 = −𝐹21
the force 𝐹13 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to 𝐹31 and vice versa. That is; 𝐹13 = −𝐹31
the force 𝐹23 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to 𝐹32 and vice versa. That is; 𝐹23 = −𝐹32

Now, let 𝐹1 be the total force of charge 𝑞1 ; then 𝐹1 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13

𝐹2 be the total force of charge 𝑞2 ; then 𝐹2 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹23
𝐹3 be the total force of charge 𝑞3 ; then 𝐹3 = 𝐹31 + 𝐹32

Let us consider the following cases very carefully.

𝑧
Case 1: –𝑞1 +𝑞2 +𝑞3
𝑥 𝑦

Let’s find the total force on each of the charges

(i) For 𝒒𝟏 ,
let the total force be 𝐹1 . Then,
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 is the force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 ; ⟹ 𝐹12 = 𝑘 𝑥2
𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹13 is the force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞3 ; ⟹ 𝐹13 = 𝑘 𝑧2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3
Therefore, total force 𝐹1 on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 is; ⟹ 𝐹1 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 𝑘 +𝑘 = 𝑘[ + ]
𝑥2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑧2

(ii) For 𝒒𝟐 ,
let the total force be 𝐹2 . Then,
𝐹21 is the force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 ; ⟹ 𝐹21 = just make an attempt, you’ll sure get it right
𝐹23 is the force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞3 ; ⟹ 𝐹23 = your first attempt may not be good but the second should be better and then best
Therefore, total force 𝐹2 on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 and 𝑞3 is; ⟹ 𝐹1 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹23 = the right attitude towards learning is to learn now

(iii) For 𝒒𝟑 ,
let the total force be 𝐹3 . Then,
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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

𝐹31 is the force on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞1 ; ⟹ 𝐹31 = you can still make it right
𝐹32 is the force on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞2 ; ⟹ 𝐹32 = keep trying, remember success is the number of times you failed without giving up
Therefore, total force 𝐹3 on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 is; ⟹ 𝐹3 = 𝐹31 + 𝐹32 = keep on practicing it until it sticks to you

−𝑞2
Case 2:

+𝑞1 −𝑞3
𝑦

In this case, the same process is followed but special attention must be paid to the configuration, signs of the
charges and direction of the force.

Let’s find the total force on each of the charges

(i) For 𝒒𝟏 ,
let the total force be 𝐹1 . Then,
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 is the force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 ; ⟹ 𝐹12 = 𝑘 this force lies along the line joining the charges
𝑥2
𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹13 is the force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞3 ; ⟹ 𝐹13 = 𝑘 this force lies along the line joining the charges
𝑧2
Now, the total force 𝐹1 on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 is resolved using right angle triangle Pythagoras relation. i.e

2 2
⟹ 𝐹1 = √𝐹12 + 𝐹13

(ii) For 𝒒𝟐 ,
let the total force be 𝐹2 . This force has both vertical and horizontal component. Let, 𝐹2𝑥 be that along the
horizontal direction and 𝐹2𝑦 be that along the vertical direction
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 is the force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 ; ⟹ 𝐹21 = 𝑘 this force lies along the line joining the charges and directed towards 𝑞1
𝑥2
𝑞2 𝑞3
𝐹23 is the force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞3 ; ⟹ 𝐹23 = 𝑘 2 this force lies along the line joining the charges but directed away from them
(√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )

This force, 𝐹23 is directed away from the two charges at an angle, say, θ (because they are like charges) and has
both horizontal and vertical components (remember vector component resolution).

So, let the horizontal component of 𝐹23 be 𝐹23→𝑥 and the vertical component be 𝐹23→𝑦
𝐹23→𝑥 = 𝐹23 cos 𝜃
𝐹23→𝑦 = 𝐹23 sin 𝜃

Total force on 𝑞2 along the horizontal x direction is 𝐹2𝑥 = 𝐹23→𝑥 = 𝐹23 cos 𝜃
𝑞 𝑞
Total force on 𝑞2 along the vertical y direction is 𝐹2𝑦 = 𝐹23→𝑦 + 𝐹21 = 𝐹23 cos 𝜃 + 𝑘 𝑥1 2 2
2 2
The total force 𝐹2 is then 𝐹2 = √𝐹2𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑦

