Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19 – 43

www.elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp

Glacial dispersal studies using indicator minerals and till

geochemistry around two eastern Finland kimberlites
M.L. Lehtonen *, J.S. Marmo, A.J. Nissinen, B.S. Johanson, L.K. Pakkanen
Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland
Received 14 October 2004; accepted 11 July 2005
Available online 26 August 2005

Abstract

Diamondiferous kimberlites occur in eastern Finland, in the areas of Kaavi–Kuopio and Kuhmo. Active diamond explora-
tion has been ongoing in the country for over two decades, but the Karelian craton still remains under explored given its size
and potential. In order to develop techniques that can be applied to diamond exploration in glaciated terrains, the Geological
Survey of Finland (GTK) carried out a detailed heavy mineral and geochemical survey of Quaternary till in 2001–2003 around
two of the known kimberlitic bodies in Finland, Pipe 7 in Kaavi and Dyke 16 in Kuhmo. The mineralogical and geochemical
signatures of these two kimberlites were studied in the basal till deposited down-ice from the targets. The kimberlites were
selected to represent two different types in terms of shape, size, age and petrology, as well as showing contrasting country rocks
and Quaternary deposits. Till samples up to 60 kg in weight were taken by excavator and by drill rig. Kimberlitic indicator
mineral grains (0.25–1.0 mm) were concentrated using a GTK modified 3WKnelson Concentrator. Fine fractions (b0.063 mm)
of selected samples were analyzed by XRF and ICP-MS. The indicator grains down-ice from Pipe 7 form a well-defined fan in
the basal till that can be followed for at least 2 km with a maximum concentration at 1.2 km distance from the pipe. Another
kimberlitic body discovered during the study 300 m down-ice from Pipe 7 demonstrates that there are in fact at least two
superimposed indicator fans. The results do not rule out the possibility of even more undiscovered kimberlitic sources in the
area. In contrast, the indicator dispersal trail from Dyke 16 is shorter (~1 km) and less well-defined than that at Kaavi, mainly
due to the lower indicator content in the kimberlite itself and subsequently in till, as well as a large population of background
chromites in till. The latter population is likely having been derived from the Archean Näätäniemi serpentinite massif and the
associated ultramafic metavolcanics of the Kuhmo greenstone belt, located ca. 30 km up-ice from the sampling area. The
indicator maximum at Seitaperä dyke swarm occurs immediately down-ice from the kimberlite, after which the concentration
drops rapidly. Results of this study contribute to the overall understanding of the Quaternary history of the Kaavi and Kuhmo
areas, and more importantly, provide key information to diamond exploration in these particular regions and also elsewhere in
glaciated terrains.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Kimberlite indicator minerals; Till; Karelian Craton; Geochemistry; Fennoscandia

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +358 20 550 11; fax: +358 20 550 12.
E-mail address: marja.lehtonen@gtk.fi (M.L. Lehtonen).

0375-6742/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2005.07.003
20 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
1. Introduction
A common exploration method for diamond host
rocks, kimberlites and lamproites, in recently gla-
ciated terrains, is to track their indicator mineral grains
dispersed in Quaternary till and stream sediments.
The recognition of specific minerals in sediment sam-
ples that indicate the presence of a kimberlitic source
has been applied successfully worldwide, espe-
cially during reconnaissance and regional stages of
investigation (e.g. Gurney, 1984; Atkinson, 1989;
McClenaghan and Kjarsgaard, 2001). There are se-
veral minerals in kimberlitic rocks that can be used as
pathfinders and, to a certain extent, in evaluation of
the diamond potential of their source. These minerals
meet the following requirements as listed by McCle-
naghan and Kjarsgaard (2001): they are (1) far more
abundant in kimberlite than diamonds, (2) visually
and chemically distinct, (3) sand-sized (0.25–2.0
mm), (4) sufficiently dense to be concentrated using
gravity and (5) chemically and physically resistant to
survive preglacial weathering and subsequent glacial
transport. The indicators may represent: (1) xeno-
crysts derived from disaggregated mantle xenoliths,
(2) grains from the kimberlite megacryst suite of
minerals, or (3) phenocrysts crystallized from the
kimberlite magma. The classic kimberlitic indicator
mineral suite used in diamond exploration includes
Cr-pyrope, Ti-pyrope and eclogitic garnet, Cr-diop-
side, Mg-ilmenite (picroilmenite) and high-Cr, high-
Mg chromite. Although all of these minerals are not
exclusively restricted to kimberlitic rocks, their con-
current presence in glacial sediments is a strong indi-
cation for a kimberlitic source in the area. When
recovered from heavy mineral concentrates of sedi-
ment samples, the indicator minerals are traced up-ice
or up-stream to the source area. Ideally, the indicator
trail will lead to the kimberlitic host rock.
Another popular tool in regional diamond explora-
tion is the use of till geochemistry that is based on the
distinct chemistry of kimberlitic rocks, which are
enriched in incompatible elements (Sr, Ba, LREE,
Nb, Ta, Hf, Zr, P, Ti) as well as some compatible,
first order transition elements (Mg, Ni, Cr, Co) (e.g.
Fipke et al., 1995). Geochemical anomalies formed by
these elements or their various combinations can be
used as pathfinders in diamond exploration in a simi-
lar way to indicator minerals. The most commonly
used till size range for geochemical investigations is
the silt and clay fraction (b0.063 mm) that contains
material derived from the fine-grained kimberlite
matrix. The set of pathfinder elements are typically
region-specific since geochemical anomalies are cre-
ated by the contrast between kimberlite and country
rocks (McClenaghan and Kjarsgaard, 2001; McCle-
naghan et al., 2000). Due to analytical limitations
geochemical signatures in till cannot be detected for
as great a distance from the source as sand-sized
indicator grains; the latter may form dispersal trains
extending several kilometers or even several tens of
kilometers from individual kimberlites and kimberlite
fields as in the Lac de Gras region, Canada (e.g.
Armstrong, 1999; McClenaghan et al., 2002b). For
successful application of these diamond exploration
methods, indicator minerals and geochemistry of till,
it is essential to conduct case studies around known
kimberlitic bodies.
Diamondiferous kimberlites occur in eastern Fin-
land around the Kaavi–Kuopio and Kuhmo areas
(Tyni, 1997; O’Brien and Tyni, 1999) and much of
the remainder of the Karelian Craton remains pro-
spective based on the empirical evidence necessary
for diamond preservation: thick (N 200 km) litho-
spheric mantle (Calcagnile, 1982; Kukkonen and
Peltonen, 1999; Kukkonen et al., 2003), low heat
flow (Kukkonen and Jõeleht, 1996) and Archean
age rocks (Fig. 1). Active diamond exploration in
Finland has been ongoing for over two decades
(Tyni, 1997) but systematic glacial dispersal studies
around known kimberlites have not been published to
date. Importantly, various regional indicator mineral
surveys and case studies have been published on
several kimberlites and kimberlite fields in the Cana-
dian Shield, a recently glaciated terrain that shows
great similarity to Fennoscandia. These studies pro-
vide valuable information most likely applicable to
diamond exploration in Finland. A list of published
indicator mineral surveys in Alberta, Saskatchewan,
Manitoba, Ontario, Québec, Northwest Territories and
Nunavut is provided by McClenaghan and Kjarsgaard
(2001).
During the years 2001–2003 the Geological Sur-
vey of Finland (GTK) carried out sampling of Qua-
ternary till around two kimberlitic bodies in eastern
Finland, the Lahtojoki pipe (Pipe 7) in Kaavi and the
Seitaperä dyke swarm (Dyke 16) in Kuhmo. The
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43 21

Fig. 1. Map illustrating the diamond prospective area of Northern Europe characterized by a) low heat flow (simplified from Kukkonen and
Jõeleht, 1996) and b) lithosphere thicker than 170 km based on seismic data (Calcagnile, 1982). Generalized geology modified after Gaál and
Gorbatschev (1987). The Archean/Proterozoic boundary marks the subsurface extent of the Archean craton. The black diamonds represent
diamond-bearing kimberlite/lamproite clusters. The localities of this study, Kaavi and Kuhmo, are underlined.

selection of targets was based on their different cha- 2. Targets of study

racteristics in shape, size, age and petrology, as well as
differences in the surrounding bedrock and types of
Quaternary deposits. The objective was to study their
mineralogical and geochemical signatures in the sur-
rounding basal till, which was used as the sampling
media since it is abundant, largely available, a direct
result of the latest glacier event and deposited directly
down-ice from the targets. The ultimate aim of the
work was to gather information that can be applied to
diamond exploration in similar areas.
2.1. Pipe 7, Lahtojoki, Kaavi
Pipe 7 (Lahtojoki) in Kaavi belongs to the Kaavi–
Kuopio Kimberlite Province situated at the edge of the
Karelian Craton (Fig. 1). The area has been a focus of
diamond exploration already for two decades (Tyni,
1997) and the activities are still ongoing. There are at
least 19 kimberlite pipes with mineralogy typical of
Group I kimberlite including abundant macrocrysts of
22 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
olivine, Mg-ilmenite, Cr-diopside and pyrope garnet
(O’Brien and Tyni, 1999). Several methods have been
used to date the kimberlite magmatism (Tyni, 1997;
Peltonen et al., 1999; Peltonen and Mänttäri, 2001)
but the U–Pb ion probe ages of 589–626 Ma from
perovskites (O’Brien et al., 2005) are considered to be
the most reliable. The Kaavi–Kuopio pipes have been
emplaced into Archean (3.1–2.6 Ga) basement
gneisses and allochthonous Proterozoic (1.9–1.8 Ga)
metasediment sequences thrust onto the craton during
the Svecofennian orogeny (Kontinen et al., 1992).
The bedrock in the Kaavi area where Pipe 7 is
located (Fig. 2) is mainly composed of mica schists,
gneisses and intercalated black schists (Huhma, 1975).
Intracratonic 2.2 Ga gabbros as well as post collisional
1.86 Ga granites and granodiorites (Nironen et al.,
2000 and references therein) form a lesser but none-
theless important component. The Quaternary deposits
in the Kaavi area consist of basal till deposited beneath
an actively flowing glacier as indicated by drumlin
fields, ablation till deposited in cavities under the
Fig. 2. Generalized bedrock map of the Kaavi area (modified after Huhma, 1975). The location of Pipe 7 and its sampling area are marked. The
coordinates around the edge of the map are UTM coordinates.
melting glacier, outwash and glaciolacustrine sedi-
ments. The till formations date back to the deglaciation
at the end of the Weichselian when large glacial lobes
developed in the southern and central parts of Finland
(Punkari, 1980). The ablation till unit commonly rests
directly upon the basal till, which itself may be com-
posed of two superimposed beds in places, altogether
forming a till cover that rarely exceeds 3 m in thick-
ness. There are two ice flow directions recognized in
the region based on striations on glacially polished
bedrock surfaces and pebble imbrications in the basal
till beds (Hirvas and Nenonen, 1987). The older ice
movement was nearly from west (2808) to east (1008)
and the younger, more prominent (main) ice move-
ment was from northwest (3358) to southeast (1558).
The 2-ha Pipe 7 is suboval in plan, measuring
approximately 200 m (E–W)  100 m (N–S). It is
located in swampy ground and covered by 13–20 m
of glacial deposits and peat. It is not visible on a
standard 200 m line spacing low altitude airborne
magnetic map probably due to the thick overburden.
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43 23

