EVALUATION OF BIOETHANOL DERIVED FROM RIPE MANGO (MANGIFERA

INDICA L.) PEELS AS AN AVIATION FUEL

A Project Study

Presented to the Faculty of Petroleum Engineering Department

College of Engineering

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

The National Engineering University

Alangilan Campus

Alangilan, Batangas City

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the degree in

Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

Submitted By:
Atienza, Roma Angela M.
Beruela, Genghis
Bughaw, Krizah Ashley N.
Cabacis II, Ramon S.
Mendoza, Nicko P.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Page No.

TITLE PAGE i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF FIGURES v

LIST OF EQUATIONS vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

I. INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study 2

Research Objectives 5

Research Hypothesis 6

Scope and Delimitation of the Study 7

Importance of the Study 9

Definition of Terms 10

ii
 II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Literature 15

Related Literature 30

Synthesis 39

III. DESIGN AND METHODS

Conceptual Framework 49

Technical Design and Procedure 51

Equipment/Facilities/Programs 64

Data Collection and Treatment 53

Budget Requirements 68

Expected Output 69

Gantt Chart 70

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. APPENDICES

A. Curriculum Vitae

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

No. Name Page

1 Budget Requirements 68

2 Gantt Chart 70

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

No. Name Page

1 Mangifera Indica L. 15

2 Production of Mangifera Indica L.in the 17

Philippines

3 Paradigm of the study 46

4 Schematic diagram of the study 47

5 Mortar and Pestle 64

6 Microwave 65

7 Agilent 8890 gas spectroscopy mass 65

spectrometer

8 4 Liters water bottle 66

v
 LIST OF EQUATIONS

No. Name Page

1 Ethanol Concentration 52

2 Percent Yield 52

3 Conversion Factor 53

4 Theoretical Yield 53

5 Fermentation Efficiency 53

vi
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATION DEFINITION

AFTA Alternative Fuel Vehicles/Engines

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

ASL Analytical Service Laboratory

DOE Department of Energy

DOST Department of Science and Technology

DSC Department of Trade and Industry

DTI Differential Scanning Calorimetry

EAUE Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

EIS Enzyme-Assisted Ultrasound Extraction

FID Flame Ionization Detector

GC Gas Chromatography

HPLC HIgh-Performance Liquid Chromatography

ITDI Industrial Technology Development Institute

NSIC National Seed Industry Council

PNS Philippine National Standards

SAF Solid-State Fermentation

SFE Supercritical Fluid Extraction

SSF Sustainable Aviation Fuild

TESDA Technical Education and Skills Development Authority

UAE Ultrasound-Assited Extraction

UPLB University of the Philippines Los Baños

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds

vii
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The aviation industry is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas

emissions, accounting for roughly 2.4% of total CO2 emissions in 2018 (Overton, 2022).

This number is expected to rise as air travel continues to grow, highlighting the urgency

of finding alternative solutions. To lessen this environmental issue, it is necessary to

develop sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) that can reduce the net lifecycle greenhouse

gas emissions compared to conventional jet fuel (Yoo et al., 2022). These sustainable

alternatives are crucial for mitigating the climate impact of the aviation industry and

ensuring its long-term viability.

Bioethanol derived from lignocellulosic biomass has gained significant interest as

a potential source of renewable fuel for the aviation industry. However, challenges

remain in ensuring its quality meets the specifications required for jet fuel. This study

investigates the feasibility of using ripe mango peels, a waste product abundant in the

Philippines, as a feedstock for bioethanol production. The study focuses on the

effectiveness of pervaporation and mild hydrotreating as purification steps to produce

bioethanol suitable for conversion into sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). By utilizing waste

biomass and optimizing purification processes, this study aims to contribute to the

development of a more sustainable aviation fuel source.

1
 Bioethanol, a bio-derived alternative fuel produced from the fermentation of

sugars, plays a vital role in the production of SAF through various processing pathways

(Emmanouilidou, 2023). Bioethanol offers a promising renewable source for aviation

fuel, potentially reducing dependence on fossil fuels and their associated environmental

consequences.

While conventional bioethanol production relies on feedstocks like corn and

sugarcane, exploring alternative sources with lower land-use change impacts is crucial.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) peels, a potential source of cellulosic biomass, have

emerged as a promising alternative feedstock due to their abundance and low lignin

content (Tarrsini, 2019). The Philippines, for instance, is one of the world's leading

producers of mangoes, generating a significant amount of peel waste (DTI, 2018).

Being a major mango producer, the country generates substantial quantities of mango

peels as a byproduct of consumption and processing. This waste stream, if not

managed effectively, could contribute to landfill overflow or other environmental issues

if improperly disposed of. Utilizing this waste for bioethanol production offers a

sustainable solution for waste management and fuel production.

The process of transforming mango peels into an aviation fuel employs a series

of physicochemical and biochemical transformations to achieve this objective. The initial

stage involves the physical and chemical pretreatment of the mango peels which

includes size reduction through grinding or milling, followed by treatment with steam or

dilute acid/alkali solutions. The goal of pretreatment is to enhance the accessibility of

the complex carbohydrates within the peels, facilitating their subsequent conversion into

fermentable sugars. The selection of enzymes and the optimization of process

2
conditions are crucial for efficient sugar extraction tailored to the specific composition of

sugars present in the mango peels.

The extracted sugars then undergo fermentation in a controlled environment.

Here, a specific yeast strain, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is introduced to

convert the sugars into ethanol. Optimizing fermentation parameters like temperature,

pH, and nutrient availability is essential for maximizing ethanol production.

Distillation subsequently purifies the fermented broth by separating the ethanol,

which has a lower boiling point than water, through a distillation column. This process

removes non-volatile components and yields a higher concentration of ethanol.

Pervaporation, a membrane separation technique, serves to further purify the ethanol

by selectively removing any remaining water molecules. This step ensures a highly

concentrated ethanol stream for the subsequent oligomerization stage.

Oligomerization focuses on transforming the ethanol molecules into longer

hydrocarbon chains, the building blocks of jet fuel. Catalysts and specific temperature

and pressure conditions are typically required to facilitate this reaction. The precise

chain length of the oligomers is critical for their suitability as jet fuel components.

Following oligomerization, the process employs hydroprocessing. This stage

involves treating the oligomers with hydrogen gas under high pressure and temperature

in the presence of a catalyst. Hydroprocessing refines the oligomers by removing

impurities like oxygen and sulfur. Additionally, it helps adjust the distribution of

hydrocarbon chain lengths to align with the specifications of jet fuel.

3
 As a final refinement step, the hydrotreated product undergoes mild

hydrotreating. This involves exposing the product to hydrogen under milder conditions

compared to the previous stage. Mild hydrotreating serves to remove trace impurities

and ensure that the final jet fuel meets the stringent quality and safety standards

mandated for aviation use.

However, bioethanol derived from lignocellulosic biomass like mango peels

requires additional purification steps to meet the quality specifications for aviation fuel

(Yusuf, 2019). Pervaporation, a membrane separation technique, has shown promise in

the efficient purification of ethanol from fermentation broths (Khalid, 2019). Moreover,

mild hydrotreating can further upgrade bioethanol by removing impurities like sulfur and

oxygenates, making it compatible with aviation fuel blendstocks.

This study investigates the potential of bioethanol derived from ripe mango peels

discarded as waste by the Max Mango franchise within Lipa City, Batangas. This local

collaboration aims to establish a consistent supply for the peels, minimizing waste

generation within the franchise and supporting the local community. Researchers will

assess the feasibility of converting these peels into bioethanol and the derived

bioethanol will then be evaluated for its usability as an aviation fuel, with the

considerations including the fuel's calorific value, combustion efficiency, and alignment

with standard aviation fuel specifications. The project's scope might also include the

economic viability of large-scale bioethanol production from mango peels. A successful

outcome could create new economic opportunities and potentially attract

biofuel-focused businesses. Furthermore, the environmental impact will be assessed,

considering factors such as energy consumption during processing, potential reduction

4
in greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional jet fuel, and responsible waste

management practices throughout the production.

Despite the potential benefits, there is a lack of research investigating the

usability of using ripe mango peels specifically for bioethanol production as a precursor

to SAF. This study aims to bridge this knowledge gap by evaluating the effectiveness of

bioethanol derived from mango peels after pervaporation and mild hydrotreating as a

potential feedstock for SAF production in the Philippines.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study is to evaluate the ethanol from ripe Mangifera

indica L. peels as an aviation fuel after pervaporation and mild hydrotreating.

1. Extract glucose from ripe mango (Mangifera indica L.) peel by physicochemical

pretreatment.

1.1 Glucose Content

1.2 Glucose Yield

2. Ferment glucose extracted from ripe mango (Mangiera Indica L.) peels into

ethanol considering the following parameters:

2.1 Yeast Fermentation

2.2 Fermentation Temperature

2.3 Fermentation Efficiency

2.4 Fermentation Time

2.5 Percent Yield

5
3. Purify the ethanol produced from mango peels fermentation through distillation,

oligomerization, hydroprocessing, and mild hydrotreating.

3.1 Physical Properties

3.1.1 pH level

3.1.2 Boiling point

3.1.3 Density and Viscosity

3.1.4 Freezing point

3.1.5 Flash point

3.2 Calorific Value & Water Content

3.3 Volatility

3.4 Corrosiveness

3.5 Purity of ethanol

3.6 Yield

3.7 Ethanol Concentration

3.8 Purification efficiency

4. Evaluate the purified ethanol as an aviation fuel using ASTM D1655-22a to

determine the following:

4.1 Fuel Quality and Stability Tests

4.2 Emission Test

5. Graphical & Statistical Analysis of Bio-Jet Fuel produced from Bioethanol derived

from Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) to jet fuel available in the market.

6
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

The following null hypothesis was formulated and will be tested in the study.

1. There is no significant difference in glucose content and yield between

physicochemical pretreatment and conventional methods.

2. There is no significant relationship between fermentation parameters

(yeast strain, temperature, time, etc.) and ethanol yield from mango peel

glucose.

3. Purification processes have no significant effect on the physical properties,

purity, or efficiency of ethanol derived from mango peel fermentation.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The project study evaluates the potential of bioethanol, derived from the peels of

ripe mangoes (Mangifera indica L.), as an alternative to conventional aviation fuel. The

scope of this study covers the entire process from the initial preparation of the mango

peels to the final characterization of the produced bio-jet fuel.