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

(iii) For 𝒒𝟑 ,
let the total force be 𝐹3 . This force has both vertical and horizontal component. Let, 𝐹3𝑥 be that along the
horizontal direction and 𝐹3𝑦 be that along the vertical direction
𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹31 is the force on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞1 ; ⟹ 𝐹31 = 𝑘 this force lies along the line joining the charges and directed towards 𝑞1
𝑦2
𝑞2 𝑞3
𝐹32 is the force on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞2 ; ⟹ 𝐹32 = 𝑘 2 this force lies along the line joining the charges but directed away from them
(√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )

This force, 𝐹32 is directed away from the two charges at an angle, say, θ (because they are like charges) and has
both horizontal and vertical components.

So, let the horizontal component of 𝐹32 be 𝐹32→𝑥 and the vertical component be 𝐹32→𝑦
𝐹32→𝑥 = 𝐹32 cos 𝜃
𝐹32→𝑦 = 𝐹32 sin 𝜃

𝑞1 𝑞3
Total force on 𝑞3 along the horizontal x direction is 𝐹3𝑥 = 𝐹32→𝑥 + 𝐹31 = 𝐹23 cos 𝜃 + 𝑘 𝑦2
Total force on 𝑞3 along the vertical y direction is 𝐹3𝑦 = 𝐹32→𝑦 = 𝐹23 cos 𝜃
2 2
The total force 𝐹3 is then 𝐹3 = √𝐹3𝑥 + 𝐹3𝑦

E.g. 1.7: In the diagram below, find the total electric force on each of the charge.

0.3 cm 0.2 cm
+ - +
𝑞1 = 2 𝜇𝐶 𝑞2 = 1 𝜇𝐶 𝑞3 = 5 𝜇𝐶

Sol.

For 𝑞1

𝐹12 is force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2

𝑞1 𝑞2 9.0×109 ×2×10−6 ×1×10−6
𝐹12 ⟹ 𝐹12 = = = 2000 𝑁
𝑟2 (3×10−3 )2

𝐹13 is force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞3

𝑞1 𝑞3 9.0×109 ×2×10−6 ×5×10−6
𝐹12 ⟹ 𝐹12 = = = 3600 𝑁
𝑟2 (5×10−3 )2

∴ total force 𝐹1 on 𝑞1 is; ⟹ 𝐹1 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 2000 + 3600 = 5600 𝑁

For 𝑞2

𝐹21 is force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1

𝑞1 𝑞2 9.0×109 ×2×10−6 ×1×10−6
𝐹21 ⟹ 𝐹21 = = = 2000 𝑁
𝑟2 (3×10−3 )2

𝐹23 is force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞3

𝑞2 𝑞3 9.0×109 ×1×10−6 ×5×10−6
𝐹23 ⟹ 𝐹23 = = = 11250 𝑁
𝑟2 (2×10−3 )2

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

∴ total force 𝐹2 on 𝑞2 is; ⟹ 𝐹2 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹23 = 2000 + 11250 = 13250 𝑁

For 𝑞3

You are the architect of your own success, work it out.

Check if this is true total force 𝐹3 on 𝑞3 is; ⟹ 𝐹3 = 𝐹31 + 𝐹32 = 14850 𝑁

E.g. 1.8: Find the total magnitude of the electrostatic force on the charges.

4𝜇𝐶 3𝜇𝐶
4 cm
+ −

3 cm

+
2𝜇𝐶
Sol.

For simplicity, let 𝑞1 = 2 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞2 = 4 𝜇𝐶, and 𝑞3 = 3 𝜇𝐶

The for 𝑞1 ,
𝐹12 is force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2
𝑞1 𝑞2 9.0×109 ×2×10−6 ×4×10−6
𝐹12 ⟹ 𝐹12 = = = −80 𝑁 the force is directed downwards, thus negative
𝑟2 (3×10−2 )2

𝑞1 𝑞3 9.0×109 ×2×10−6 ×3×10−6

𝐹13 ⟹ 𝐹13 = = = 21.6 𝑁 NB: 𝑟 = √32 + 42 = 5 𝑐𝑚
𝑟2 (5×10−2 )2

4 3
This force, 𝐹13 is along the line joining 𝑞1 and 𝑞3 and makes an angle, say, 𝜃 = cos −1 (5) 𝑜𝑟 sin−1 (5).