Logging of 480 m of drill core from Lahtojoki shows
that the body is mainly composed of macrocrystal
tuffisitic kimberlite and subordinate tuffisitic kimber-
lite breccia with relatively rare hybabyssal kimberlite.
The degree of weathering in the upper part of the pipe
varies. In places there is a several meters thick soft
weathered kimberlite horizon whereas in other parts
the weathered kimberlite has been removed by glacial
erosion exposing fresh kimberlite. Mini-bulk sam-
pling results of the pipe suggest an average grade of
26 carats per hundred tons for diamonds greater than
0.8 mm in diameter (Tyni, 1997).
2.2. Dyke 16, Seitaperä, Kuhmo
Dyke 16 (Seitaperä) is located in Kuhmo, 200 km
NE from Kaavi, closer to the center of the Karelian
craton (Fig. 1), where the bedrock (Fig. 3) is cha-
racterized by Archean gneisses, migmatites and gra-
nites (3.1–2.6 Ga) through which runs the N–S
trending Kuhmo greenstone belt (3.0–2.7 Ga) (e.g.
Piirainen, 1988). SE–NW trending mafic Paleoprote-
rozoic dyke swarms (2.5–2 Ga) are also common in
the area (Vuollo et al., 1995 and references therein).
The Kuhmo district is characterized by similar type
and age of Quaternary deposits as Kaavi, although
there are some regional distinctions. For instance,
drumlins are less common and do not form actual
drumlin fields as they do in Kaavi. The glacial strati-
graphy in the area consists of two basal till units
covered by ablation till and/or a widespread unit of
glaciolacustrine sediments (Saarnisto et al., 1980).
The main ice flow direction in the region was from
northwest (3008) to southeast (1208). The till cover is
somewhat thicker than in the Kaavi area, usually
more than 3 m and in places even considerably
more. The transport distances in the area are known
to be exceptionally short (Saarnisto et al., 1980).
Dyke 16 has characteristics of both olivine lam-
proite and Group II kimberlite (O’Brien and Tyni,

Fig. 3. Generalized bedrock map of the Kuhmo area (modified after Hyppönen, 1983; Luukkonen, 2001). Sampling sites on both sides of the
Näätäniemi serpentinite massif are marked as well as the location of Dyke 16 and its sampling area. The coordinates around the edge of the map
are UTM coordinates.
24 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43

1999). The micaceous rock is mainly composed
(~70%) of phlogopite microphenocrysts while macro-
crysts other than olivine are virtually absent. Approxi-
mately 20% serpentinized olivine macrocrysts/
phenocrysts occur with microphenocrysts of phlogo-
pite, K-richterite, diopside, apatite and perovskite in a
serpentine and calcite matrix. Dyke 16 is known to
contain diamonds but the contents are extremely low,
approximately 1 ct per 100 t. The SW–NE dyke swarm
intrudes a 300  600 m area, with approximately 20%
of the area being kimberlitic based on drilling and
excavator trenching. The thickness of glacial sediments
varies between 3 and 12 m. The upper part of the body
consists of soft preglacially weathered kimberlite, the
thickness of this layer being approximately one meter.
Ar–Ar measurements from phlogopite micropheno-
crysts have resulted in age of ca. 1200 Ma for the
kimberlite (H. O’Brien, personal communication).
3. Methodology
3.1. Sampling areas
3.1.1. Lahtojoki, Kaavi
Till sampling was carried out in the Kaavi area in
2001–2002. The results of an earlier heavy mineral
survey conducted by GTK in Kaavi in 1994 were also
included here. In addition, indicator mineral data on
previous claims (expired in 1999 or before) reported

Fig. 4. Distribution of the total indicator content in till in the Kaavi area. Data compiled from expired claims reported to the Ministry of Trade
and Industry. The locations of the known kimberlite pipes in the area are marked as stars. Indicator counts (number of Cr- and Ti-pyropes, Cr-
diopsides, Mg-ilmenites and chromites) are normalized to 10 kg and usually consist of grains below 1.2 mm in diameter. Till samples with no
indicator minerals are labeled as negative. The arrows point to the main (2) and the older ice flow (1) directions in the region. The coordinates
around the edge of the map are UTM coordinates.
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
by exploration companies to the Ministry of Trade and
Industry were compiled and used as a guide when
planning the Kaavi area sampling program (Fig. 4).
The GTK Lahtojoki sampling area down-ice from Pipe
7 was approximately 2  2 km in size and located at the
corner of an area that has been extensively sampled by
exploration companies. Nevertheless, very few sam-
ples were taken previously from the area of interest in
this study. The indicator anomaly recorded by the
previous sampling programs exists partly off the
main (younger) ice flow direction relative to Pipe 7.
The results of these investigations are not fully com-
parable to this study, since the samples were mostly
taken by shovel suggesting that only the uppermost
layers of the till cover (possibly ablation till) were
reached, whereas in this study the sampling was per-
formed using excavator and drill rig. The sample size
used was also smaller than in this study (10 vs. 20 kg)
and the size fraction studied for indicator minerals is
not entirely known (mostly below 1.2 mm).
Most of the GTK samples were taken by excavator
with a maximum reach of 5 m. Only in the vicinity of
Pipe 7 the samples were collected by drill rig due to
the thick glacial deposits. Sampling methodology was
adopted from Hirvas and Nenonen (1990). The num-
ber of samples taken from each pit depended on the
thickness of the basal till unit. The first sample was
taken from the uppermost layer of the basal till, i.e.,
the C-horizon usually at ~1 m depth, and the follow-
ing in 1–2 m intervals. The last sample was taken
from just above the bedrock or, if the bedrock was not
reached, from the deepest part of the pit. The initial
excavator sample size was 20 kg. The drilled till
samples were combined from 1 m sections of core
that weighed 9 kg in maximum.
The GTK sampling program consisted of 46
excavator pits (Fig. 5) and from each 1 to 4 till
samples were taken, resulting in 84 excavated till
samples in total. 30 pits reached the bedrock with an
average overburden thickness of 2.3 m. The older
basal till bed was encountered in only one sampling
site. The objective of the longest sampling profile
(Line 1L) parallel to the main ice flow was to define
the area of maximum concentration of indicators
derived from the kimberlite and to measure the
length of the dispersal fan. Perpendicular profiles
(Lines 2L and 3L) were made in order to determine
the width and spreading angle of the fan. Line 3L
25
was done during a second sampling stage and
placed at the indicator maximum area on Line 1L.
A few samples were also taken from the distal areas
of Pipe 7 to estimate the regional background indi-
cator concentration due to the effect of other Kaavi
cluster kimberlites. In order to study the pipe area
covered by thick glacial sediments (13–20 m) nearer
the pipe a drill rig was used for sampling. Twenty-
five holes were drilled to form two crossing lines
(4L and 5L) parallel and perpendicular to the ice
flow, respectively. Altogether 87 till samples were
recovered from the drill cores representing different
(1 m) layers of the till bed. A few meters of bedrock
were cored from almost every drill hole to ensure
that bedrock was reached and consequently that
measured overburden thickness was correct.
3.1.2. Seitaperä, Kuhmo
Till sampling was carried out in the Seitaperä area
in Kuhmo in 2002–2003 using excavator and metho-
dology as described in Section 3.1.1. However, the
initial sample size of 20 kg used in the Kaavi area was
increased to 60 kg in Kuhmo due to the lower indi-
cator content of Dyke 16 compared to that of Pipe 7.
In the Seitaperä study area (Fig. 6) the excavator
sampling was also performed in two stages. As a
first stage a 2-km profile (Line 1S) was sampled
down-ice from the kimberlite parallel to the main
ice flow. For the second sampling stage a shorter
perpendicular profile (Line 2S) was placed at the
greatest extent on Line 1S where indicators from
Dyke 16 were found in what is believed to be con-
centrations above background. In total 42 pits were
excavated and 98 till samples were collected from
them. Half of the pits (21) reached the bedrock with
an average overburden thickness of 2.5 m. From most
sampling sites two to three basal till samples were
taken but occasionally the ablation till unit was so
thick that the basal till could not be sampled at all. The
older basal till bed was not found in any of the pits in
the sampling area.
Since the main indicator in Dyke 16 is chromite it
was essential to study the influence of the Archean
ultramafic rocks of the Kuhmo greenstone belt on the
regional chromite content in till. For this purpose two
pits were excavated on both up- and down-ice of the
voluminous Näätäniemi serpentinite massif (Fig. 3)
that belongs, along with the adjacent ultramafic meta-
26 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43