The study focuses on the preparation of the feedstock, specifically, the extraction

of glucose from the peels of ripe mangoes using established methods for

physicochemical pretreatment and saccharification. The first step in this process is to

separate the cellulose from the polymers of the mango peels. The second step is to

make the cellulose easier for enzymes to break down into sugars that can be

fermented.

7
 It then proceeds into the production of bioethanol, investigating the fermentation

of the extracted glucose into bioethanol and analyzing the effects of glucose

concentration and purity on the yield and efficiency of the fermentation process.

The properties of the bioethanol will be evaluated after undergoing purification

processes, including pervaporation and mild hydrotreating.

The purified bioethanol will be characterized to assess its suitability as an

aviation fuel. This includes evaluating the purity and yield of the bioethanol, its physical

properties such as color, pH, boiling point, density, viscosity, and freezing point, as well

as its energy and water content, volatility, and corrosiveness.

Lastly, the quality of the bioethanol as a fuel is evaluated using the ASTM

D1655-22a standard to determine its quality, stability, and emission profile.

However, the study has certain delimitations. It mainly focuses on ripe mango

peels as the feedstock for bioethanol production, excluding other potential feedstocks.

The research employs established methods for pretreatment and saccharification, and

does not explore alternative techniques. Standard processes are used for fermentation,

pervaporation, and mild hydrotreating without any optimization. The study also excludes

a life cycle assessment and a techno-economic feasibility analysis, focusing only on the

characterization of bioethanol and its potential as an aviation fuel. Lastly, the application

testing of the bio-jet fuel is limited to laboratory testing.

The laboratory testing process of producing ethanol from mango peels begins

with the use of 75 grams of powdered carabao mango peel. This is subjected to

enzymatic saccharification from BIOTECH at the University of the Philippines Los

Baños. The goal is to achieve a glucose yield of 40 to 46 percent through yeast

8
fermentation. The resulting product is then sent to the BIOTECH Central Analytical

Service Laboratory at the University of the Philippines Los Baños for further analysis of

the glucose content. The purification of the produced ethanol involves several steps

including distillation, oligomerization, hydroprocessing, and mild hydrotreating. The

physical properties of the purified ethanol such as pH level, boiling point, density,

viscosity, freezing point, and flash point are then evaluated. Other factors such as the

calorific value, water content, volatility, corrosiveness, purity of ethanol, yield, ethanol

concentration, and purification efficiency are also assessed to ensure the quality and

efficiency of the bioethanol production process. This comprehensive analysis allows for

the optimization of the process and the production of high-quality bioethanol from

mango peels. These scope and delimitations clearly define the boundaries of the study,

allowing for a focused investigation into the potential of bioethanol derived from ripe

mango peels as a possible alternative aviation fuel. This ensures that the research

remains academic yet accessible, with terms and concepts that are simple and easy to

understand.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The primary focus of this study was the evaluation of ethanol derived from ripe

Mangifera indica L. peels as an aviation fuel after perforation and mild

hydrotreating.Additionally, the insights gained from the research may find practical

applications in various situations:

To the Community. This research benefits the community by potentially improving

aviation fuel, which are commonly used to power aircraft such as private aircraft, military

9
flights, commercial airliners, and helicopters. If successful, it could lead to facilitating

secure and effective global air transportation.

To Batangas State University. This study reflects positively on the university's

commitment to research and innovation. It shows the institution's dedication to exploring

sustainable and eco-friendly solutions, as ripe Mangifera indica L. peels are a natural

resource. It also enhances the university's reputation as a center for scientific inquiry

and discovery.

To the Petroleum Engineering Department. While the study is directly related to

petroleum engineering, it highlights the associative nature of research. It demonstrates

the department's responsiveness and willingness to explore its fields and technologies,

which can be valuable for change the department's research portfolio.

To the Researchers. For the researchers involved in this study, it provides an

opportunity for personal and professional growth. They gain experience in conducting

experiments, data analysis, and potentially contributing to advancements in battery

technology. It also opens doors for collaborations and future research opportunities in

related fields.

To the Future Researchers. This study serves as a foundation for future research in

the area of bioethanol and their applications. It provides a strategy for further

investigations, potentially inspiring future researchers to build upon this work and make

even more significant discoveries. It encourages the pursuit of sustainable and

environmentally friendly technologies.

10
DEFINITION OF TERMS

ASTM D1655-22. A standard developed by ASTM International, detailing requirements

for aviation turbine fuels. This standard covers critical characteristics like energy content,

volatility, freezing point, and flash point, essential for ensuring fuel performance and

safety in aviation. (ASTM International, 2022). In this study, the bioethanol derived from

Mangifera indica L. peels is evaluated against the specifications of ASTM D1655-22.

Boiling Point. The temperature at which bioethanol vapor pressure equals atmospheric

pressure, signifying the transition from liquid to gas (Kumar & Senan, 2020). In this

study, it is in the distillation process for purifying bioethanol, where controlling the

temperature at the boiling point ensures the effective separation and concentration of

bioethanol, making it suitable for aviation fuel use.

Concentration of Glucose. Refers to the amount of glucose present in a given volume

of solution. It's a key factor in the bioethanol production process, especially during

fermentation. Glucose concentration directly affects the rate and efficiency of

fermentation, as microorganisms like yeast convert glucose into ethanol. Doran (2015).

In this study, determining the right concentration of glucose extracted through

pretreatment and saccharification steps is essential for efficient fermentation and

subsequent ethanol production.

Corrosiveness. Corrosiveness is a critical property to consider in the evaluation of

bioethanol as an aviation fuel, as it can significantly impact the integrity and lifespan of

11
fuel storage and engine components (Speight, 2011). In this study, corrosiveness is

assessed by exposing these materials to the bioethanol under controlled conditions and

observing any chemical or physical changes over time.

Density. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. (Freedman, 2012) Density

is a fluid's resistance to flow (Munson et al., 2013). In this study, Density is measured

using tools like hydrometers, determining the mass per unit volume. This ensures the

bioethanol aligns with aviation fuel standards for energy content and storage

requirements.

Viscosity. Viscosity is assessed using a viscometer, measuring the fluid's flow

resistance at different temperatures. This confirms the bioethanol's suitability for use in

aircraft engines, considering fuel injection and operational temperature ranges.

Distillation. distillation is a process used to separate components in a liquid mixture

based on differences in their boiling points (Perry, 2008). In this study, the fermented

mixture containing ethanol and other components undergoes distillation.

Water Content. Energy content is the amount of energy that can be derived from a fuel,

measured in units like joules or calories (Demirbas, 2009), and Water Content refers to

the percentage of water in a substance (Balat and Balat, 2009). In this study, the

measurement of energy content involves calorimetric analysis of the bioethanol

determining its capability to produce energy. Water content is quantified through

techniques like Karl Fischer titration, ensuring that the bioethanol meets the stringent

requirements for water content permissible in aviation fuels.

12
Fermentation. refers to a biochemical process where sugars are converted into ethanol

and carbon dioxide by the action of yeast or bacteria (Hall, 2013). In this stdy,

fermentation is the specific stage where the glucose extracted from the Mangifera indica

L. peels is transformed into bioethanol. This involves culturing yeast or bacteria in the

glucose solution under controlled conditions—temperature, pH, and oxygen levels—to

maximize ethanol production.

Fermentation Efficiency. refers to the effectiveness with which microorganisms, like

yeast or bacteria, convert sugars into ethanol during the fermentation process.(Walker,

2018). In this study, the efficiency is calculated by comparing the actual amount of

ethanol produced to the theoretical maximum amount of ethanol that could be produced

from the given quantity of glucose, under ideal conditions.

Freezing Point. Refers to the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid Speight,

2011). In this study, the freezing point of bioethanol is measured to ensure it remains

fluid under aviation operational temperatures.

Fuel Quality and Stability Tests. Evaluations of properties like oxidative stability and

compatibility (Eman, 2014). In this study, various standardized tests are conducted to

ascertain the bioethanol's reliability for aviation use.

Hydroprocessing. A refining technique using hydrogen to remove impurities (Kaiser,

2007). In this study, hydroprocessing is applied to enhance the bioethanol's quality and

suitability as an aviation fuel.

13
Mild hydrotreating. Refers to A less intensive form of hydroprocessing (Gary,2007). In

this study, it's used to refine the bioethanol, focusing on removing specific impurities.

Oligomerization. Refers to the chemical combination of smaller ethanol molecules into

larger structures (Speight, 2011). In this study, oligomerization is explored to modify the

bioethanol's physical properties for aviation use.

Percent Yield. Refers to the efficiency of converting inputs to desired products (Smith,

2005). In this study, the percent yield of ethanol from glucose is calculated to evaluate

the process's efficiency.

Pervaporation. A membrane technique for enhancing purity by removing water

(Wijmans & Baker, 2015). In this study, pervaporation is used post-distillation to achieve

higher ethanol concentration.

Physicochemical Pretreatment. Refers to the usage of physical and chemical

methods for preparing biomass (Sun & Cheng, 2002). In this study, this involves treating

Mangifera indica L. peels to enhance sugar release for fermentation.

Purity of Ethanol. Refers to the concentration of ethanol in a mixture (Lynd et al.,

2011). In this study, the purity of the produced bioethanol is measured to ensure it

meets fuel standards.

Volatility. Refers to how easily a liquid vaporizes (Stace, 2013). In this study, the

volatility of bioethanol is assessed to ensure appropriate fuel behavior in engine

conditions.

14
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The present research proposal is substantiated by pertinent studies and

published articles that have been deemed useful in their analysis. This chapter was

divided into three sections: synthesis, conceptual literature, and research literature from

both local and foreign studies.

CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE

This section provided introductory explanations of the key concepts and

principles that are specific to this study.

Mango (Mangifera Indica L.)

One of the flowering plant species that belongs to the family Anacardiaceae is

the Mangifera indica, more popularly referred to as the mango. Two separate genetic

populations can be found in modern mangoes. These populations are referred to as the

"Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type."The mango is widely considered to be the

most important and covered fruit in terms of commercial production, and it is often

referred to as the "king of fruits."