𝐹13 has both horizontal and vertical components

So, let the horizontal component of 𝐹13 be 𝐹13→𝑥 and the vertical component be 𝐹13→𝑦
4
𝐹13→𝑥 = 𝐹13 cos 𝜃 = 21.6 × (5) = 17.28 𝑁
3
𝐹13→𝑦 = 𝐹13 sin 𝜃 = 21.6 × (5) = 12.96 𝑁

Total force on 𝑞1 along the horizontal x direction is 𝐹1𝑥 = 𝐹13→𝑥 = 17.28 𝑁

Total force on 𝑞1 along the vertical y direction is 𝐹1𝑦 = 𝐹13→𝑦 + 𝐹12 = 12.96 − 80 = −67.04 𝑁
2 2
∴ total force 𝐹1 = √𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹1𝑦 = √17.282 + (−60.04)2 = 69.23 𝑁

Take that of 𝒒𝟐 and 𝒒𝟑 as take-home exercise

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

1.8 Vector analysis of coulomb’s law

We are now in a position to treat the Coulomb’s law in a more convenient way, that is using vector analysis.
𝑞1

𝑟12
𝑟1
⃗⃗⃗

𝑟21
O 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 𝑞2
Figure 1.5: Position vector

In the diagram, the charge 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are at distance of 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 , respectively from a point, say O.
The position vector, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 , for 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 , respectively, in the cartesian coordinate is defined by;

𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 = 𝑥1 𝑖 + 𝑦1 𝑗 + 𝑧1 𝑘
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 𝑖 + 𝑦2 𝑗 + 𝑧2 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗
The magnitude of the vector distance from 𝑞1 to 𝑞2 is, |𝑟12 | = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )2

The magnitude of the vector distance from 𝑞1 to 𝑞2 is, |𝑟21 | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

The unit vectors defined for the vector distances are;

(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )𝑖+(𝑦1 −𝑦2 )𝑗+(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )𝑘
𝑟̂
12 = √(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )2 +(𝑦1 −𝑦2 )2 +(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )2

(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )𝑖+(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )𝑗+(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )𝑘

𝑟̂
21 = √(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )2 +(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )2 +(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )2

The Coulomb’s law in vector notations for two charges is as follow;

𝑞 𝑞2
the force 𝐹12 on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 is; 𝐹12 = 𝑘 |𝑟1 2𝑟
̂12
12 |

𝑞 𝑞2
also, the force 𝐹21 on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 is; 𝐹21 = 𝑘 |𝑟1 2𝑟
̂21
21 |

substituting the values of |𝑟12 | and 𝑟̂

12 in 𝐹12 and the values of |𝑟21 | and 𝑟̂
21 in 𝐹21 , one obtain the expanded form
of the Coulomb’s law in vector notation
(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )𝑖+(𝑦1 −𝑦2 )𝑗+(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )𝑘
𝐹12 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 3 1.3
[(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )2 +(𝑦1 −𝑦2 )2 +(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )2 ] ⁄2

(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )𝑖+(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )𝑗+(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )𝑘

𝐹21 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 3 1.4
[(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )2 +(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )2 +(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )2 ] ⁄2

E.g. 1.9: Two charges are such that 𝑞1 = 50 𝜇𝐶 is located at 𝑟1 = 3𝑖 − 𝑗 and 𝑞2 = 20 𝜇𝐶 is located at 𝑟2 = 5𝑖.
Find the magnitude of force exerted on each other.

Sol.
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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

Here, let’s carefully outline what is expected. We are required to find the force that charge 𝑞1 exerts on 𝑞2 and
vice versa.