Fig. 5. The GTK sampling area down-ice from Pipe 7. The borders of Pipe 7 are marked with solid line and the newly discovered satellite body
is also indicated. The arrows point to the main (2) and the older ice flow (1) directions in the region. Labels 1L to 5L mark the five sampling
profiles. The normalized total indicator mineral contents in the 0.25–0.5 mm fraction of 15 kg till samples from excavated sites are marked in
double boxes. The value in the lower box represents the indicator content at the base of the till bed and the upper value that of the upper basal
till. The drilling sites are marked with dots, the colors of which indicating the indicator abundance in the deepest 2–4 m layer of till. The
indicator dispersal fan formed by the younger ice flow stage is outlined with dashed lines. The coordinates around the edge of the map are UTM
coordinates.

volcanics, to the Kuhmo sub-belt (Liipo et al., 1994).
The massif consists of Archean serpentinites crosscut
by an early Proterozoic differentiated dyke (Hanski,
1984). The serpentinites are meta-dunites and apart
from chromite, the primary mineralogy has been
replaced (Liipo et al., 1994). The massif is located
approximately 30 km up-ice from the study area.
From all pits 2–3 basal till samples were taken accord-
ing to the same sampling methodology as in the main
Seitaperä study area.
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43 27

Fig. 6. The GTK sampling area down-ice from Dyke 16. The borders of the dyke swarm defined by magnetic anomaly are marked with solid
line. The arrow points to the main ice flow direction. Labels 1S and 2S mark the two sampling profiles. The normalized total indicator mineral
contents in the 0.25–0.5 mm fraction of 45 kg till samples from excavated sites are marked in double boxes. The value in the lower box
represents the indicator content at the base of the till bed and the upper value that of the upper basal till. Sampling site 6538 discussed in text.
The indicator dispersal fan is outlined with dashed lines. Due to the low indicator contents in till, the shape and extent of the fan are uncertain
(question marks). The coordinates around the edge of the map are UTM coordinates.

3.2. Sample processing and analysis
3.2.1. Kimberlite samples
Four kimberlite samples from Pipe 7 and eight
samples from Dyke 16 were processed for indicator
minerals. Most of the samples were weathered kim-
berlite boulders, some kilograms in initial weight.
These samples were processed by lightly crushing
and sieving the kimberlite material into b 2 mm frac-
tion followed by heavy medium separation (HMS)
28 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43

and hand picking of 0.25–2.0 mm fraction. One sam-
ple from Pipe 7 and four samples from Dyke 16 were
composed of completely disintegrated kimberlite
material and weighed several tens of kilograms each
(20–95 kg). Before HMS and hand picking, these
voluminous samples were preconcentrated using a
GTK modified 3WKnelson Concentrator as described
in Section 3.2.2. Mineral compositions from selected
indicator grains were determined by a Cameca Came-
bax SX50 electron microprobe. For garnet, ilmenite
and chromite analyses, an acceleration voltage of 25
kV, probe current of 48 nA (or 55 nA) and beam
diameter of 1 Am were applied. The parameters for
clinopyroxene analyses were 15 kV, 30 nA and 5 Am,
respectively. Kimberlite boulder samples were also
subjected to chemical analysis. Analyses were per-
formed by XRF (Philips BW 1480) and ICP-MS
(Perkin-Elmer Sciex Elan 5000) at the GTK Geola-

Till sample

Dry screening split 500 g Wet screening

0.063 mm 1 mm

>1 mm
<0.063 mm Optical microscopy
Chemical analysis or stored

> 0.063 mm Preconcentration

stored Knelson

ICP-MS XRF Overflow

total dissolution stored

HMS
d = 3.2

d < 3.2
stored

LIMS

Magnetic fraction
stored

Dry sieving

<0.25 mm
stored

0.25-1.0 mm
Optical microscopy

SEM-EDS EMP
analyses analyses

Fig. 7. A simplified flow sheet for the till sample processing line.
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43 29

boratory. For ICP-MS analyses the samples were
treated with total dissolution using HF–HClO4 diges-
tion followed by lithium metaborate and sodium per-
borate fusion (Rautiainen et al., 1996).
3.2.2. Till samples
A split of 500 g was put aside from each till
sample for geochemical analysis before indicator
mineral processing. The sample material subjected
for chemical analysis was the silt and clay fraction
(b0.063 mm). Analyses were performed by XRF
and ICP-MS at the GTK Geolaboratory as described
in Section 3.2.1. The excavator till samples were then
screened down to b1.0 mm grain size to reduce their
volume. The drilled till samples were screened only
down to b2.0 mm due to their smaller initial weight.
Nevertheless, selected coarser fractions (1–8 mm)
from both sample types were also studied for indica-
tors and kimberlite fragments. Preconcentrates were
made from screened 15 kg (Kaavi) and 45 kg
(Kuhmo) excavator and 4–6 kg drilled till samples
using a GTK modified 3WKnelson Concentrator
(Chernet et al., 1999). The concentrator includes an
attached semi-automatic pulp feeder that enables near
quantitative extraction of moderately heavy minerals
from till samples, which is controlled by regular pro-
cessing of blank till samples each spiked with 0.25–
0.5 mm fraction Cr-pyrope grains (Lehtonen and
Marmo, 2002). All till samples processed in this
study were classified as bnormal sandy tillQ using
the GTK standard classification scheme for Quatern-
ary samples. The Knelson Concentrator modification
is especially designed for this type of sample material.
The preconcentration reduced the Kaavi and Kuhmo
excavator samples into 200–300 and 700–900 g,
respectively. The drilled till samples produced 100–
200 g preconcentrates. Final heavy mineral concen-
trates were produced by heavy medium separation
using acetone-diluted methylene iodine (d = 3.2 g
cm 3). A dry low intensity drum magnetic separator
(LIMS) was applied to the HMS concentrates to
remove magnetite. Finally the 0.25–1.0 (2.0) mm

Fig. 8. Pie graph showing the relative abundances of indicator minerals in the 0.25–1.0 mm fraction of: a) Pipe 7 kimberlite; b) Dyke 16
kimberlite; c) till samples around Pipe 7; and d) till samples around Dyke 16. Visual identification of indicator minerals was confirmed using
SEM-EDS and/or electron microprobe.
30 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43 31

Fig. 9. Compositional classification diagrams for indicator minerals. The analytical database containing microprobe analyses presented here is
available as an Open file M 41.2/2005/2 at the Geological Survey of Finland (Lehtonen et al., 2005). a and b) Cr2O3 versus CaO for pyrope
garnet from: a) Pipe 7, its satellite kimberlite, and till samples; and b) Dyke 16 and till samples. The harzburgite, lherzolite and non-peridotite
fields are redrawn after Gurney (1984) and the wehrlite field is separated according to Sobolev et al. (1973). c and d) Al2O3 versus MgO
classification for clinopyroxene (after Ramsay, 1992) from: c) Pipe 7, its satellite kimberlite, and till samples; and d) Dyke 16 and till samples.
e and f) Cr2O3 versus MgO classification for chromite redrawn after Smith et al. (1991) from: e) Pipe 7 and its satellite kimberlite; and f) Dyke
16 and till samples. The diamond intergrowth (D.I.G.F.) and inclusion (D.I.F.) fields are marked. Label O.F. stands for overlap field for
kimberlitic and non-kimberlitic rocks; K.F. for kimberlitic field. Labels are discussed in text. g and h) Cr2O3 versus TiO2 diagram redrawn after
Fipke et al. (1995) for chromite from: g) Pipe 7 and its satellite kimberlite; and f) Dyke 16 and till samples. The field unique to lamproites and
kimberlites is labelled as L./K.F., diamond inclusion and intergrowth field as D.I.F., the non-lamproitic/kimberlitic field as N.L./K.F., and the
overlap field for kimberlitic and non-kimberlitic rocks as O.F. i and j) Fe2O3 versus MgO diagram redrawn after Gurney and Zweistra (1995) for
ilmenite from: i) Pipe 7, its satellite kimberlite, and till samples; and j) Dyke 16.