15
 Figure 1. Mango (Mangifera Indica L.)

Source:Ajila, C. M., & Rao, U. P. (2013)

In addition to having a distinctive and unusual flavor, it also has a high nutritious

value, which contributes to its widespread acceptance. In addition to being a high

source of carbs, soluble fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, mango is also a

nutritionally beneficial fruit. Polyphenols and carotenoids, both of which have been

shown to have positive impacts and advantages on health, are present in abundant

amounts in this substance. It is well recognized that the fruit possesses antioxidant

activity in addition to a wide variety of other health benefits, including anti-inflammatory,

anticarcinogenicity, heptoprotective, and antibacterial activity, amongst others. In terms

of health promotion and general well-being, mangoes have the potential to serve as

functional foods.Mango is a very popular tropical fruit. Mangiferin is a strong antioxidant

that is made up of polyphenols and glucosyl xanthones. It also helps the immune

system, lowers blood pressure, heals wounds, stops cell death, and fights diabetes.

Characteristics of Mangifera Indica L.

Mangifera indica, which is generally known as a mango, has unique

characteristics. It turns into a big, green tree that can get up to 30 meters tall. The

leaves are thick and dark green. They are usually 15 to 35 cm long and are arranged

spirally along the branches. Depending on the variety, mango fruits come in a wide

range of colors, from green, yellow, orange, red, and even purple. They are big and

oval-shaped. They can be anywhere from 5 to 15 cm long and weigh anywhere from

150 grams to 2 kilograms. There is one big seed or stone inside the fruit that is flattened

16
and long. Mango trees have small, fragrant flowers that grow in groups named panicles.

The flowers are usually pink or white.

Mangoes also have a number of chemical properties which are effective

antioxidants, including mangiferin, quercetin, gallotannins, and even more. Their

carbohydrate content is mostly made up of sugars like fructose and sucrose, which

gives fruits their typical sweetness. Mangoes also have organic acids in them, such as

citric acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid, which make them taste better. They smell and

taste great because they are infused with mild essential oils. Mangoes have bright

colors because of pigments like beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, which give them

their yellow to orange tones. Anthocyanins, on the other hand, give some types their red

and purple tones.

Mangifera Indica L. production in the Philippines

It was determined that 182 mango trees from various regions in the Philippines

were subjected to an on-site study in order to find trees that were exceptional enough to

be registered as varieties. Following the initial study, one selection was found to

possess promising horticultural traits. This selection was then studied for an additional

two years in order to check the stability and consistency of trait expression. The

National Seed Industry Council (NSIC) has officially recognized this selection as the

NSIC 2018 Mn 14 'Mangoming' selection. The tree is 28 years old, has a height of more

than 10 meters, and has a growth habit that is approximately 11 meters in the spreading

direction. The fruit of the tree is produced twice a year, with the peak of fruiting

occurring between the months of June and July and between December and January if

17
the environmental circumstances are favorable. This tree is extremely fruitful, since it

produces more than one hundred kg of fruit each and every season.

Figure 2. Production of Mangifera Indica L. in the Philippines

Source: Statistica Research Department (2023)

The mangifera indica L. production was increased to its highest peak in 2015, it

was followed by the year 2014 and 2013 and its lowest production was in the year 2018

and another almost same level of production was in 2019-2022.

R.A. 9367 – Biofuels Act of 2006

The "Biofuels Act of 2006" manages the use of biofuels by creating the Biofuel

Program, allocating funds correctly, and serving other goals. In line with long-term

economic growth, it says that the State's strategy is to rely less on fuels that are brought

18
in from other countries while protecting public health, the environment, and natural

ecosystems. To do this, biofuels must be used to create local renewable energy

sources, lower greenhouse gas and toxic emissions, boost jobs and income in rural

areas, and make sure there is access to alternative and renewable energy that doesn't

harm the natural ecosystem, biodiversity, or food reserves. The Act defines important

words like AFTA, Alternative Fuel Vehicles/Engines, Bioethanol, Biodiesel, Bioethanol

Fuel, Biofuel, Biomass, DA, and Diesel. This creates a complete plan for putting biofuel

policies and rules into action.

Ethanol

A chemical molecule represented by the formula CH₃CH₂OH, is a transparent

liquid that has become known for its odor similar to wine, and its combustible properties.

It is produced by fermentation or petrochemical procedures such as ethylene hydration

and provides several roles by operating as both a solvent and a fuel source which is

used in various industrial applications because of its use as an intoxicating agent in

alcoholic beverages, medical applications like disinfection, flexibility as a chemical

solvent, and its significance as an additive in fuel.

When left in an open container, it has a high tendency for evaporation. The

chemical formula of ethanol is C2H6O. According to Dorry (2017), the composition of

this substance consists of nine atoms, including two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms,

and one oxygen atom.

19
Bio-Ethanol

In the area of environmental conservation, one of the most important things that

bioethanol fuel could achieve is help reduce global warming and protect fossil fuels.

Alcohol is made from sugars during the process of fermentation. That waste or biomass

can be turned into bioethanol is one way to cut down on the amount of crude oil used

and the pollution that is released into the world People are also working on using

lignocellulosic biomasses, like corn, sugar, syrup, and other similar materials, as fuel to

make ethanol. These biomasses come from things that aren't food, like trees and grass.

Bioethanol is similar to ethanol in both its chemical as well as physical characteristics.

The only thing that makes them different is that different resources are needed to make

bioethanol. When bioethanol is completely pure, it is a clear, colorless liquid with a slight

smell that is typical of it. It freezes at -112 degrees Celsius and boils at 78 degrees

Celsius.

Physical properties of Bioethanol

Bioethanol is a useful alcohol that is made from fermentation of biomass sources.

It has distinct physical characteristics. A clear, colorless liquid with a unique, slightly

sweet smell is what it looks like. Ethanol easily evaporates in mild heat because its

boiling point is around 78.37°C (173.07°F). It is fluid because its density, which was

found to be about 0.789 g/cm³ at 20°C, makes it so. However, ethanol has remarkable

absorption properties because it mixes easily with water in any amount. It also dissolves

20
easily in cold organic solvents, which makes it even more useful in a wide range of

industry and lab applications.

Chemical Properties of bioethanol

There are chemical qualities that characterize ethanol, as well as reactions that

happen in its molecules. It is made up of two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and

one hydroxyl (-OH) functional group, as shown by its chemical formula, C2H5OH.

Because it has this hydroxyl group, ethanol is a main alcohol. Additionally, ethanol is

very flammable; its flash point is around 13°C (55°F), which makes it a useful fuel.

Because ethanol is polar, it can dissolve in a wide range of substances and make

processes easier. In its pure state, ethanol has a pH of about 7, which makes it slightly

acidic. When ethanol is burned, it goes through oxidation, which releases heat energy

as carbon dioxide and water.

Bio-Ethanol Production in the Philippines

The bio-ethanol production system in the Philippines is currently experiencing a

development that is characterized by initiatives to increase the amount of ethanol in

both gasoline and biodiesel. However, the industrial process is still facing challenges

due to limitations in feedstock and limited local supply. According to Rivera (2023),

Despite the expectations, ethanol fuel production would remain stable at 375 million

liters in 2023, there is an estimated 12% increase in the need for imported ethanol

reaching over 310 million liters. The lack of glucose, which is the main raw material

used, presents a challenge, leading to the need to consider importing it during times

21
when it is not being used for milling. While the demand for fuel ethanol is expected to

expand by 8% and the consumption of biodiesel by 14%, this increase is caused by the

development of fuels rather than higher blending rates. However, there are still

difficulties in increasing sugarcane production for ethanol feedstock. The Department of

Agriculture and Department of Energy have been given the responsibility of finding

appropriate regions for feedstock production under the Philippine Development Plan

2023-2028. However, the challenge of increasing local feedstock supply remains. Thus,

the existing levels of bio-ethanol production and blending are limited due to limitations of

feedstock and a strong dependence on imports. This has resulted in measures to

address problems and increase local feedstock supply.

Conversion of Biomass to Sugar

Physicochemical pretreatment

Physicochemical pretreatment is a group of methods used to get

lignocellulosic biomass (like grasses, wood, and food waste) ready to be

turned into fuels or chemicals.There are three main parts that make up

lignocellulosic biomass: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Getting

lignocellulosic material to break down is hard, which is one of the biggest

problems in making biofuels. According to Badal (2011) this problem mostly

happens because cellulose has a very crystalline structure and is tightly

woven into a framework of polymers, which includes lignin and hemicellulose.

This structure arrangement makes the biomass very resistant to chemical or

22
 enzymatic processes that would normally break it down. This makes it very

hard to get energy from lignocellulosic sources.The main goal of pretreatment

in biofuel production is to deal with the resistance of lignocellulosic waste.

The first step in this process is to separate the cellulose from the framework

polymers. The second step is to make the cellulose easier for enzymes to

break down into sugars that can be fermented. It is easier to turn cellulose

into energy after pretreatment because it breaks down the structural barriers

in the biomass. Studies have shown that good pretreatment methods can

greatly increase sugar yields. Some investigations state that over 90% of the

theoretical yield can be achieved for different types of biomass. These results

show how important pretreatment is as an important step in the process of

making biofuels. They also show how to better use lignocellulosic feedstocks

for long-term energy output.

Conversion of Sugar to Bioethanol

Pervaporation

One effective membrane-based separation method is pervaporation, in

which solutes move across membranes made of sturdy materials. Basically,

the way compounds interact with membranes is what makes mass movement

possible. This means that the type and make-up of the membrane material

are very important in determining how well it works. In the process of

pervaporation, the sample mixture in liquid form is the feed stream, and the

permeate is collected as a vapor because of the vacuum.The liquid that goes

23
through the membrane goes through the upstream side, while a vacuum is

put on the downstream side of the membrane. The liquid that passes through

the membrane turns into gas somewhere between the upstream and

downstream sides of the membrane. A solution-diffusion model can also

explain how things move through the pervaporation membrane if we assume

that the pressure stays the same but that the solubility and diffusivity change

a lot across the membrane because the amount of polymer swelling changes

from the wet side upstream to the dry side downstream.

Oligomerization

Oligomerization is the process by which oligomers, which are short

chains of sugar molecules converted into monomers and individual sugar

molecules, as part of the saccharification process. The supply of a

convenient substrate for microorganisms is an important stage in the

manufacture of bioethanol, as it enhances the efficiency of the fermentation

process. The process of oligomerization involves the combination of

monomers to create bigger macromolecular structures which typically consist

of three to ten component monomers. It includes two different processes

namely the irreversible covalent stabilization and reversible associations

assisted by interactions such as electrostatic charges and hydrogen bonds.