𝑞1 = 50 𝜇𝐶; 𝑞2 = 20 𝜇𝐶; 𝑟1 = 3𝑖 − 𝑗; 𝑟2 = 5𝑖 (NB: for 𝑟1, the z term is 0 and for 𝑟2 , the y and z terms are 0)

(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )𝑖+(𝑦1 −𝑦2 )𝑗+(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )𝑘

The force on charge 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 is; 𝐹12 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 3
[(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )2 +(𝑦1 −𝑦2 )2 +(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )2 ] ⁄2

(3 − 5)𝑖 + (−1 − 0)𝑗 + (0 − 0)𝑘

𝐹12 = 9 × 109 × 50 × 10−6 × 20 × 10−6 3⁄
[(3 − 5)2 + (−1 − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 ] 2

(−2𝑖 − 𝑗) −18𝑖 − 9𝑗
=9 3 = = −1.61 − 0.81𝑗 𝑁
[5] ⁄2 11.18

Note that 𝐹12 = −1.61 − 0.81𝑗 𝑁 is in vector force, the question requires us finding the magnitude which is
solved as follows

Magnitude, |𝐹12 | = √(−1.61)2 + (−0.81)2 = 1.8 𝑁

So, a vector force of −1.61 − 0.81𝑗 with magnitude 1.8 N is exerted on 𝑞1 by 𝑞2

The same force is exerted 𝑞2 by 𝑞1 but in opposite direction.

Recall, 𝐹12 = −𝐹21; so that a vector force of 1.61 + 0.81𝑗 with magnitude 1.8 N is exerted on 𝑞2 by 𝑞1

Let see if this is correct…

(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )𝑖+(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )𝑗+(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )𝑘
The force on charge 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 is; 𝐹21 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 3
[(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )2 +(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )2 +(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )2 ] ⁄2

(5 − 3)𝑖 + (0 − (−1))𝑗 + (0 − 0)𝑘

𝐹12 = 9 × 109 × 50 × 10−6 × 20 × 10−6 3⁄
[(5 − 3)2 + (0 − (−1))2 + (0 − 0)2 ] 2

(2𝑖 + 𝑗) 18𝑖 + 9𝑗
=9 3 = = 1.61 + 0.81𝑗 𝑁
[5] ⁄2 11.18

Magnitude, |𝐹12 | = √1.612 + 0.812 = 1.8 𝑁.

E.g. 1.10: Three charges, 2 𝜇𝐶, 5 𝜇𝐶 and 3 𝜇𝐶 are positioned on the x-y plane are such that they are at position
2𝑖, −3𝑗 and −𝑖 + 𝑗 respectively from the origin. Find the net vector force on charge 5 𝜇𝐶. What is the magnitude
of the force.

Sol.
Let 𝑞1 = 2 𝜇𝐶, 𝑟1 = 2𝑖; 𝑞2 = 5 𝜇𝐶, 𝑟2 = −3𝑗; and 𝑞3 = 3 𝜇𝐶, 𝑟3 = −𝑖 + 𝑗

We are to find the net force on 𝑞2 = 5 𝜇𝐶 exerted by the other two charges.

So, we find the force, 𝐹21 due to 𝑞1 and force 𝐹23 due to 𝑞3 .

(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘

𝐹21 = 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 3⁄
[(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ] 2

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note
(0 − 2)𝑖 + (−3 − 0)𝑗
= 9 × 109 × 2 × 10−6 × 5 × 10−6 3⁄
[(0 − 2)2 + (−3 − 0)2 ] 2

(−2𝑖 − 3𝑗) 0.09(−2𝑖 − 3𝑗)

= 0.09 3 = = −0.0038𝑖 − 0.0058𝑗 𝑁
[13] ⁄2 46.85

⟹ 𝐹21 = −0.0038𝑖 − 0.0058𝑗 𝑁

Also, the force, 𝐹23

(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 )𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 )𝑗 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )𝑘

𝐹23 = 𝑘𝑞2 𝑞3 3⁄
[(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )2 ] 2

(0 + 1)𝑖 + (−3 − 1)𝑗

= 9 × 109 × 5 × 10−6 × 3 × 10−6 3⁄
[(0 + 1)2 + (−3 − 1)2 ] 2

(𝑖 − 4𝑗) 0.135(𝑖 − 4𝑗)

= 0.135 3 = = 0.0019𝑖 − 0.0077𝑗 𝑁
[17] ⁄2 70.09

⟹ 𝐹23 = 0.0019𝑖 − 0.0077𝑗 𝑁

The net vector force, say 𝐹2 , on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 and 𝑞3 is the addition of 𝐹21 and 𝐹23

i.e 𝐹2 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹23 = (−0.0038𝑖 − 0.0058𝑗) + (0.0019𝑖 − 0.0077𝑗)

𝐹2 = −0.0019𝑖 − 0.0135𝑗 𝑁

The magnitude of the force is, |𝐹2 | = √(−0.0019)2 + (−0.0135)2 = 0.014 𝑁

As a take home assignment, find the net vector force and magnitude on charge 2 𝜇𝐶 and 3 𝜇𝐶.