size indicator grains were hand picked under binocu-
lar microscope from the non-magnetic fraction. In
order to confirm their identification, all indicator
grains were analyzed using an EDS equipped Jeol
JSM-5900LV scanning electron microscope. Accurate
mineral compositions from selected indicator grains
were determined by a Cameca Camebax SX50 elec-
tron microprobe as described in Section 3.2.1. A
simplified schematic flow sheet for sample processing
is given in Fig. 7.
32 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
4. Results
4.1. Indicator minerals in Pipe 7
The indicator minerals in Pipe 7 are abundant and
include Mg-ilmenite, garnet and Cr-diopside (Fig. 8),
although chromite is virtually absent. The analytical
database containing microprobe analyses on indicator
minerals from Pipe 7 is available as an Open file at
GTK (Lehtonen et al., 2005). Mg-ilmenite grains are
typically covered by leucoxene alteration and poly-
granular re-crystallization is another common mor-
phological feature. In Fig. 9 microprobe analyses of
Pipe 7 ilmenites are plotted in a Fe2O3–MgO-diagram
(Gurney and Zweistra, 1995) that is widely used for
describing the redox conditions in the mantle at or
close to the time of emplacement of the host kimber-
litic magma. In Fig. 8 indicator garnets in Pipe 7 are
divided into two groups based on composition, as
follows: (1) purple, red and lilac Cr-pyropes (mostly
G9 and fewer G10 according to the scheme of Daw-
son and Stephens, 1975); and (2) orange Ti-pyropes
(G1/G2) and eclogitic garnets (G3, G5). CaO and
Cr2O3 contents from pyrope xenocrysts are shown
in Fig. 9. Approximately 20% of the 0.25–2.0 mm
pyrope grains are covered by kelyphitic rims, which
are more commonly developed on Cr-pyropes than on
the other garnet varieties and get more abundant as the
grain size increases. Often these rims have been partly
or completely broken off revealing rounded, pitted
borange peelQ resorption surfaces. The Cr-diopside
grains are also typically partially rounded due to
chemical reaction and mechanical abrasion. Based
on composition they are mostly megacrystal, eclogitic
or derived from garnet peridotites (Ramsay, 1992; Fig.
9). The rare chromite grains in Pipe 7 are usually
rounded octahedrons (Lehtonen and Marmo, 2002),
which have compositions that plot dominantly in the
diamond inclusion and kimberlite phenocryst fields in
Cr2O3–MgO (Smith et al., 1991) and Cr2O3–TiO2
(Fipke et al., 1995) diagrams (Fig. 9), respectively.
In addition to kimberlitic indicators, Pipe 7 con-
tains distinctly bright blue corundum as a rare acces-
sory mineral that can be used as a pathfinder. The
largest grains discovered are ~3 mm in diameter. Their
source remains unknown but it is likely that they are
derived from the lower crust. Based on 20 analyzed
corundum grains the composition can be listed as
follows, 96.80–98.17 wt.% Al2O3, 0.10–0.021 wt.%
Cr2O3, 0.08–0.15 wt.% V2O3 and 0.35–0.55 wt.%
FeO (tot.).
4.2. Indicator minerals in Dyke 16
The most abundant indicator mineral in the rela-
tively indicator-poor Dyke 16 is chromite with rare
pyrope (G1/G2 and G9/G10) and Cr-diopside (Fig.
8). Mg-ilmenite is present only in trace amounts.
Microprobe analyses on Dyke 16 indicator minerals
are published in Lehtonen et al. (2005). The morpho-
logical characteristics of pyropes and Cr-diopsides
are quite similar to those in Pipe 7. Their discrimina-
tion diagrams are presented in Fig. 9. Chromite ana-
lyses are presented in Cr2O3–MgO (Smith et al.,
1991) and Cr2O3–TiO2 (Fipke et al., 1995) classifica-
tions (Fig. 9).
Kimberlitic chromites differ from other indicator
minerals in that in general they cannot be readily
separated in sediment samples from non-kimberlitic
bbackgroundQ chromites under optical microscope or
even, in some cases, based on composition. Most
chromite grains in Dyke 16 are rounded octahedrons
but irregular fragments are also common, especially in
coarser grain sizes. In addition, some grains have
certain diagnostic morphological features that can be
observed under optical microscope, such as resorbed
grain surfaces (Muggeridge, 1995) and so called
bcorona textureQ, i.e., the outer rim of the grain exhi-
bits enrichment in Ti compared to the grain core
(Berryman et al., 1999; Lehtonen and Marmo, 2002;
Shee et al., 1991; Wyatt et al., 1999). However, these
features are not present in all grains and they can be
also lost through physical wear such as during glacial
transport (Golubev, 1995).
The recognition of kimberlitic chromites based on
composition is not simple because they display a vast
compositional spectrum (Griffin and Ryan, 1993).
Fipke (1991) has recognized three compositional
types of kimberlitic chromites useful in diamond
exploration. These include (1) chromites with similar
composition to the ones that exist as diamond inclu-
sions and intergrowths (i.e. DI-chromites after Fipke’s
terminology), (2) high-Cr, high-Ti chromites (Cr–Ti
chromites) and (3) relatively low-Cr, high-Al and/or
high-Fe Cr-spinels and chromites (Al–Fe chromites).
The DI-group is characterized by high contents of
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
MgO (N 8.7 wt.%) and Cr2O3 (N57.8 wt.%) and low
contents of TiO2 (b0.6 wt.%). However, several vari-
eties of non-kimberlitic rocks may contain chromites
with similar compositions to the DI-group (Fipke et
al., 1995; Griffin and Ryan, 1995) and, in fact, the
discovery of Cr–Ti chromites in regional sediment
samples is a much stronger indication for the presence
of kimberlitic sources in the area. The Cr–Ti chro-
mites are phenocrysts crystallized from TiO2-rich
kimberlitic/lamproitic magmas and unique to these
rock types. They contain more than 0.8 wt.% TiO2
and plot within the field unique to lamproites/kimber-
lites in the Cr2O3–TiO2 classification (Fig. 9), whereas
the Al–Fe chromites plot within the overlap field
along with chromites from other rock types.
In Dyke 16 there is a large population of Cr–Ti
chromites (Fig. 9h); nearly all of the high-Mg, high-
Cr chromites in the diamond field in the Cr2O3–
MgO diagram (Fig. 9f) are in fact phenocrysts with
high levels of TiO2 and, as such, they are not
indicative of diamond potential (Grütter and Apter,
1998). Al–Fe chromites are also abundant in Dyke
16; in the Cr2O3–MgO diagram they form a low-Cr,
high-Mg lherzolitic tail. Based on empirical data
these chromites (and the DI-group) can be separated
reasonably well with a line that is drawn in the
diagram in Fig. 9f, separating the kimberlitic field
(K.F.) and the overlap field (O.F.) for kimberlites
and other rock types. Using the combination of the
Cr2O3–MgO line and the compositional criteria for
Cr–Ti chromites (Fipke, 1991), 78 out 82 analyzed
chromites from Dyke 16 are categorized as kimber-
litic at least in one of the two classification
schemes. This rough compositional separation
method was applied also to the till chromites to
distinguish Dyke 16 derived grains from background
chromites.
4.3. The Lahtojoki indicator fan
Down-ice from Pipe 7, in the GTK sampling area
(Fig. 5), a well-defined indicator fan exists, parallel to
and symmetrically distributed around the main ice
flow direction. The samples taken up-ice of Pipe 7
indicate that areal background indicator counts in the
0.25–1.0 mm grain fraction vary from a few up to 20
in 15 kg of till. The highest concentration of indicator
grains in sampling line 1L is found nearly 1.2 km
33
down-ice from Pipe 7. At this distance the indicator
fan is approximately 600 m wide (sampling line 3L)
and the highest concentration of indicators is in most
cases found at the base of the till bed. Further away
the indicators are instead slightly enriched in the
uppermost part of the basal till. The last sampling
site on Line 1L, 2 km from the kimberlite, is still
enriched in indicators compared to the samples taken
from the background areas, suggesting that fan
extends even further. The till sample indicator popula-
tion corresponds well with that of Pipe 7, which is a
strong evidence for the derivation of this fan from this
kimberlite. No remarkable differences are detected
either in the proportions of different indicator minerals
(Fig. 8), their composition (Fig. 9) or texture. Microp-
robe analyses on indicator minerals extracted from till
in the Lahtojoki sampling area are published in Leh-
tonen et al. (2005). The higher percentage of purple
Cr-pyrope garnets (G9-G10) extracted from till rela-
tive to kimberlite may result from their being easily
recognizable under optical microscope compared to,
for instance, orange Ti-pyropes and eclogitic garnets,
which are sometimes difficult to separate from orange
background minerals, such as spessartine and stauro-
lite. Kelyphitized garnet grains, which are probably
the indicators most prone to fragmentation during
glacial transport, are found even in the samples most
distant from the source.
While studying the glacial deposits in the Pipe 7
area by drilling, another small kimberlitic body of yet
unknown size was discovered. It is located 300 m
down-ice from Pipe 7, exactly at the intersection of
Lines 4L and 5L (Figs. 5 and 10). The satellite
kimberlite intersection of 9 m from a 458 dipping
drill hole is composed of tuffisitic kimberlite breccia
and bounded on both sides by gneissic country rock.
This satellite intrusion is clearly related to Pipe 7
spatially and mineralogically in that it contains the
same indicator mineral suite as Pipe 7 (Fig. 9) but the
mutual proportions of different indicators cannot be
estimated due to the small sample size. Microprobe
analyses on indicator minerals from the satellite kim-
berlite are published in Lehtonen et al. (2005). The
indicator dispersal pattern in the vicinity of the lines
4L and 5L intersection seems to be rather complex
(Fig. 10). This complexity probably derives from the
superimposed indicator fans generated by Pipe 7 and
the satellite, and partly from variations in bedrock
34 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43

Fig. 10. A 3D model of the drill profile 4L in the GTK sampling area down-ice from Pipe 7. The total indicator mineral counts presented for the
0.25–0.5 mm fraction for drilled till samples are the sum of counts for 1 m core samples combined in 2–4 m core sections. The land surface
appears as a layer because the drill holes are presented in 3D space. Note that the drill hole that intersected the satellite kimberlite was not
vertical but drilled in direction 2508 using 458 dip. The length of the satellite kimberlite intersection is approximately 9 m.