Oligomerization has the potential to advance towards structures that are

more complicated like trimers or tetramers.

24
 Mild hydrotreating

Mild hydrotreating, known as mild hydrocracking includes a partial

change of feedstock, commonly pressure gas oil at conditions that are

typically mild. During mild hydrotreating, the feedstock produces cracking at

moderate temperatures and pressures, specifically at 343°C and 50-85 bar,

resulting in a cracking rate of approximately 20-60%. The primary aim of this

procedure is to generate cat cracker feedstocks of high quality while

minimizing the presence of sulfur. Mild hydrotreatment is a practical

substitute for complete hydrocracking units, providing refiners with a more

economical approach to enhance the quality of their products, in particular in

dealing with following clean fuel laws and reducing of sulfur levels. The

enhancement of processes and maximization the amount of high-quality fuel

production with low sulfur content from each barrel of crude oil processed are

the priority for refiners.

ASTM D1655-22

This standard covers obtaining aviation turbine fuel under a contract and is

mostly meant for use by agencies that buy things. This specification doesn't list all fuels

that work well in reciprocating aircraft turbine engines. Instead, it lists the following kinds

of aviation fuel that can be used for civil purposes: There is Jet A and Jet A-1. The fuels

must be properly sampled and tested to see if they meet specific standards for their

make-up, volatility, fluidity, combustion, corrosion, temperature stability, contaminants,

and additives. The ASTM D1655-22 document outlines the basic properties that Jet A

25
and Jet A-1 aviation turbine fuel must have. It also includes a list of acceptable additives

that can be used in both civilian and military aircraft and engines. Specification D1655

was first made for civilian uses, but military planes have also started to use it. It is

possible to find advice on how to use Jet A and Jet A-1 in specific situations in the

appendix.

Aviation fuel

Aviation fuel is more than just a way of powering an airplane, it's what keeps

them flying. It was made to work well with flying machines at different heights and

weather conditions because it was especially made for them. According to Dobos

(2023), aviation fuel is made up of a specific mix of fuels that work together to give you

the energy you need, keep your engine clean, and keep carburetors from freezing up.

Common types of aviation fuel

Jet Fuel (Jet A and Jet A-1)

Jet fuel, which comes in two different types, Jet A and Jet A-1, is specially

made for turbine-powered planes like regional jets, most commercial liners, and many

big business jets. The history of jet fuel goes back to the middle of the 20th century,

when jet engines were first made. As airplane engines changed from piston-driven

systems to more powerful and efficient jet turbines, they needed a different kind of fuel

to run.In the 1940s and 1950s, when jet travel was just getting started, the fuel wasn't

as polished as it is now. Over time, as the flight industry grew and safety and efficiency

became more important, jet fuel formulas were changed to better meet the needs of jet

turbine engines. One difference between Jet A and Jet A-1 is that Jet A-1 has higher

26
freezing points and different operating needs. Jet A-1 can be used in colder places or at

higher altitudes because its freezing point is lower than that of Jet A. Although these

fuels have low freezing points, which makes them useful for travel at high altitudes, they

also have high flash points, which make them safer to handle and use. As the business

grew, there was a constant push to make the fuel more stable, have a higher energy

density, and have fewer impurities. These changes made it possible for planes like the

Boeing 747 and Gulfstream G650 to fly farther and faster. Our guide on the most

fuel-efficient private jets is a great resource for people who are interested in private

aviation and want to learn more about how Jet A and Jet A-1 affect the performance of

modern aircraft. The way jet fuel has changed over the years shows how dedicated the

business is to new ideas, safety, and caring for the environment.

Aviation Gasoline (AvGas)

Aviation gasoline, or AvGas, is different from jet fuel because of what it is

used for and what it is made of. Aviation gasoline has been around since the early days

of flying, when piston-engine planes were the norm. Charles Lindbergh and Amelia

Earhart were among the first people to fly an airplane, and AvGas drove their trips.The

high octane number of AvGas, which is made especially for piston engines, stops

knocking and keeps the engine running smoothly. Over the years, it has been made

better in many ways. The first fuel used in airplanes had a lot of problems, like engine

knocking and inconsistent combustion. As airplane technology improved, so did the

need for fuels that burned better and had a higher octane level. By the middle of the

20th century, AvGas had gone through many changes for the better. Lead was added to

it to raise its octane levels, which made engines run better.

27
 Biofuel in Aviation

Biofuels are more than just an alternative fuel, they show that the aviation

business is taking steps to be more environmentally friendly. Concerns about carbon

pollution and environmental effects grew in the late 20th century and early 21st century,

which is when the push for biofuels really took off. But these fuels don't come from

crude oil. Instead, they come from algae, jatropha plants, or used cooking oil, which are

all natural and reusable. The switch to biofuels isn't just a change in where the fuel

comes from; it's also a change in how people think about the airline industry's role in

protecting the environment. Even though biofuels are still being developed, airlines and

plane makers are already using them in test trips to show that they can work. The

ultimate goal is for biofuels to work with existing fleets without any problems. This would

lower the carbon footprint of the aviation business. At the moment, people are talking

about "drop-in" biofuels, which can be used in current engines without any changes,

making the switch easier.

Sugarcane Bagasse Bioethanol

Sugarcane bagasse, the fibrous byproduct of sugar production, has become a

key player in the bioethanol industry. Its prominence is due to several factors that

combine for efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective bioethanol production. Firstly,

sugarcane's rapid growth ensures a readily available and renewable source of bagasse.

Secondly, its high cellulose content, a readily convertible sugar, makes it ideal for

bioethanol production. Thirdly, the existing machines for sugarcane cultivation,

processing, and waste management can be adapted for bioethanol production,

28
minimizing investment needs. The environmental benefits are significant as well.

Bioethanol from bagasse reduces dependence on fossil fuels and promotes a way of

recycling a biomass by transforming waste into clean-burning fuel.

Microalgae Bioethanol

Emerging as a contender for sustainable bioethanol production, microalgae offer

a different set of advantages. These microscopic aquatic organisms can be cultivated in

controlled environments using recycled wastewater and sunlight, minimizing their

environmental footprint and land-use requirements. Unlike traditional crops competing

for land, microalgae can thrive in specific areas and even integrate into existing

industrial processes, utilizing waste streams like CO2 for cultivation. Furthermore,

specific types of microalgae can be engineered to be high producers of sugars or lipids,

both readily convertible into bioethanol. This characteristic allows for targeted breeding

programs to optimize bioethanol yield and overall production efficiency. While

challenges like developing cost-effective large-scale production methods remain,

advancements in biotechnology hold immense promise for microalgae.

Corn Starch Bioethanol

Corn starch has become a commercially prominent bioethanol feedstock in the

US, particularly due to its convenient features. The high starch content in corn kernels

makes them ideal for conversion into bioethanol through well-established technologies.

Furthermore, the existing infrastructure for corn farming and processing in the US

shows a readily available supply chain and minimizes investment needs for bioethanol

29
production. However, corn-based bioethanol faces criticism due to the "food vs. fuel"

debate. Concerns lie in the potential competition with food production, raising food

prices and impacting food security. Large-scale corn production practices can also

have negative environmental issues. Heavy reliance on fertilizers, pesticides, and

irrigation can lead to water overuse, soil erosion, and water pollution. Moving forward,

exploring alternative biomass sources and sustainable farming practices is crucial.

Developing corn types with higher yields and lower fertilizer needs can be a start for a

better bioethanol production. While cornstarch offers advantages, its sustainability

requires ongoing evaluation and development of more responsible practices.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This research section provides published studies and developments on the

project design from both local and foreign researchers.

FOREIGN

A study of Yesmin et al. (2023) discusses the effects of selected fermentation

parameters on bioethanol production from ripe carabao mango (Mangifera indica)

peelings. It is stated that in the rapidly developing nation of Bangladesh, the growing

population and expanding industrial sector have led to a significant increase in the

demand for energy. This demand surpasses the current output, primarily sourced from

fossil fuels. In this context, bioethanol emerges as an appealing alternative. This

renewable and environmentally friendly fuel is viewed as one of the suitable substitutes

for fossil fuels. Bangladesh, being an agricultural country, produces a more than enough

30
quantity of mangoes every year. In fact, it ranks among the top mango-producing

countries globally. This load of mangoes, particularly the ripened ones that are often

discarded, presents a new source for bioethanol production. The focus of the research

was to explore the potential for bioethanol production from various ripen mango

varieties native to Bangladesh. The process involved blending a sample of mango pulp

with distilled water, followed by sterilization. A culture of yeast, specifically

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was then added and the mixture was incubated for a period

of time. The study assessed five local mango varieties for their bioethanol production

potential. Among these varieties, Khershapat, a variety of Mangifera indica L., was

found to yield the highest amount and purity of bioethanol. This research tackles the

promising opportunity that Bangladesh has in producing bioethanol from over-ripened

mangoes. It highlights the potential for turning a commonly wasted resource into a

valuable resource, contributing to the country’s energy needs while also promoting

environmental sustainability.

The extraction of bioactive molecules from the agro-industrial waste of mango

peels are explored in a study by Sharif et al. (2021). It states that Mangifera indica L.,

more commonly known as the mango, is a tropical fruit that is highly valued for its rich

nutrient content. Researchers have explored innovative extraction methods, such as

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) and Enzyme-Assisted Ultrasound Extraction

(EAUE), to harness these nutrients from mango peels, which are often considered as

waste. These extraction strategies were optimized to maximize yield and are

environmentally sustainable. The extracts obtained showed high amounts of phenolic

contents and polyphenolics, indicating a rich presence of bioactive compounds.

31
Additionally, the extracts demonstrated a high antioxidant capacity. The study concludes

that EAUE is an effective technique for extracting and recovering bioactive compounds

from natural resources. This research highlights the potential of utilizing waste, like

mango peels, into a valuable resource, contributing to environmental sustainability and

health benefits.