Revision exercises 1

RE. 1.1: The S.I units of electric charge is (A) Newton (B) Coulomb (C) Watt (D) Volt

RE 1.2 Which of the following methods cannot be used to produce charges (A) By rubbing (B) By electrostatic
induction (C) By contact (D) By polarization

RE 1.3: Which of the following cannot be used to demonstrate the existence of electric charges in matter (A)
rubbing the head of a ball pen (B) passing a comb over long dry hairs (C) dipping of glass rod in salt solution (D)
rubbing glass rod with silk

RE 1.4: Who discover electric charge (A) Micheal Faraday (B) Benjamine Franklin (C) Isaac Newton (D)
Charles-Augustine de Coulomb

RE 1.5: An ebonite rod rubbed with fur acquires (A) positive charge (B) negative charge (C) both charges (D)
none

RE 1.6: If a negatively charged metallic rod is placed in contact with an uncharged object, after a while, the object
becomes (A) negatively charged (B) positively charged (C) neutrally charged (D) stay deformed

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General Physics (Electricity and Magnetism) PHY 121 Lecture Note

RE 1.7: Two charges of values 3 μC and 7 μC are 1/4 m apart. What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force
between them in nearest whole number (A) 1 N (B) 2 N (C) 3 N (D) 4 N

RE 1.8: Materials having ability to conduct electricity between conductors and insulators are called (A)
semimetals (B) diodes (C) resistors (D) semiconductors

RE 1.9: The presence of electric charge in a body can be detected using (A) capacitor (B) ammeter (C)
electroscope (D) oscilloscope

RE 1.10: The magnitude and direction of the electrostatic forces between two charged objects is given by (A)
Coulomb’s law (B) Ampere’s law (C) Ohm’s law (C) Faraday’s law

RE. 1.11: The glass casing in gold leaf electroscope is to protect the gold leaves from (A) decaying (B) shrinking
(C) sunlight (D) draught

RE 1.12: An increase in divergence of the gold leaves in gold-leaf electroscope means (A) same charge is detected
by the instrument (B) opposite charge is detected by the instrument (C) no charge is detected by the instrument (D)
both charges are present in the instrument

RE.1.13: Two charges 𝑞1 (500µC) and 𝑞2 (100µC) were located on the X-Y plane at the position 𝑟1 =3j meter and
𝑟2 = 4i meter. Find the force exerted on 𝑞2 . (A) 14.4i–10.8j (B) –10.6i–18.2j (C) 10.6i+18.2j (D) –14.4i+10.8j

RE.1.14: The study of static charges is known as (A) Current electricity (B) Electricity (C) Electrostatics (D)
Electric displacement

RE.1.15: In the diagram, find the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the +4µC
4cm
(A) 104.7N (B) 104.7N (C) 216.3N (D) 128.2N +4µC
–3µC
3cm

+2µC

RE.1.16: Which of the following is not correct about Coulomb’s law (A) The magnitude of force is reduced by
1
factor of 4 when the distance between the charges is doubled. (B) The magnitude of force is doubled when the
distance between the charges is doubled. (C) The law is an example of inverse square law (D) The force obeys
Newton’s third law.

RE.1.17: Glass rubbed with silk produces (A) negative charge (B) positive charges (C) all of the above (A) none
of the above

RE.1.18: Three charges are such that 𝑞1 = 2µC is located at 𝑟1 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝑘, 𝑞2 = 5µC is located at 𝑟2 = 2𝑖 −
𝑗 + 5𝑘 and 𝑞3 = 6µC is located at 𝑟3 = 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 2𝑘. Find the net electrostatic force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 (A)
−0.004𝑖 + 0.011𝑗 + 0.004𝑘 (B) 0.004𝑖 − 0.011𝑗 + 0.004𝑘 (C) −0.026𝑖 + 0.026𝑗 − 0.026𝑘 (D) −0.0003𝑖 +
0.0139𝑗 − 0.0074𝑘

14