topography. The drill core sample containing 995
indicators is composed of till mixed with abundant
kimberlite material, suggesting that the kimberlite is
dipping upwards to the NW and probably subcropping
just up-ice of this anomalous sample. Both kimber-
lites, Pipe 7 and its satellite, lie in topographical
depressions and are covered by thick ice-lake clay
and till deposit, N 12 m in total. It seems that the
bindicator plumeQ, i.e. basal till enriched in kimberlitic
material, stays at the lowest part of the till bed as the
bedrock topography rises to the SE away from the
satellite body.
Studies on coarser grain size fractions (2–8 mm) of
the till drill cores revealed that they contain a con-
siderable amount of weathered kimberlitic material. In
the most enriched 1 m drill core samples, close to one
hundred kimberlite pieces were found. Significantly,
the presence of these fragments does not exactly
correlate with the indicator contents of the samples;
abundant fragments are present both in indicator-poor
and indicator-rich samples. In the excavator samples
taken further down-ice from Pipe 7, kimberlitic frag-
ments are far less abundant despite the much larger
sample size compared to the drill samples, and
become even more rare as the transport distance
increases. However, the fragments are still present in
the samples taken from the indicator maximum area
on Line 3L (Fig. 5), where they typically number
fewer than 10 per sample.
4.4. The Seitaperä indicator fan
The indicator concentration in till deposited down-
ice from Dyke 16 (Fig. 6) is much lower than that in
the Pipe 7 are, as expected based on the different
indicator concentrations in the kimberlites themselves.
It is worth emphasizing that the normalized indicator
counts presented in Fig. 6 are for 45 kg of b 1 mm till
whereas in Fig. 5 they are for 15 kg. The indicator
maximum exists in samples directly over the kimber-
lite and immediately down-ice from it, after which the
concentration drops rapidly. At 800 m distance down-
ice from the kimberlite the thickness of the ablation
till unit increases preventing continuous sampling of
the basal till. The silicate indicator population in till
does not correspond very well to that of the kimber-
lite; Cr-diopsides and Ti-pyrope and eclogitic kimber-
litic garnets are considerably underrepresented in the
till (Fig. 8) whereas purple Cr-pyropes are found in
low concentrations (b 5 grains in 45 kg of till) over the
entire sampling area, even in the most distal samples
at approximately 2 km distance from Dyke 16. This
evidence suggests that the silicate indicators in till
most likely represent a regional feature. Microprobe
analyses on indicator minerals extracted from till in
the Seitaperä sampling area are published in Lehtonen
et al. (2005).
While studying the indicator mineral fan down-ice
from the kimberlite, special attention was paid to
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
distinguishing Dyke 16-derived chromites from non-
kimberlitic background chromites. Altogether 1581
till chromites were microprobed, 1405 only for the
most important main elements (Mg, Al, Ti, Cr,
Fe F Zn) and the remainder for 14 major and trace
elements. The kimberlitic chromites, 559 in total,
were screened out as described in Section 4.2. Fig.
11 using the TiO2–Cr2O3-classification (Fipke et al.,
1995) illustrates how the till chromite population
evolves as the transport distance from Dyke 16
increases. Gradually the number of chromites in the
compositional field for kimberlites and lamproites
becomes less. Kimberlitic chromites also seem to be
enriched in the upper part of the basal till very near the
Dyke 16 down-ice contact. The most distal sampling
site (6528) on Line 1S that contains kimberlitic chro-
mite grains is located approximately 800 m down-ice
from the kimberlite — at the same distance where the
ablation till unit starts to increase in thickness and
where the second, perpendicular profile (2S; Fig. 6)
was placed. On line 2S indicators are widespread but
in low numbers along the entire sampling line. Corona
chromites, which are known not to survive over long
transport distances in unglaciated terrains (Berryman
et al., 1999), are detected at least up to 800 m from the
kimberlite.
4.4.1. Non-kimberlitic background chromites
When comparing the TiO2–Cr2O3 and MgO–
Cr2O3 diagrams of Dyke 16 and the till chromites
(Figs. 9 and 11), the strongest regional background
chromite population can be identified as a group of
chromites with ca. 35–53 wt.% of Cr2O3, 0.3–1.4
wt.% of TiO2 and 6–12 wt.% of MgO, since it is
present literally in all till samples but not in the
kimberlite. Significantly, a similar background popu-
lation also forms a major proportion of a chromite
database consisting of nearly 5600 microprobed
grains extracted from Kuhmo area till samples. This
database was made available to GTK for this study by
Conroy Diamonds and Gold plc and contains data on
14 major and minor elements for each grain.
Based on regional geology, the most probable
sources for the background chromites are the Archean
ultramafic rocks of the Kuhmo greenstone belt, such as
the Näätäniemi serpentinite massif and associated
metavolcanics (Fig. 3). This hypothesis is supported
by morphological observations on the background
35
chromites that agree with those described from the
chromites in the serpentinites (Liipo et al., 1994).
Most of the till chromites are in the form of euhedral
to subhedral crystals belonging to the finer-grained
portion of the 0.25–0.5 mm fraction studied. As
expected, the basal till samples taken down-ice from
the Näätäniemi massif (Fig. 3) contain chromite in
relatively high concentrations, on average more than
200 grains in the 0.25–1.0 mm fraction from a 45-kg
sample of b1.0 mm till. In till samples taken up-ice of
the massif, the chromite contents are very low, on
average only 5–10 grains in the same size sample.
Based on these results the massif and the associated
ultramafic metavolcanics are clearly feeding abundant
chromites to the basal till. Most importantly, the bulk
of these till chromites agree in terms of major elements
with the Dyke 16 area (and the Conroy database)
background chromite population described previously.
The microprobe analyses of the Näätäniemi till chro-
mites are published in Lehtonen et al. (2005).
4.5. Till fine fraction geochemistry
Chemical analyses using XRF and ICP-MS were
performed on selected till samples with variable indi-
cator contents and distances to the Lahtojoki and
Seitaperä kimberlites. The objective was to study
possible anomalous geochemical signatures of kim-
berlites in till deposited down-ice from Pipe 7 and
Dyke 16. Another aim was to study whether there is a
correlation between the chemical composition and the
indicator content of a sample. Special focus was
placed on a combination of incompatible (such as
Sr, Ba, LREE, Ti) and compatible elements (Mg, Ni,
Cr and Co), which together are diagnostic for kimber-
litic rocks (Fipke et al., 1995). The material analyzed
was the b 0.063 mm fraction, which is probably the
most commonly used till material for this type of
geochemical investigation (Saarnisto, 1990). More-
over, comprehensive regional geochemical data exist
for this grain size covering most parts of Finland
(Koljonen, 1992; Salminen, 1995).
Twenty-two till samples were analyzed down-ice
from Pipe 7. Their total 0.25–1.0 mm fraction indi-
cator counts per 15 kg varied from 0 to 543. Despite
the differences in indicators contents, all of the sam-
ples turned out to be very uniform in chemical com-
position and to resemble closely to the regional
36 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43