Additionally, a study by Bello et al. (2023) discusses the blending of mango peel

extract with biodiesel to improve the fuel’s oxidative stability. A complete investigation

into the Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) of waste from mango peels was conducted

in the said study. The extraction process was carried out under specific experimental

conditions, involving a certain flow rate of CO2, a fixed pressure, and a range of

temperatures over varying extraction times. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

(HPLC) was used to separate target bioactive compounds from the mango peels,

including quercetin, beta-carotene, and gallic acid. The quantities of these compounds

were estimated and recorded. The researchers also explored the application of various

models, including Elovich’s, Hyperbolic, and Pseudo second-order models, to study the

extraction kinetics of the liquid extracts derived from the SFE of mango peels. The

experimental data were best fitted by the Hyperbolic model, followed by the Pseudo

second-order and Elovich’s model. The study also scooped into the thermodynamics

parameters of the extraction process. The entropy change and enthalpy change values

were positive, while the Gibbs’ free energy value was negative. This indicates that the

extraction process is irreversible. The research concluded by highlighting the potential

of mango peel liquid extracts as a low-cost and sustainable source of antioxidants.

32
These antioxidants can be used to improve the oxidative stability of biodiesel, by means

of contributing to the development of more sustainable energy sources.

In addition, a study by Trinidad (2021) evaluates the potential of agro-industrial

wastes, specifically mango peels, for bioethanol production. In the study, the

researchers evaluated the fermentation performance and behavior of a specific yeast

strain, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y2034, in the pulp and peel of Mangifera indica L.,

also known as the mango. The mango, a fruit abundant in Mexico and known for its high

sugar content, was the focus of this research. The researchers prepared the substrate

and the YPD medium, a nutrient-rich medium used for the growth of yeast. The yeast

strain, S. cerevisiae Y2034, was then grown in this medium. This was followed by the

alcohol fermentation and distillation processes. The raw materials used in the study

consisted of a majority of pulp and a smaller portion of peels and seeds. The maximum

growth of yeast was observed in the treatment of pulp and peel with a certain amount of

initial reducing sugar. All the experiments were carried out multiple times to ensure the

accuracy and reliability of the results. The study provides valuable insights into the

potential of using mango pulp and peel for ethanol production, highlighting the role of

the yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y2034 in this process. This research

contributes to the broader understanding of sustainable biofuel production.

A study by Memon et al. (2021) describes the preparation and catalytic activity

evaluation of synthesized hydrothermal carbon catalysts for biodiesel production using

mango peels (Mangifera indica L.) using concentrated sulfuric acid at various time

intervals. The study of research into the preparation and evaluation of the catalytic

activity of newly synthesized hydrothermal carbon catalysts, with the aim of utilizing

33
them for biodiesel production. These catalysts were prepared through a process known

as sulfonation, which involved the use of mango peels, specifically those of the

Mangifera indica L. species, and concentrated sulfuric acid. This process was carried

out over various time intervals. The catalysts were then characterized using advanced

analytical techniques. These techniques allowed the researchers to analyze various

aspects of the catalysts, including their surface area, the functional groups present, their

form, and the density of acid sites. One catalyst, prepared over a specific time interval,

displayed a high density of proton switchable or acidic sites attached to the carbon

surface. This catalyst also exhibited a large surface area, well-ordered porosity, and a

large pore volume. The researchers then determined the catalytic activity by examining

the performance of the catalyst for the process of fatty acid esterification. This process

is used to produce methyl ester, a type of biodiesel. The catalyst prepared over a

specific time interval demonstrated the maximum catalytic activity due to its high acid

density and large surface area. The researchers also conducted a kinetic study for the

esterification of oleic acid by the catalyst. This study confirmed that the reaction

followed a first-order reaction, which is typical for homogeneous esterification reactions.

The recyclability of the catalyst was also assessed. The researchers found that the

catalyst had the potential to be recycled multiple times without any reactivation step and

without any loss of activity. After a certain number of cycles, the catalyst could be

regenerated. The results of the study revealed that the catalyst exhibits high stability,

high catalytic activity, and reusability. The researchers concluded that the prepared

catalyst could prove to be an innovative development in the field of heterogeneous

34
catalysis. This research contributes to the broader understanding of sustainable biofuel

production.

LOCAL

According to the study of Magbuhos et al. (2017), This study aimed to explore

the potential of repurposing soda pop waste as a primary material for ethanol

production. It delved into understanding how the composition of soda pop waste could

influence the process of bioethanol production and investigated the fermentation

process through Saccharification. Factors such as operating temperature and levels of

yeast were considered in this study and the Saccharification process that operates

without the presence of oxygen, produces carbon dioxide and ethanol as by-products

and the particular yeast strain such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae obtained from the

Philippine repository of microscopic life was obtained for manufacturing needs on

scaling. On the other hand, the parameters such as pH and nutrient composition were

observed to increase the fermentation conditions, and the distillation was employed to

get bioethanol where it will be evaluated. Nonetheless, the research shows the

properties of the resulting bioethanol, including auto-ignition temperature, lower heating

value, and density, at the Adamson University Technology Research and Development

Center where they blend the ethanol with gasoline at concentrations of five to ten

percent and was tested in a grass cutter.

Meanwhile, In the study of Articuna et al. (2017), The jackfruit rind aimed to

assess its potential as a feedstock for bioethanol production through enzymatic

35
saccharification and it shows that jackfruit rind contain high percentages of cellulose,

hemicellulose, and holocellulose, making it suitable for enzymatic saccharification.

Alkaline pretreatment proved effective in enhancing the accessibility of jackfruit rind to

enzymatic hydrolysis. The study revealed that increasing the amount of cellulase and

time led to higher ethanol yields, although sugar concentration saturation after 60 hours

exhibited competitive inhibition with cellulase, deactivating it. Continuous

saccharification and fermentation improved bioethanol yield and its saccharification rate.

The physicochemical properties of extracted ethanol from jackfruit rind showed great

potential for bioethanol production and the lamp testing indicated that ethanol burned

faster and illuminated for a longer duration compared to kerosene. Recommendations in

this study include promoting renewable energy sources like jackfruit rind for bioethanol

production, exploring alternative pretreatment methods and enzymes, employing

different microorganisms for continuous saccharification and fermentation, utilizing

better temperature control in distillation units, and experimenting with various

techniques to enhance yield percentages.

According to Rivera et al. (2015), They produce bioethanol from sweet sorghum

stalks via fermentation and distillation methods and assess its suitability as a blending

agent for gasoline, comparing it with Petron XCS gasoline. Sweet sorghum stalks from

Batac City, Ilocos Norte, were used, with 225kg being processed. The stalks were

peeled, milled using a movable milling machine, and then subjected to pasteurization,

fermentation, and distillation process, and the bioethanol produced was blended with

gasoline at varying proportions of ten, fifteen, and twenty percent according to Republic

36
Act 9367, which mandates a ten percent ethanol blend in gasoline. The

physicochemical properties of the extracted ethanol were evaluated at SGS Philippines,

Makati, adhering to PNS/DOE standards. The performance testing involved assessing

grass cutter engine performance at Golden Country Homes, Alangilan, Batangas City,

while emission testing occurred at TESDA Batangas City. In addition, The study also

examined the impact of blended bioethanol on grass cutter fuel efficiency. The

extraction process involved milling the sorghum stalks, sterilizing the extracted juice,

and ensuring a sugar content for optimal bioethanol production.

In the study of Demafelis et al. (2020), The objective of the study was to improve

the effectiveness of producing second-generation bioethanol by performing

simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) of rice straw and banana stem,

which are important agricultural byproducts in the Philippines. This was achieved using

commercial enzymes and the yeast Kluyveromyces Marxianus. Before solid-state

fermentation (SSF), the residues were subjected to chemical treatment. An investigation

was conducted to determine the possibility of using banana stem and rice straw as

bioethanol feedstocks with K. Marxianus. The findings indicated that the pseudostem

exhibited the greatest ethanol concentration at 5.35 L-1, when subjected to an enzyme

loading of 30 FPU g-1, a temperature of 35°C, and a reaction duration of 24 hours. A

concentration of 6.30 g L-1 was observed for rice straw after 48 hours, using the same

enzyme loading and a solid-state fermentation (SSF) temperature of 45°C. The

ethanol content was shown to be highly influenced by reaction time, exhibiting an

inverse relationship. The pseudostem exhibited a peak ethanol concentration after a

37
duration of 24 hours, while the pretreated rice straw reached its peak concentration after

48 hours. While the impact of temperature on ethanol concentration was found to be

negligible, it was observed that K. Marxianus exhibited its capacity to generate ethanol

within the designated operational parameters. Furthermore, it was determined that both

biomass sources were appropriate for the manufacture of bioethanol.

According to the study of Bataller et al. (2019), The bioethanol industry in the

Philippines experiences two main challenges which are the limited availability of raw

materials and high domestic ethanol costs due to ineffective operations. In order to

address these problems and choose good alternative feedstock for sugarcane, it is

necessary to evaluate crops and their waste products according to standards of social,

economic, and environmental sustainability. It is essential to engage in discussions with

farmers in order to provide recommendations for optimal farming practices and

harvesting plans, considering different variables such as substrate content. To ensure

the right amount of crops as raw materials, it is important to use production

improvements and engage in plant development. The grant of policy support from

agencies such as the National Biofuels Board is critical for the development of projects

related to renewable energy. Although the Biofuels Act of 2006 required a 10%

bioethanol blend in petrol, the demand has not been satisfied because there is limited

local supply, which has led to the need for imports. The Department of Energy (DOE)

has formulated a strategic plan and set of guidelines to address feedstock problems

which involve enhancing sugarcane production and conducting research on alternative

feedstocks. Sweet sorghum, rice straw, and macroalgae are recommended for

38
bioethanol production based on characteristics such as resources, availability, and

production cost. Among these, sweet sorghum is identified as a good alternative

feedstock to sugarcane. In order to achieve the potential of alternative biomass sources,

it is necessary to use appropriate techniques for conversion and improve stages of the

process.

SYNTHESIS

FOREIGN

Several studies highlight the potential of mango (Mangifera indica L.) peels as a

sustainable resource for biofuel production and bioactive compounds.