Fig. 11. Chromite analyses from the Dyke 16 sampling area till samples plotted in a Cr2O3–TiO2-diagram redrawn after Fipke et al. (1995).
Analyses from the upper (top), middle and lower (bottom) parts of the basal till bed are denoted: a) till sample 6538, 100 m southeast (down-
ice); b) till sample 6535, 200 m southeast; c) till sample 6530, 600 m southeast; d) till sample 6528, 800 m southeast; e) till sample 6525, 1150
southeast; and f) till sample 6517, 1800 m southeast from Dyke 16. The field unique to lamproites and kimberlites is labelled as L./K.F.,
diamond inclusion and intergrowth field as D.I.F., the non-lamproitic/kimberlitic field as N.L./K.F., and the overlap field for kimberlitic and
non-kimberlitic rocks as O.F.
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
Fig. 12. The concentration of selected elements in kimberlite and the b0.063 mm fraction of regional till (average of multiple samples) and
selected till samples down-ice of: a) Pipe 7; and b) Dyke 16. The regional till data from Koljonen (1992).
geochemical background (Fig. 12). The composition
of the regional till is an average from 123 samples
(Koljonen, 1992), containing no indicators by default.
When compared to the regional background, Pipe 7 is
particularly enriched in Ni, Cr and Mg, but this sig-
nature could not be detected in the till samples from
the Pipe 7 study area.
Ten till samples were analyzed down-ice from
Dyke 16, with total 0.25–1.0 mm fraction indicator
counts per 45 kg varying from 0 to 227. Their ana-
lyses plot mostly along the geochemical background
but one of them (6538) shows slight enrichment in Cr
(Fig. 12). The composition of the regional till is an
average from 154 samples (Koljonen, 1992), contain-
ing no indicators by default. The geochemical distinc-
tions of Dyke 16 compared to the regional
background can be detected mainly in the same ele-
ments as in the case of Pipe 7 (Fig. 12). Again Ni, Cr
and Mg are the most anomalous elements in the
kimberlite. The most Cr-rich sample 6538 is indeed
the sample containing the highest number of indica-
tors (227) and taken closest to the kimberlite (Fig. 6).
5. Discussion
Various studies in Finland (e.g. Hellaakoski, 1930;
Virkkala, 1971; Perttunen, 1977; Saarnisto et al.,
1980; Salminen, 1980; Salonen, 1986) have shown
that the bulk of the till has been transported less than
10 km from its source. The transport distance of
kimberlitic material in till is affected by a number of
37
factors, such as the bedrock topography and till bed
thickness. The transport distance of a thin till layer is
shorter than that of a thick one (Hirvas et al., 1977)
and the transport distance of basal till is shorter in its
lower parts than in its upper parts (Sauramo, 1924;
Nurmi, 1976; Salminen and Hartikainen, 1985).
According to the model by Miller (1984) of a
hypothetical dispersal train, material derived from a
small bedrock source climbs gently within the enclos-
ing till as a function of an increasing transport dis-
tance (DiLabio, 1991). Thus, indicator mineral grains
and other material derived from a kimberlite will
eventually be enriched at the surface of the basal till
down-ice from the kimberlite contact, while the base
of the till bed is renewed from material derived from
country rock. The dilution process continues gradu-
ally throughout the basal till bed and finally kimber-
litic material is completely replaced.
The dynamic conditions during till formation and
deposition are favorable for the survival of smaller
original grains during comminution within the till bed.
Consequently, studies on till size fractions indicate
that coarse material is transported far less distance
than the finer fractions (e.g. Peltoniemi, 1985; Saar-
nisto et al., 1980). Relatively soft kimberlitic rock
fragments will probably not last long in glacial trans-
port but instead break into smaller fragments and
liberate more indicator mineral grains and other kim-
berlitic material further down-ice. During the transport
of individual mineral grains dilution through mixing
with material derived from country rock is the domi-
nant process; degradation or physical breakdown does
38 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
not have a significant effect on the indicator concen-
tration in till as all kimberlitic indicator minerals
survive long distances of glacial transport (McClena-
ghan and Kjarsgaard, 2001). However, indicator
grains with pre-existing fractures will probably start
disintegrating into multiple smaller fragments, thus,
potentially creating a false impression of an anomaly/
anomalous sample, sometimes referred as a bnugget
effectQ.
5.1. The case study of Pipe 7, Lahtojoki, Kaavi
The results of the previous sampling programs
(Fig. 4) combined with the outcome of this study
(Fig. 5) suggest that the Pipe 7 dispersal fan has
been formed as a net effect of the two known ice
flow events in the region (older ~W–E and younger
~NW–SE). The formation of the fan can be explained
by using the vector addition model by Stea and Finck
(2001). Out of the two ice flow events, the younger
appears to have had more prominent effect on the
shape of the fan based on the high indicator counts
in the GTK study area (Fig. 5). During the latest
glaciation the older till was reworked, transported
and re-deposited along the younger ice flow. The
older till bed was virtually destroyed in the process,
since it was found in only one GTK sampling site.
There is a clear indicator anomaly on the east side of
the GTK sampling area and partly off the main ice
flow direction relative to Pipe 7 (Fig. 4), which prob-
ably reflects the influence of the pre-existing till bed.
The newly discovered satellite body can hardly
explain these high indicator counts since it is probably
very small and, moreover, located directly down-ice
from Pipe 7. However, the discovery of the satellite
kimberlite demonstrates that there might be even more
undiscovered kimberlitic sources in the Lahtojoki area
contributing to the indicator content in till.
Within the GTK sampling area the indicator con-
tent for 0.25–1.0 mm grains reaches its maximum at
1.2 km distance from the pipe itself and 0.9 km from
the satellite intrusion (Fig. 5). The fact that the till
indicator population corresponds very closely to that
of Pipe 7 favors the interpretation of it being the main
contributor of the kimberlitic material in the dispersal
fan. The satellite, presumably small in size, must have
its impact on the fan as well but this effect cannot be
readily identified. The relatively long distance down-
ice might be explained at some degree by the com-
bined effect of two superimposed indicator fans and
also by the fact that both kimberlite subcrops are
overlain by anomalously thick glacial sediments.
The distance of the indicator maximum in till from
the kimberlite is generally a function of the kimberlite
type, i.e., diatreme facies kimberlite erodes and liber-
ates indicator grains more easily than hypabyssal
kimberlite, and/or the availability of soft kimberlite
regolith for the glacier to erode (McClenaghan et al.,
2004). Drill core logging of Pipe 7 showed that the
kimberlite is mainly composed of diatreme facies
rocks with minor hybabyssal component. On top of
the pipe there occasionally exists a several meters
thick soft weathered kimberlite horizon whereas in
other parts glacial erosion has exposed fresh kimber-
lite. In general it is not exceptional that the indicator
maximum for sand-sized indicators in till exists some
distance away from the kimberlite rather than right at
the down-ice contact. One of the best examples of this
is the dispersal train derived from the Ranch Lake
kimberlite in the Lac de Gras region, Canada, where
the highest indicator concentrations in till occur at 15
to 20 km distance from the pipe (McClenaghan et al.,
2002a,b). The authors concluded that the distal loca-
tion of the indicator maximum might be a result of
glacially transported kimberlite boulders crushed at
this distance, or alternatively that it reflects differential
erosion by the ice sheet. The latter suggests that
during certain highly erosive periods, the glacier
would have produced bands or pockets of kimber-
lite-rich till carried along with the ice. In the case of
Lahtojoki, both of these processes are conceivable but
the first alternative, i.e. indicator grain liberation from
fragments of kimberlite, is considered more realistic
based on field evidence.
As the width of Pipe 7 parallel to the ice flow is
approximately 100 m, it can be assumed that the
deepest parts of the basal till in the down-ice contact
zone consist mainly of kimberlitic material. The abun-
dance of kimberlite pieces and the relatively low
counts of individual indicator grains (Fig. 10) in the
drilled till samples indicate that near the kimberlite
contact the bulk of the kimberlitic material in till exists
as coarser fragments. As the transport distance
increases, also the liberation of grains proceeds. The
dispersal fan from Pipe 7 (and its satellite) parallel to
the main ice flow (Figs. 5 and 10) can be roughly
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
divided into three zones: (1) The proximal zone
extending approximately 500 m down-ice, character-
ized by abundant kimberlitic fragments in virtually all
samples, and a high concentration of kimberlitic mate-
rial at the base of the till bed. (2) The intermediate zone
starts where clearly elevated numbers of indicator
grains have reached the till surface, i.e., at ca. 500 m
distance from Pipe 7. This is probably mainly due to
the effect of grain liberation from coarser kimberlite
fragments, which consequently become less abundant
in the till. The indicator maximum at 1.2 km distance
marks the end of zone 2. (3) The distal zone extends
from this point further down-ice until the lake in the
south (ca. 3 km). Zone 3 shows decreasing numbers of
indicator grains, with the highest concentrations occur-
ring in the upper parts of the basal till, and a virtual
absence of kimberlite fragments. Zone 3 is expected to
dilute down-ice to background levels of kimberlitic
indicators. Due to the existence of the lake, it was
not possible to show at which distance this takes place.
5.2. The case study of Dyke 16, Seitaperä, Kuhmo
The indicator dispersal fan derived from Dyke 16
(Fig. 6) is simpler in its structure compared to that
derived from Pipe 7 (Fig. 5). It is characterized by the
existence of the indicator maximum exactly at the
down-ice contact of the kimberlite followed by a
rapid decrease in concentration down-ice and the
shift of indicator grains to the uppermost part of the
basal till. This type of dispersal fan suggests that in
contrast to the Lahtojoki case, the mineral grain lib-
eration from coarser kimberlite fragments has taken
place immediately at the kimberlite contact. In the
Seitaperä study area, dilution from country rock has
rapidly replaced the kimberlitic material from the base
of the till bed and soon reached also its upper parts. At
800 m distance where the perpendicular sampling
profile was placed, the dilution is already so strong
that it is difficult to estimate the width of the dispersal
fan. It can be also speculated whether the 45 kg
sample of b1 mm till was still too small for this
purpose. The dissimilarity between the indicator
population in Dyke 16 and that extracted from till
(Fig. 8) might be explained by a number of factors,
such as, statistically inadequate number of indicators
grain-counted from the kimberlite, the overall low
concentration of indicators in the till, the existence
39
of a strong background population of till chromites
with some of them possibly misinterpreted as kimber-
litic indicators, and the probable regional derivation of
the Cr-pyrope background.