Yesmin et al. used fermentation for bioethanol yield, while this study investigates

the process of transforming these peels into a valuable product, Sustainable Aviation

Fuel (SAF). The key differences lie in focus and scope. Yesmin et al. explored general

bioethanol production from various ripe mango varieties in Bangladesh, whereas this

study concentrates on bioethanol production specifically from ripe mango peels in the

Philippines for conversion to SAF. Furthermore, Yesmin et al. focused on optimizing

fermentation parameters for bioethanol yield, while this research studies the whole

conversion process from mango peels to SAF, including crucial purification steps like

purification and mild hydrotreating. This study supports the knowledge from Yesmin et

al. (2023) and expands upon it by exploring the zone of biofuel production for the

aviation industry. It tackles the challenges of purifying bioethanol for jet fuel standards

and explores its potential as a sustainable alternative aviation fuel source in the

Philippines.

39
 Similar to the focus on mango peels as a feedstock in the current research, Bello

et al. (2023) recognize the potential within this waste product. They utilize a specific

technique called Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) to extract valuable compounds

from mango peels. This environmentally friendly method employs CO2 under controlled

pressure and temperature conditions. Bello et al. (2023) further differentiate their work

by identifying specific bioactive compounds within the mango peel extracts, including

quercetin, beta-carotene, and gallic acid. These compounds are known for their

antioxidant properties. Their research goes beyond simply extracting the compounds.

Bello et al. (2023) explore optimizing the extraction process by comparing different

mathematical models to understand the kinetics (rate) of extraction. They also studied

the thermodynamics of the process, analyzing factors like entropy and enthalpy

changes to understand its efficiency and spontaneity.

The study concentrates on converting the peels into bioethanol, a potential

feedstock for sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) while Bello et al. (2023) focus on specific

bioactive compounds using Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE). Despite these

differences, both studies show remarkable potential of transforming a waste product into

valuable resources. Both studies highlight the possibilities of extracting various valuable

products from mango peels, contributing to a more sustainable future across multiple

sectors. Furthermore, the concept of improving fuel stability through antioxidants in

Bello et al. (2023) connects to the potential use of bioethanol derived from mango peels

used for SAF, emphasizing the broader contribution of both studies to developing

sustainable transportation fuels.

40
 Sharif et al. (2021) focused on mango peels, a byproduct of the mango industry

often discarded as waste. Their study explored sustainable extraction methods, like

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) and Enzyme-Assisted Ultrasound Extraction

(EAUE), to recover bioactive compounds from these peels. Importantly, they optimized

these techniques to maximize yield while minimizing environmental impact.

The findings revealed that mango peels are a rich source of phenolic compounds

and polyphenolics, known for their antioxidant properties. This indicates significant

potential for using these extracts for health benefits. The study highlights EAUE as an

efficient technique for extracting valuable bioactive molecules from natural resources

like mango peels, promoting waste valorization and contributing to a more sustainable

future.

While both the study and the research by Sharif et al. (2021) focus on mango

byproducts, they explore different angles for waste valorization. Sharif et al. (2021)

focused on bioactive molecules, utilizing innovative extraction techniques to recover

health-promoting antioxidants from mango peels. Their research highlights the potential

of transforming this waste into a source of nutraceuticals or functional food ingredients.

This study, on the other hand, takes a different approach. It concentrates on

converting another mango byproduct which is the ripe mango peels, into bioethanol, a

potential precursor for Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). Here, the focus shifts from

health benefits to environmental sustainability. By utilizing waste for bioethanol

production, this research aims to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and lessen

greenhouse gas emissions within the aviation industry.

41
 Trinidad (2021) investigated the fermentation performance of a specific yeast

strain, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y2034, using both mango pulp and peel. This

research provided valuable insights into the potential of this entire waste stream, not

just pulp, but also peels as a possible feedstock for bioethanol production.

The current study builds upon the discovery of Trinidad (2021), and explores the

conversion of bioethanol derived from mango peels into a specific type of biofuel:

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). While Trinidad (2021) focused on optimizing the initial

bioethanol production process through yeast strain selection and fermentation

parameter adjustments, this current research goes into the subsequent steps required

for creating a usable aviation biofuel. These additional processes, such as

pervaporation and mild hydrotreating, play a role in ensuring the final bioethanol-derived

product meets the specific quality and safety standards for powering airplanes.

This study takes advantage of the knowledge gained from Trinidad (2021) on

utilizing mango waste for bioethanol production and expands upon it by going into the

area of biofuel production specifically for the aviation industry. This shift in focus from

general bioethanol production to SAF development highlights the growing urgency for

sustainable alternatives in the transportation sector. Air travel is a significant contributor

to greenhouse gas emissions, and the development of SAF derived from renewable

resources like mango peels offers a promising solution.

The study and the research of Memon et al. (2021) take the same approach to

biofuel production using a common source which is the mango peels. While the study

focuses on converting the peels into bioethanol, a precursor for sustainable aviation fuel

42
(SAF), Memon et al. (2021) develop catalysts for biodiesel production. Despite these

differing goals, both studies promote waste valorization and contribute to sustainable

transportation fuels.

The differences lie in the end product and conversion process. Thie study utilizes

fermentation to convert sugars in the peels to bioethanol, while Memon et al. (2021)

create catalysts through a process called sulfonation for biodiesel production. The

characterization techniques used by Memon et al. (2021) could be applied to optimize

pretreatment for bioethanol production. Additionally, their findings on catalyst reusability

offer valuable insights for cost-effective recycling of peels during bioethanol production

in this research.

Optimizing bioethanol production through pretreatment methods, fermentation

parameters, and potentially co-fermenting with other waste streams are also areas for

further exploration. Life cycle assessments for both bioethanol and biodiesel production

processes would be valuable to compare their environmental impact to traditional fuels.

Both studies contribute significantly to developing a more sustainable biofuel industry by

exploring different pathways and highlighting the potential of utilizing readily available

agricultural waste products like mango peels.

LOCAL

In the current study, the researchers focus on bioethanol production using mango

peels as the feedstock. Their goal is to create an alternative aviation fuel through a

fermentation process involving Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Notably, they employ

pervaporation and mild hydrotreating techniques for fuel purification. On the other hand,

43
Magbuhos et al. (2017) conducted a study titled “Exploring the Potential of Soda Pop

Waste as a Primary Material for Bioethanol Production.” Their research centers around

bioethanol derived from soda pop waste, with the aim of blending it into gasoline.

Similar to the current study, they also utilize Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast for

fermentation. Despite their differences, both studies contribute to the advancement of

bioethanol production from waste materials. The current study introduces a novel

feedstock (mango peels) for potential aviation fuel applications, while Magbuhos et al.

(2017) investigates soda pop waste as an alternative source. Further research is

necessary to compare the efficiency and environmental impact of these bioethanol

production processes.

In the comparative analysis between the study conducted by Articuna et al.

(2017) and the project study, several similarities and differences emerge. Firstly, both

studies share a common objective: the exploration of unconventional feedstocks for

bioethanol production. While Articuna et al. focus their attention on jackfruit rind, the

project study investigates mango peels—both materials rich in cellulose, hemicellulose,

and holocellulose, rendering them suitable candidates for enzymatic saccharification.

Additionally, both studies employ the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the

fermentation process to convert sugars into bioethanol. However, the research stands

apart due to its incorporation of pervaporation and mild hydrotreating for fuel

purification, whereas Articuna et al. do not explicitly specify downstream processing

methods, emphasizing enzymatic saccharification. Furthermore, while the study under

discussion specifically targets aviation fuel, Articuna et al. explore a broader application,

potentially blending their bioethanol with gasoline. Despite these differences, both

44
studies significantly contribute to advancing sustainable bioethanol sources.

Recommendations include promoting renewable energy sources like jackfruit rind,

exploring alternative pretreatment techniques and enzyme optimization, investigating

diverse microorganisms for continuous saccharification and fermentation, and

implementing strategies to enhance overall efficiency.

Meanwhile, Rivera et al. (2015) focusing on bioethanol from sweet sorghum

stalks for gasoline blending, and the research investigating bioethanol derived from ripe

mango peels (Mangifera indica L.) as aviation fuel after pervaporation and mild

hydrotreating have some similarities and differences. Both studies share common

ground in exploring biomass conversion into bioethanol. While Rivera et al. (2015)

utilized sweet sorghum stalks as feedstock, the research focused on mango peels,

presenting a potential waste-to-fuel solution. Both processes involve fermentation and

distillation for bioethanol production, with Rivera et al. (2015) extending evaluations to

the physicochemical properties, engine performance, and emissions of the blended fuel.

However, notable differences arise in feedstock source and end-product application.

Sweet sorghum stalks are cultivated, while mango peels represent a potential waste

product. Furthermore, Rivera et al. (2015) aimed for a gasoline blendstock, while the

research targets aviation fuel, necessitating additional processing steps like

pervaporation and mild hydrotreating to meet aviation fuel quality standards. Future

considerations suggest exploring regulatory compliance and compatibility with aviation

fuels for the research, inspired by Rivera et al. (2015)'s emphasis on adherence to

regulations for bioethanol blending in gasoline. Additionally, investigating the feasibility

of integrating Rivera et al. (2015)'s bioethanol production method as a pre-processing

45
step for mango peel-derived bioethanol presents an intriguing avenue for further

exploration. In conclusion, both studies contribute significantly to the advancement of

bioethanol from renewable sources, with Rivera et al. (2015) showcasing sweet

sorghum stalks for gasoline blending, and the research opening possibilities for waste

mango peels as a source of aviation biofuel.

Demafelis et al. (2020) investigated bioethanol production from rice straw and

banana stem using simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) with

Kluyveromyces Marxianus yeast, achieving promising results, particularly with banana

pseudostem. In contrast, the research in question focuses on evaluating bioethanol

derived from mango peels as a substitute aviation fuel, likely employing techniques

such as pervaporation and mild hydrotreating. The key differences and potential

connections between the two studies lie in feedstock and bioethanol production

methods. While Demafelis et al. (2020) utilized agricultural waste, the research in

question explores fruit peels as a feedstock. Moreover, while Demafelis et al. (2020)

used SSF, the research in question likely employs different techniques for purification

and upgrading to meet aviation fuel standards. Despite these differences, both studies

contribute to the development of bioethanol from unconventional sources. Demafelis et

al. (2020) validate the use of agricultural residues, while the research in question

explores the potential of fruit peels. The high ethanol concentrations achieved in

Demafelis et al. (2020) suggest promise for optimization and integration with the

purification and upgrading techniques of the research in question for aviation fuel

applications. In conclusion, both studies aim to advance biofuel production from

46
renewable sources, with potential for combining their findings to optimize bioethanol

production and its utilization in aviation fuels.

Lastly, the study by Bataller et al. (2019) shares a common objective of

evaluating alternative bioethanol feedstocks to contribute to the sustainability of the

bioethanol industry. While the research in question focuses on investigating ripe mango

peels (Mangifera indica L.) as a potential feedstock, Bataller et al. (2019) explore

established alternatives such as sweet sorghum, rice straw, and macroalgae to address

current feedstock limitations. However, notable differences emerge between the studies.

While the research in question delves into the novel use of mango peels and assesses

the potential of bioethanol derived from them for aviation fuel, Bataller et al. (2019)

concentrate on bioethanol for conventional fuel applications. Additionally, the

methodologies employed vary, with the research in question likely involving

pervaporation and mild hydrotreating for bioethanol purification, while Bataller et al.

(2019) do not specify conversion methods for their alternative feedstocks. Despite these

differences, similarities between the studies are apparent. Bataller et al. (2019)'s

findings on suitable conversion techniques for various feedstocks could inform the

optimization of bioethanol production from mango peels in the research in question.

Conversely, the investigation into mango peel-derived bioethanol’s feasibility for aviation

biofuel in the research in question could provide insights for future studies on alternative

feedstock development, as explored by Bataller et al. (2019). Overall, both studies

contribute significantly to advancing bioethanol production by exploring alternative

feedstocks and conversion methods, addressing challenges related to feedstock

47
availability and production costs to promote the sustainability and economic viability of

the bioethanol industry.

48
 CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODS

Conceptual Framework

The input of the study initiates by focusing on the efficient and responsible

extraction of glucose from ripe mango peels. Essential input knowledge includes mango

(Mangifera Indica L.) peels, physicochemical pretreatment, pervaporation, mild

hydrotreating, oligomerization, hydroprocessing, and fuel quality and stability test.

The process of the study is the extracted glucose is then fermented into ethanol.

This stage involves several parameters such as yeast fermentation, fermentation

temperature, fermentation efficiency, fermentation time, and percent yield. The produced

ethanol is then purified through a series of processes including distillation,

oligomerization, hydroprocessing, and mild hydrotreating. The physical properties of the

purified ethanol such as pH level, boiling point, density, viscosity, freezing point, flash

point, calorific value, water content, volatility, corrosiveness, purity of ethanol, yield,

ethanol concentration, and purification efficiency are evaluated.

The output of the research is the graphical & statistical analysis of Bio-Jet Fuel

produced from Bioethanol derived from Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) to jet fuel. The

output aims to deliver bioethanol derived from ripped Mangifera Indica L. peels tailored

for aviation fuel purposes. The output includes high-quality bioethanol meeting aviation

fuel standards, thus offering a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based fuels.

49
Figure 3. Paradigm of the study

50
Technical Design and Procedure

The study used an experimental approach in the evaluation of ethanol from ripe

Mangifera indica L. peels as an aviation fuel after pervaporation and mild hydrotreating.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the study

51
 Figure 4 discusses the possibility of the potential of bioethanol, derived from the

peels of ripe mangoes, as a sustainable alternative to conventional aviation fuel. The

procedure begins with the extraction of glucose from the peels of ripe mangoes. This is

accomplished through established methods for physicochemical pretreatment and

saccharification, ensuring the procurement of high-quality raw materials. Following the

extraction, the research proceeds into the fermentation process. The extracted glucose

undergoes fermentation to produce bioethanol. The study analyzes the effects of

glucose concentration and purity on the yield and efficiency of this process. Upon the

production of bioethanol, the study proceeds to the purification phase. The bioethanol

produced from the fermentation of mango peels undergoes purification processes,

including pervaporation and mild hydrotreating. This step ensures the production of pure

and high-quality bioethanol. The next phase involves the characterization of the purified

bioethanol. The study evaluates the properties of the bioethanol derived from ripe

mango peels, assessing its suitability as an aviation fuel. This includes an examination

of the purity and yield of the bioethanol, its physical properties, and its energy and water

content. The research then moves to the final testing phase, where the bioethanol is

subjected to testing using the ASTM D1655-22 standard. This step is crucial in

determining the fuel quality, stability, and emission profile of the bioethanol. The study

concludes with a rigorous statistical analysis. A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

is employed to provide a quantitative evaluation of the research findings. This statistical

treatment allows for a comprehensive understanding of the potential of bioethanol

derived from ripe mango peels as a viable alternative aviation fuel. This research

journey, while academic, is designed to be accessible, with terms and concepts that are

52
simple and easy to understand, ensuring that the potential of bioethanol derived from

ripe mango peels as an aviation fuel is explored in a comprehensive yet understandable

manner.

Data Collection and treatment

This study is an experimental type of research which compose of eight procedures

namely the physicochemical pretreatment, saccharification, fermentation, distillation,

pervaporation, oligomerization, hydroprocessing, and mild treatment to produce a light

weight bio ethanol.

1. Preparation of raw materials

The raw material that is used is ripe Mangifera indica L peel with maturity color

index of 5 to 6 (Fama, 2006) will be donated by Max Mango Business located in Lipa

City, Batangas. 1kg of peel samples will be carefully washed using running water at least

three times and put to the oven at 50 degree celsius for 3 hrs and will be grinded using a

mortar to produce a powdered form of Carabao mango peel. The 200 grams of Carabao

mango peel powder will be sent to the Central of analytical services laboratory at the

University of the Philippines los baños for the extraction of glucose and to further

analyze the chemical properties such as pH level, total sugar analysis using phenol

sulfuric method, and moisture and ash content.

Pretreatment of ripe mango peel waste

The 75 grams powderize carabao mango peel will be subjected to enzymatic

saccharification using a-amylase and glucoamylase enzymes from BIOTECH in

53
University of the Philippines Los Baños. Three sets 25 grams of carabao mango peel will

be conducted with different proportions of glucoamylase.

450 mL of water and a-amylase will be mixed together in a 4 liters plastic bottle

and to adjust the pH level to 4 to 5, a 98 grams of sulfuric acid mixed to 1 liter of mineral

water will be used. The mixtures will be heated to 90 degree celsius for 2 hours and then

glucoamylase will be added to the solution and will be heated to 60 degree celsius for 2

hrs. Lastly, to separate the liquid to the solids, a centrifuge machine will be used for 15

minutes.

1.1 Methods of determining the concentration of glucose

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) provides a breakdown

of the sugars present in your mango peel slurry, including glucose. For the

method of testing, the mango peel slurry was filtered to remove any particles that

could clog the HPLC column. To identify the sugars in the sample, there is a need

to calibrate the system. This involves preparing solutions with known

concentrations of glucose (and potentially other expected sugars) using the same

solvents your HPLC uses. Injecting these standards allows the system to identify

the specific retention time for each sugar in the resulting chromatogram. Once

calibrated, a measured volume of the filtered mango peel slurry will be injected

into the HPLC instrument. The system separates the different sugars in the given

sample based on how they interact with the column. A detector then measures

these separated components, generating a chromatogram with peaks

corresponding to each sugar. The identification and quantification of glucose in

54
 the sample occur through comparison with previously injected standards. The

retention times of the peaks in the sample chromatogram are matched to those

obtained from the standard injections, allowing for the identification of the glucose

peak. The area of this specific peak then serves as the basis for quantification.

Here, a calibration curve constructed using the known concentrations of the

standard solutions becomes crucial. This curve establishes a relationship

between peak area and concentration, enabling the conversion of the glucose

peak area in the sample chromatogram to its actual concentration within the

mango peel slurry. This approach provides a numerical measure of glucose

present in the sample.

1.2 Glucose Yield

To produce bioethanol from glucose derived from mango peels, the

researchers need to produce 40 to 46 percent of glucose through yeast

fermentation and will be sent to the BIOTECH Central Analytical Service

Laboratory in the University of the Philippines Los Baños to further analyze the

glucose content

2. Fermentation of glucose extracted from ripe mango peel

2.1 Yeast Fermentation

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 To activate the yeast, warm distilled water will be used that does not

exceed to 40 degrees celsius. 30g of yeast will be weighed and added to 300ml

of warm water, followed by 1/8 tsp of white sugar to help in activating. After

mixing, the solution will be covered and left for 20 minutes to activate the yeast.

For fermentation, the activated yeast will be added to the sample and will be

transferred to a 4L container. The container will be left open for 24 hours to ease

the pressure buildup and then the container's hole will be sealed with plastic to

create an anaerobic environment. Fermentation was carried out across three

different times namely four, eight, and twelve days.

2.2 Methods of determining Fermentation Temperature

The optimal temperature range for yeast fermentation is 28 to 33 degrees

Celsius (Liu, 2019). This range is ideal because it promotes the activity of yeast

cells, focusing on the fermentation process and enhancing the production of

desired compounds like alcohol or carbon dioxide. To monitor and maintain the

fermentation temperature within this optimal range, the researchers will use a

thermometer probe every 24 hours for 12 days.

2.3 Methods of determining the fermentation Efficiency

This method compares the theoretical maximum ethanol yield with the

actual amount produced. To calculate the theoretical yield, you'll need to analyze

the initial sugar concentration in the mango peel slurry (primarily glucose) before

56
fermentation. Once you have the initial sugar concentration (typically expressed

in grams per liter or mg/mL), you can utilize the stoichiometry of the fermentation

reaction and a conversion factor to calculate the theoretical ethanol yield. The

simplified equation for the complete conversion of glucose (the primary sugar in

mango peels) to ethanol is:

From the balanced equation, we see that 1 mole of glucose (180 g/mol)

theoretically produces 2 moles of ethanol (2 x 46 g/mol = 92 g). Therefore:

Equation 1. Conversion Factor

With the initial sugar concentration and the conversion factor, you can

calculate the theoretical maximum yield of ethanol using the following formula:

Equation 2. Theoretical Yield

The fermentation efficiency (%) is then calc

ulated using the following formula:

Equation 3. Fermentation Efficiency

57
2. Methods of determining Fermentation Time

In the study of the potential of carabao grass (Paspalum Conjugatum) as

bioethanol feedstock by Rosie (2019), The researchers use 3 different durations

in fermenting the glucose which are the 4, 8, and 12 days duration. After

evaluation, the result showed that the 12 days is the suitable fermentation

duration for yeast fermentation.