The results on chromite content in till samples
taken up- and down-ice of the voluminous Näätäniemi
serpentinite massif and the associated metavolcanics
strongly indicate that these Archean ultramafics are
the source for the bulk of the Dyke 16 area (and the
Conroy database) background till chromites. Most
importantly, the major portion of the Näätäniemi till
chromites agrees in terms of composition with the
Seitaperä background population. The distance
between the serpentinite massif and the Seitaperä
study area is approximately 30 km (Fig. 3). As stated
earlier, the bulk of the till (i.e. the coarser material)
has in general traveled less than 10 km from its
source, but for the finer-grained material this is not
unusual transport distance. Saarnisto et al. (1980)
demonstrated that the proportion of 6–20 cm material
originating from the Kuhmo greenstone belt decreases
almost to zero within a kilometer, but the 2–6 cm
pebbles still contain about 5% material from the
greenstone belt at a distance of 15 km. Chromites
extracted from the Seitaperä sampling area are even
considerably finer-grained than that, overwhelmingly
0.25–0.5 mm in size. Thus, it is reasonable to assume
that they have endured in glacial transport all the way
from the greenstone belt.
5.3. Till geochemistry
Till geochemistry is a widely used method in dia-
mond exploration but in the Pipe 7 and Dyke 16 case
studies it did not reveal the kimberlitic targets. The
fairly negative outcome can probably be explained by
the small size of the kimberlitic bodies. It can be also
speculated whether the till silt and clay fraction
(b 0.063 mm) were the optimal materials for chemical
analysis, since its coarse end normally contains large
amounts of feldspar and quartz, which dilute unneces-
sarily the trace element contents of the whole sample
(Saarnisto, 1990). Possibly, a better outcome would
have been achieved by analyzing a finer fraction, such
as clay (b 0.002 mm). On the other hand, Canadian
experiences in till geochemistry from the Lake Timis-
kaming field for detecting a kimberlitic response have
demonstrated that coarser fractions of till, such as
40 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
coarse to very coarse sand, are sometimes the most
effective sample media for this purpose (McClena-
ghan et al., 2002a). From the olivine-rich hypabyssal
Peddie kimberlite pipe, transition and incompatible
element abundances are highest in the 0.5–2.0 mm
fraction of till, which best reflects the incorporation of
kimberlite debris in the form of kimberlitic olivine.
Also the Lahtojoki case, where abundant kimberlitic
fragments exist in the proximal part of the dispersal
fan, may indicate that perhaps chemical analysis of
coarser fractions would have resulted in more distinct
kimberlitic signatures. Ideally, a geochemical compar-
ison of the kimberlite and the local country rock
should have been made in both of the study areas.
This comparison, instead of the comparison between
kimberlite and regional till geochemistry used in this
study, might have highlighted more specifically the
pathfinder elements to look for in the till geochemical
dataset (i.e. McClenaghan et al., 2004).
6. Conclusions and implications for diamond
exploration
The Lahtojoki case study revealed the complexity
of the indicator mineral dispersal fan derived from
Pipe 7 and its satellite kimberlite. The results of the
previous sampling programs suggest that the older ice
flow direction in the region has affected on the indi-
cator dispersal from Pipe 7, but this work shows that
the strongest indicator anomaly exists along the
younger ice flow direction. The indicator grains form
a well-defined fan in the basal till with a maximum
concentration at 1.2 km distance down-ice from Pipe
7. At this point the fan is approximately 600 m wide
(three times the width of Pipe 7 perpendicular to the
main ice flow) and the indicator concentration is typi-
cally highest at the base of the till bed. The Lahtojoki
fan can be roughly divided into three zones: (1) The
proximal zone (b500 m distance from Pipe 7) rich in
indicators and coarse kimberlitic material at the base
of the till bed. (2) The intermediate zone (500–1200
m) with increasing indicator counts throughout the
basal till bed at the expense of coarser kimberlite
fragments. (3) The distal zone (N1200 m) with drop-
ping indicator counts, a general absence of kimberlitic
rock particles and indicator grain enrichment at the
uppermost part of the basal till.
The indicator concentration in till down-ice from
Dyke 16 in Seitaperä is considerably lower than in
the Lahtojoki area and the transport distances are also
shorter. In Seitaperä the indicator maximum is
located immediately down-ice from the kimberlite,
after which the concentration drops rapidly and the
indicators exist mostly in the upper portion of the till
bed as in Zone 3 in Lahtojoki. The most distal sample
containing indicators in significant numbers was
taken ca. 800 m away from Dyke 16. At this distance
the width of the dispersal fan seems to be less than
that of the kimberlite, but due to the strong dilution
and probably too small sample size, this cannot be
stated in absolute terms.
At least in theory, the implications from this work
seem to be easily applicable for diamond exploration
in Fennoscandia as well as in any other recently
glaciated terrain. Most importantly, the methodology
described here can be used in all till-covered regions.
The ultimate aim of commercial till heavy mineral
surveys is, of course, to identify kimberlitic dispersal
fans. This study illustrates that defining a solitary fan
most likely requires a detailed indicator mineral study
with dense sample spacing, ~1 sample/0.25 km2. The
case studies of Lahtojoki and Seitaperä show that the
fans can, for a number of reasons, be different in
morphology, size, indicator content and internal struc-
ture. Consequently, a careful study of the kimberlitic
material present in the fan can provide information
about the distance to its source and about the source
itself. For example, an incorrect interpretation of the
distal zone of the Lahtojoki fan as representing the
entire fan would have not taken the explorer close to
the target. The existence of the intermediate and prox-
imal zones of the dispersal fan could have only been
concluded by studying carefully the abundance of
kimberlite fragments in till and using a drill rig for
sampling in the area of thick glacial deposits. The
discovery of the satellite kimberlite emphasizes the
significance of a dense sampling grid and, in particu-
lar, the possibility of even more undiscovered kim-
berlites in the Lahtojoki area.
Based on this study, a sample size of at least 60 kg
of basal till is recommended for indicator mineral
work in diamond exploration at reconnaissance and
regional scale. It is also important to take samples
from different horizons of the basal till bed, because
the vertical distribution of indicators within the till
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
may vary considerably as seen in both study areas.
Ideally this variance can be used to estimate the
transport distance. Experience from this work vali-
dates that the traditionally used 0.25–1.0 mm grain
size fraction is practical for indicator mineral work in
different types of exploration areas, but in indicator-
rich localities similar to that of Lahtojoki, observing
only the coarser split, 0.5–1.0 mm, may be sufficient.
This would considerably speed up the hand picking
process and completion of preliminary results.
In the Seitaperä case study special emphasis was
placed on distinguishing Dyke 16-derived chromites
from non-kimberlitic background population. This
case study demonstrates that while working in areas
with abundant non-kimberlitic chromites in till,
microprobe analyses for all grains — at least in crucial
samples — is advisable, even though economically
demanding. The separation based on morphology
between Dyke 16 chromites and those representing
the background is possible only in some cases. The
key elements to analyze are Cr, Mg and Ti.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted at GTK and supported
also by the Academy of Finland. A&G Mining is
acknowledged for permitting the sampling in the
Lahtojoki area and Conroy Diamonds and Gold plc
for the access to their chromite database. Mrs. M.
Beth McClenaghan, an anonymous reviewer and Edi-
tor-in-Chief, Professor Rudy Swennen, are appre-
ciated for revising the manuscript and providing
valuable suggestions for improvements. The authors
would also like to thank Professor Matti Saarnisto and
Mr. Matti Tyni for discussions and useful recommen-
dations, Dr. Keijo Nenonen and Mrs. Leeni Vilpas for
the use of the previous GTK heavy mineral survey
data from the Kaavi area, as well as Professor Ilmari
Haapala from the University of Helsinki, Dr. Hugh
O’Brien, Mr. Petri Korkeakoski and the personnel of
the GTK Heavy Mineral Laboratory for their support.
References
Armstrong, J., 1999. KIDD database. Indian and Northern Affairs
Canada, Yellowknife. Economic Geology Series Open file
1999–2003.
41
Atkinson, W.J., 1989. Diamond exploration philosophy, practice,
and promises: a review. In: Ross, J. (Ed.), Kimberlites and
Related Rocks, Geological Society of Australia, Spec. Pub.,
vol. 14, pp. 1075 – 1107.
Berryman, A.K., Stiefenhofer, J., Shee, S.R., Wyatt, B.A., Belou-
sova, E.A., 1999. The discovery and geology of the timber creek
kimberlites, Northern Territory, Australia. In: Gurney, J.J., Gur-
ney, J.L., Pascoe, M.D., Richardson, S.H. (Eds.), Proceedings of
the 7th International Kimberlite Conference, Cape Town. Red
Roof Design cc, Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 30 – 39.
Calcagnile, G., 1982. The lithosphere–astenosphere system in Fen-
noscandia. Tectonophysics 90, 19 – 35.
Chernet, T., Marmo, J., Nissinen, A., 1999. Technical note. Sig-
nificantly improved recovery of slightly heavy minerals from
Quaternary samples using GTK modified 3WKnelson preconcen-
trator. Min. Eng. 12, 1521 – 1526.
Dawson, J.B., Stephens, W.E., 1975. Statistical analysis of garnets
from kimberlites and associated xenolith. J. Geol. 83, 589 – 607.
DiLabio, R.N.W., 1991. Glacial dispersal trains. In: Kujansuu, R.,
Saarnisto, M. (Eds.), Glacial Indicator Tracing. A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 109 – 122.
Fipke, C.E., 1991. Significance of chromite, ilmenite, G5 Mg-alman-
dine garnet, zircon and tourmaline in heavy mineral detection of
diamond bearing lamproite. Fifth International Kimberlite Con-
ference, Brazil, 1991, CPRM Spec. Pub., vol. 2/91, pp. 97 – 100.
Fipke, C.E., Gurney, J.J., Moore, R.O., 1995. Diamond ex-
ploration techniques emphasising indicator mineral geochem-
istry and Canadian examples. Geol. Surv. Can., Bull. 423
(86 pp.).
Gaál, G., Gorbatschev, R., 1987. An outline of the Precambrian
evolution of the Baltic Shield. Precambrian Res. 35, 15 – 25.
Golubev, Yu.K., 1995. Diamond exploration in glaciated terrain: a
Russian perspective. In: Griffin, W.L. (Ed.), Diamond Explora-
tion: Into the 21st Century, J. Geochem. Explor., vol. 53,
pp. 265 – 275.
Griffin, W.L., Ryan, C.G., 1993. Trace elements in garnets and
chromites: evaluation of diamond exploration targets. Dia-
monds: Exploration, Sampling and Evaluation. Prospectors and
Developers Assoc. Canada, Short Course Notes, pp. 187 – 211.
Griffin, W.L., Ryan, C.G., 1995. Trace elements in indicator mine-
rals: area selection and target evaluation in diamond exploration.
In: Griffin, W.L. (Ed.), Diamond Exploration: Into the 21st
Century, J. Geochem. Explor., vol. 53, pp. 311 – 337.
Grütter, H.S., Apter, D.B., 1998. Kimberlite and lamproite-borne
chromite phenocrysts with bdiamond-inclusionQ type chemistries.
7th Int. Kimberlite Conf. Ext. Abs. Volume, pp. 280 – 282.
Gurney, J.J., 1984. A correlation between garnets and diamonds. In:
Glover, J.E., Harris, P.G. (Eds.), Kimberlite Occurrence and
Origin: A Basis for Conceptual Models in Exploration, Geol.
Dept. and Univ. Ext., Univ. of WA, Publ., vol. 8, pp. 143 – 166.
Gurney, J.J., Zweistra, P., 1995. The interpretation of the major
element compositions of mantle minerals in diamond explora-
tion. In: Griffin, W.L. (Ed.), Diamond Exploration: Into the 21st
Century, J. Geochem. Explor., vol. 53, pp. 293 – 309.
Hanski, E., 1984. The gabbro–wehrlite association in the eastern
part of the Baltic Shield. Unpublished Ph Licenciate Thesis,
University of Oulu. 78 pp.
42 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
Hellaakoski, A., 1930. On the transportation of materials in the
esker of Laitila. Fennia 52 (7) (41 pp.).
Hirvas, H., Nenonen, K., 1987. The till stratigraphy of Finland.
Spec. Pap. - Geol. Surv. Finl. 3, 49 – 63.
Hirvas, H., Nenonen, K., 1990. Field methods for glacial indicator
tracing. In: Kujansuu, R., Saarnisto, M. (Eds.), Glacial Indicator
Tracing. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 217 – 248.
Hirvas, H., Alftan, A., Pulkkinen, E., Puranen, R., Tynni, R., 1977.
Raportti malminetsintää palvelevasta maaperätutkimuksesta
Pohjois–Suomessa vuosina 1972–1976. Geol. Surv. of Finland,
Rep. Inv., vol. 19. (in Finnish, with English summary: A Report
on Glacial Drift Investigations for Ore Prospecting Purposes in
Northern Finland 1972–1976) 54 pp.
Huhma, A., 1975. Outokummun, Polvijärven ja Sivakkavaaran
kartta-alueiden kallioperä. Suomen geologinen kartta 1:100
000: kallioperäkartan selitykset 4222, 4224, 4311. Pre-Quater-
nary rocks of the Outokumpu, Polvijärvi and Sivakkavaara map-
sheet areas. Geol. Surv. Finland. 151 pp.
Hyppönen, V., 1983. Ontojoen, Hiisijärven ja Kuhmon kartta-aluei-
den kallioperä. Suomen geologinen kartta 1:100 000: kallioper-
äkarttojen selitykset 4411, 4412, 4413. Geol. Surv. Finland, 60 pp.
Koljonen, T. (Ed.), 1992. The Geochemical Atlas of Finland: Part 2.
Till. Geol. Surv. Finland.
Kontinen, A., Paavola, J., Lukkarinen, H., 1992. K–Ar ages of
hornblende and biotite from Late Archean rocks of eastern
Finland; interpretation and discussion of tectonic implications.
Bull. - Geol. Surv. Finl. 365 (31 pp.).
Kukkonen, I.T., Jõeleht, A., 1996. Geothermal modelling of the
lithosphere in the central Baltic Shield and its southern slope.
Tectonophysics 255 (1–2), 25 – 45.
Kukkonen, I.T., Peltonen, P., 1999. Xenolith controlled geotherm for
the central Fennoscandian Shield: implications for lithosphere–
asthenosphere relations. Tectonophysics 304 (4), 301 – 315.
Kukkonen, I.T., Kinnunen, K.A., Peltonen, P., 2003. Mantle xeno-
liths and thick lithosphere in the Fennoscandian Shield. Phys.
Chem. Earth 28 (9–11), 349 – 360.
Lehtonen, M.L., Marmo, J.S., 2002. Exploring for kimberlites in
glaciated terrains using chromite in quaternary till — a regional
case study from northern Finland. J. Geochem. Explor. 76 (3),
155 – 174.
Lehtonen, M.L., Pakkanen, L.K., Johanson, B.S., Lallukka, H.M.,
2005. EMP analyses of kimberlite indicator minerals from Pipe
7 and Dyke 16 kimberlites and the basal till surrounding them.
Geological Survey of Finland. Open file M 41.2/2005/2.
Liipo, J., Vuollo, J., Nykänen, V., Piirainen, T., 1994. Chrome spinel
compositions as evidence for an Archaean ophiolite in the
Kuhmo greenstone belt in Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 66
(Part I), 3 – 18.
Luukkonen, E.J., 2001. Lentiiran kartta-alueen kallioperä. Sum-
mary: Pre-Quaternary rocks of the Lentiira map-sheet area.
Suomen geologinen kartta 1:100 000: kallioperäkarttojen seli-
tykset 4414+4432. Geol. Surv. Finland. 51 pp.
McClenaghan, M.B., Kjarsgaard, B.A., 2001. Indicator mineral and
geochemical methods for diamond exploration in glaciated ter-
rain in Canada. In: McClenaghan, M.B., Bobrowsky, P.T., Hall,
G.E.M., Cook, S.J. (Eds.), Drift Exploration in Glaciated Ter-
rain, Geol. Soc., London, Spec. Publ., vol. 185, pp. 83 – 123.
McClenaghan, M.B., Thorleifson, L.H., DiLabio, R.N.W., 2000.
Till geochemical and indicator mineral methods in mineral
exploration. Ore Geol. Rev. 16, 145 – 166.
McClenaghan, M.B., Kjarsgaard, B.A., Kjarsgaard, I.M., 2002a.
Kimberlite indicator mineral content and geochemistry of till
around the Peddie kimberlite, Lake Timiskaming. Ontario. Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, Open File, vol. 4262.
McClenaghan, M.B., Ward, B.C., Kjarsgaard, I.M., Kjarsgaard,
B.A., Ker, D.E., Dredge, L.A., 2002b. Indicator mineral and
till geochemical dispersal patterns associated with the Ranch
Lake kimberlite, Lac de Gras Region, NWT, Canada. Geochem.,
Explor. Environ. Anal. 2, 299 – 320.
McClenaghan, M.B., Kjarsgaard, I.M., Kjarsgaard, B.A., 2004.
Kimberlite indicator mineral chemistry and till geochemistry
around the Seed and Trible B kimberlites, Lake Timiskaming.
Ontario. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File, vol. 4822.
Miller, J.K., 1984. Model for clastic indicator trains in till. In:
Gallagher, M.J. (Ed.), Prospecting in Areas of Glaciated Terrain.
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, pp. 69 – 77.
Muggeridge, M.T., 1995. Pathfinder sampling techniques for locat-
ing primary sources of diamond: recovery of indicator minerals,
diamonds and geochemical signatures. In: Griffin, W.L. (Ed.),
Diamond Exploration: Into the 21st Century, J. Geochem.
Explor., vol. 53, pp. 183 – 204.
Nironen, M., Elliott, B.A., Rämö, O.T., 2000. 1.88–1.87 Ga post-
kinematic intrusions of the central Finland Granitoid Complex: a
shift from C-type to A-type magmatism during lithospheric
convergence. Lithos 53 (1), 37 – 58.
Nurmi, A., 1976. Geochemistry of the till blanket at the Talluska-
nava Ni–Cu ore deposit, Tervo, central Finland. Geol. Surv.
Finl., Rep. Inv. 15 (84 pp.).
O’Brien, H.E., Tyni, M., 1999. Mineralogy and geochemistry of
kimberlites and related rocks from Finland. In: Gurney, J.J.,
Gurney, J.L., Pascoe, M.D., Richardson, S.H. (Eds.), Proceed-
ings of the 7th International Kimberlite Conference, Cape
Town. Red Roof Design cc, Cape Town, South Africa,
pp. 625 – 636.
O’Brien, H.E., Peltonen, P., Vartiainen, H., 2005. Kimberlites,
carbonatites and alkaline rocks. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi,
P.A., Rämä, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian Geology of Finland —
Key to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
Peltonen, P., Mänttäri, I., 2001. An ion microprobe U–Th–Pb study
of zircon xenocrysts from the Lahtojoki kimberlite pipe, eastern
Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finl. 73, 47 – 58.
Peltonen, P., Huhma, H., Tyni, M., Shimizu, N., 1999. Garnet
peridotite xenoliths from kimberlites of Finland: nature of the
continental mantle at an Archaean craton — Proterozoic mobile
belt transition. In: Gurney, J.J., Gurney, J.L., Pascoe, M.D.,
Richardson, S.H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th International
Kimberlite Conference, Cape Town. Red Roof Design cc, Cape
Town, South Africa, pp. 664 – 675.
Peltoniemi, H., 1985. Till lithology and glacial transport in Kuhmo,
eastern Finland. Boreas 14, 67 – 74.
Perttunen, M., 1977. The lithologic relation between till and bed-
rock in the region of Hämeenlinna, southern Finland. Bull. -
Geol. Surv. Finl. 291 (68 pp.).
 M.L. Lehtonen et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 87 (2005) 19–43
Piirainen, T., 1988. The geology of the Archaean greenstone–gra-
nitoid terrain in Kuhmo, eastern Finland. In: Marttila, E. (Ed.),
Archean Geology of the Fennoscandian Shield, Geol. Surv.
Finland, Spec. Paper, vol. 4, pp. 39 – 51.
Punkari, M., 1980. The ice lobes of the Scandinavian ice sheet
during the deglaciation in Finland. Boreas 9, 307 – 310.
Ramsay, R.R., 1992. Geochemistry of diamond indicator minerals.
Ph.D Thesis, University of Western Australia. 246 pp.
Rautiainen, I., Hagel-Brunnström, M., Heiskanen, M.-L., Kallio, E.,
1996. Production oriented method for the determination of rare
earth and other trace elements in rocks by ICP-MS. Fresenius’ J.
Anal. Chem. 355, 393 – 396.
Saarnisto, M., 1990. An outline of glacial indicator tracing. In:
Kujansuu, R., Saarnisto, M. (Eds.), Glacial Indicator Tracing.
A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 1 – 13.
Saarnisto, M., Peltoniemi, H., Uusikartano, K., Tuokko, I., Koivu-
maa, S., 1980. Malminetsintää palvelevat maaperägeologiset
tutkimukset Kuhmon Kellojärven alueella. University of Oulu.
Report, vol. 39. (in Finnish, with English summary: Studies on
glacial geology and lake sediments for prospecting purposes in
the Kellojärvi area of the Kuhmo greenstone belt, eastern Fin-
land.) 127 pp.
Salminen, R., 1980. On the geochemistry of copper in Quaternary
deposits in the Kiihtelysvaara area, North Karelia, Finland. Bull.
- Geol. Surv. Finl. 309 (48 pp.).
Salminen, R., (Ed.), 1995. Alueellinen geokemiallinen kartoitus
Suomessa 1982–1994. Summary: Regional geochemical map-
ping in Finland in 1982–1994. Geol. Surv. Finland. Rep. Inv.
130. 47 pp+ 24 app. maps.
Salminen, R., Hartikainen, A., 1985. Glacial transport of till and its
influence on interpretation of geochemical results in North
Karelia, Finland. Bull. - Geol. Surv. Finl. 335 (48 pp.).
Salonen, V.-P., 1986. Glacial transport distance distributions of
surface boulders in Finland. Bull. - Geol. Surv. Finl. 338
(57 pp.).
Sauramo, M., 1924. Tracing of glacial boulders and its application
in prospecting. Bull. Comm. Géol. Finl. 67 (37 pp.).
Shee, S.R., Vercoe, S.C., Wyatt, B.A., Hwang, P.H., Campbell,
A.N., Colgan, E.A., 1991. Discovery and geology of the
43
Nabberu kimberlite province, western Australia. In: Gurney,
J.J., Gurney, J.L., Pascoe, M.D., Richardson, S.H. (Eds.),
Proceedings of the 7th International Kimberlite Conference,
pp. 764 – 772.
Smith, C.B., Lucas, H., Hall, A.E., Ramsay, R.R., 1991. Diamond
prospectivity and indicator mineral chemistry: a western Aus-
tralian perspective. Fifth International Kimberlite Conference,
Brazil, Comphania de Pequisa de Recursos Minerais, Spec.
Pub., vol. 2/91, pp. 380 – 382.
Sobolev, N.V., Lavrentı̀ev, Yu.G., Pokhilenko, N.P., Usova,
N.P., 1973. Chrome-rich garnets from the kimberlites of
Yakutia and their paragenesis. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 40,
39 – 52.
Stea, R.R., Finck, P.W., 2001. An evolutionary model of glacial
dispersal and till genesis in Maritime Canada. In: McClenaghan,
M.B., Bobrowsky, P.T., Hall, G.E.M., Cook, S.J. (Eds.), Drift
Exploration in Glaciated Terrain, Geol. Soc., London, Spec.
Publ., vol. 185, pp. 237 – 265.
Tyni, M., 1997. Diamond prospecting in Finland — a review. In:
Papunen, H. (Ed.), Mineral Deposits: Research and Exploration,
Where do They Meet? Proceedings of the 4th SGA Meeting,
pp. 789 – 791.
Virkkala, K., 1971. On the lithology and provenance of the till
of a gabbro area in Finland. VIII International Congress
INQUA, Paris 1969. Etudes sur le Quaternaire dans le Monde,
pp. 711 – 714.
Vuollo, J.I., Nykänen, V.M., Liipo, J.P., Piirainen, T.A., 1995.
Palaeoproterozoic mafic dyke swarms in the eastern Fennoscan-
dian Shield, Finland: a review. In: Baer, G., Heimann, A. (Eds.),
Physics and Chemistry of Dykes. Selected papers presented at
the Third International Dyke Conference, Jerusalem, Israel, 4–8
September 1995, pp. 179 – 191.
Wyatt, B.A., Sumpton, J.D.H., Stiefenhofer, J., Shee, S.R., Smith,
T.W., 1999. Kimberlites in the Forrest River area, Kimberley
region, western Australia. In: Gurney, J.J., Gurney, J.L., Pascoe,
M.D., Richardson, S.H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th Interna-
tional Kimberlite Conference, Cape Town. Red Roof Design cc,
Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 912 – 922.