2.5 Methods of determining Percent yield

The following steps detail the procedure for determining the ethanol yield

from mango peels using Gas Chromatography (GC).

The researchers will begin by transforming the 200g of mango peels into a

fine powder to enhance accessibility for enzymes during the process. 50g of the

powder will be used to create a slurry with distilled water, following a specific 1:10

water to dry weight ratio with 50g powdered peels : 500mL water. The pH of this

slurry will be adjusted to pH of 5.0 for the chosen enzymes before adding the

recommended amount of saccharification enzymes. This mixture is incubated at

a suitable temperature of 50°C for a specific time period of 24 hours. This allows

the enzymes to convert the complex carbohydrates in the peels into fermentable

sugars. After this enzymatic breakdown, the pH is again adjusted to a range

suitable for yeast growth with pH 5.5.

The sugar solution is then protected with the yeast strain at a

recommended cell density of 1 x 10^7 cells/mL. This protected mixture is

58
transferred to a sterilized fermentation vessel equipped with an airlock to create

anaerobic conditions and prevent contamination. The researcher incubates the

vessel at a temperature of 30°C for a period of 48 hours while monitoring CO2

production through the airlock as an indicator of fermentation progress. Once

fermentation is complete, the broth is transferred to a distillation apparatus where

the flammable components, including ethanol, are separated and collected as

distillate in a graduated cylinder. Depending on the initial concentration, a second

distillation step might be necessary to further concentrate the ethanol.

To quantify the ethanol yield using Gas Chromatography (GC), the

researcher prepares an internal standard solution (1% n-propanol) to ensure

accurate measurement. A 1mL distillate is then diluted with the internal standard

solution in a known ratio of 1:1 based on the expected ethanol concentration and

the GC's dynamic range. This diluted sample is finally filtered using a 0.22 µm

syringe filter to remove any particulates that could clog the GC column.

The GC analysis itself requires referring to the specific instrument manual

for operational details. A 1 µL of the prepared sample is injected into the GC

equipped with a capillary column suitable for separating ethanol, such as

HP-INNOWAX, and a flame ionization detector (FID). The GC separates and

detects the ethanol and internal standard, generating a chromatogram with

corresponding peaks. By comparing these peaks to retention times from

standard solutions or library data, the researcher can identify the ethanol peak.

59
 To calculate the ethanol concentration in the diluted sample, the

researchers used the following equation:

Equation 4. Ethanol Concentration

With the ethanol concentration in the diluted sample determined, the

researcher can finally calculate the percent yield of ethanol using the following

equation, assuming the sugar composition of the mango peels is primarily

glucose (theoretical yield factor for glucose = 0.51):

Equation 5. Percent Yield

3. Purification of the ethanol produced from mango peels

The purification of bioethanol derived from the mango peels will undergo to the

distillation, pervaporation, oligomerization, hydroprocessing, and mild hydrotreating

process, to remove impurities like carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide which can help

to reduce the weight of bioethanol.

60
Distillation

The distillation procedure for bioethanol involves separating and refining

ethanol derived from the fermentation process where the fermented water mixture

containing only a few percent of ethanol is heated and then concentrated until the

ethanol concentration is 90%. The bioethanol will be sent to the BIOTECH

Central analytical laboratory for the procedure of bioethanol distillation.

This membrane-based separation technique is highly effective for

removing water and achieving the high ethanol purity required for fuel

applications. During pervaporation, the bioethanol mixture is passed through a

selective membrane that is permeable primarily to water while retaining ethanol.

This process takes advantage of the chemical potential gradient between the two

sides of the membrane. Also, this separation process is driven by the difference

in concentration of ethanol and water across the membrane, effectively

increasing the ethanol purity beyond the azeotropic limit of approximately 95.6%

ethanol by weight at standard atmospheric pressure.

Pervaporation

The pervaporation will be conducted by placing a glass wool into a boiling

tube and adding 2 cm^2 of bioethanol to wet the glass wool then researchers will

add 3 grams of porcelain chips as a catalyst in the mid section of the glass tube.

Then, the bioethanol will undergo a heating phase at 170°C to remove carbon

dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

61
Oligomerization

During the oligomerization process, ethanol undergoes dehydration

reactions where water molecules are removed, leading to the formation of ether

bonds between ethanol molecules. This typically requires the presence of a

catalyst, such as an acidl, and is often conducted under high pressure and

temperature conditions to facilitate the reaction. The result is the production of

compounds like ethyl ether or heavier oligomers, which have higher boiling points

and are less volatile than pure ethanol.

Hydroprocessing

Before the production of bioethanol begins, the raw materials, which are

generally referred to as feedstocks, are subjected to pretreatment in order to

maximize their suitability for the process. One way that is frequently used is

hydrolysis, which serves to expand the surface area of the feedstock and makes

it easier for enzymatic hydrolysis to take place. Because of this essential step, the

process of extracting sugars from the biomass is simplified. Following the

completion of the pretreatment step, enzymes or acids are utilized in order to

catalyze the hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose into glucose products. One

of the most important aspects of this conversion is that it converts the biomass

into fermentable sugars. These sugars can then be utilized by microorganisms

during the fermentation process to make bioethanol.

62
Mild treating

In the context of the study, mild treating is used to purify the bioethanol

produced from the fermentation process. It helps in reducing the corrosiveness of

the bioethanol and improving its stability, which are critical properties for aviation

fuel. The mild treating process is carried out under specific conditions of

temperature and pressure, and it requires the presence of a catalyst to facilitate

the reaction. The choice of the catalyst and the operating conditions can

significantly influence the efficiency of the mild treating process and the quality of

the resulting bioethanol.

3.1 Methods of determining the physical properties

3.1.1 Methods of determining the pH level

Measuring the pH level of bioethanol derived from glucose of

Mangifera indica L. (mango) peels, particularly for its use as aviation fuel,

involves a specific approach using a pH meter. Initially, it's essential to

calibrate the pH meter accurately using standard buffer solutions, typically

at pH levels of 4.00, 7.00, and 10.00, to ensure precision in readings. The

calibration will be done regularly. For the measurement, the sample of

bioethanol will be collected in a clean container, keeping in mind that the

pH can vary with temperature, so consistency in temperature during

measurement is ideal. Before immersing the electrode into the bioethanol

sample, it should be rinsed with distilled water and then with a small

quantity of the sample to avoid contamination. The electrode, suitable for

63
ethanol or similar organic solvents, is then submerged in the sample,

ensuring it doesn’t touch the container’s sides or bottom. After waiting for

the pH reading to stabilize, which might take from a few seconds to a

minute, the pH value is recorded. Post-measurement, the electrode will be

cleaned with distilled water to prevent any cross-contamination and stored

appropriately, usually in a storage solution or distilled water. While the

direct measurement of pH in the bioethanol itself is uncommon, as

bioethanol tends to be neutral, this method is crucial during the production

process, particularly during fermentation, where maintaining the right pH is

vital for yeast activity and overall fermentation efficiency. The researchers

will conduct the test in the Analytical Service Laboratory (ASL) of

University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB).

3.1.2 Methods of determining the Boiling point

In a Fracture distillation, the chemical that boils at a lower

temperature always makes up more of the distillate. Sometimes, the best

fractionating column for the job is the one that is already available and

easy to use. Because each column has a different surface area and

number of theoretical plates, it can split close-boiling components in

different ways. A wad of glass wool is sometimes put into the top of a

beaded fractionating column to keep the beads from spilling out. Take this

off the column before you use it because it might stop the flow of smoke. If

you are using a Vigreux column, look for cracks in the glass that could

mean there is a break in the column. The pot for distillation will need to be

64
heated much more quickly than for a simple distillation because the vapors

have to journey farther to get to the condenser. If you don't apply more

heat, the vapors will tend to return in the column, which means they will

condense and drip back into the distilling pot. For things to move up the

column, the condensing pot should be 30 degree celsius hotter than the

top of the column as a general rule. To keep the column warm, first wrap it

in glass wool and then aluminum foil if it's hard to get more than a flow.

This keeps the column warm and lets the sample stay in the gas phase

longer. A small hole can be made in the foil or glass wool so that you can

peek in and see what's going on in the column. The sample needs to go

through many vaporization-condensation events, so it's best to see both

liquid and gas in the fractionating column. While there should be small

drops of liquid on the packing material's surface, there should never be a

large pool of liquid. Flooding of liquid moves up the column. If a column

floods, turn off the heat until the liquid drains back into the distilling tank.

Then, slowly turn on the heat again.

3.1.3 Methods of determining the Density and Viscosity

For measuring density, either a pycnometer or a hydrometer will be

utilized. The pycnometer, a precise volumetric flask, will measure the

mass of a known volume of bioethanol, enabling the calculation of its

density. Alternatively, a hydrometer, which will float in the liquid, will

provide a direct reading of density based on the level at which it floats.

The temperature of the bioethanol will be crucial in these density

65
measurements, as density varies with temperature. Therefore,

measurements will typically be conducted at a standardized temperature,

often 20°C. For viscosity, instruments such as a capillary viscometer or a

rotational viscometer will be used. The capillary viscometer will measure

the time taken for a given volume of bioethanol to flow through a capillary

tube under gravity, while a rotational viscometer will measure the

resistance to rotation of a spindle immersed in the bioethanol. Viscosity

measurements, like density, will also depend on temperature and will often

be performed at a consistent, controlled temperature. These methods will

ensure the accurate determination of the physical properties of bioethanol,

which will be essential in assessing its suitability and performance as

aviation fuel. The test will be conducted in The Industrial Technology

Development Institute (ITDI) one of the DOST's RDIs (research and

development institutes) in Bicutan, Taguig City, Philippines

3.1.4 Methods of determining the freezing point

The cooling curve method is expected to be the typical approach to

be used. In this method, the bioethanol sample will be gradually cooled in

a controlled environment, and its temperature will be recorded over time.

As the sample starts to freeze, the release of latent heat is anticipated to

cause a plateau or even a slight increase in temperature, signaling the

onset of freezing. The temperature at which the temperature curve

stabilizes before dropping again will be recorded as the freezing point of

the bioethanol. This measurement will be critical, as the freezing point of

66
fuel is a crucial parameter in aviation, influencing the performance and

safety of aircraft at high altitudes and in cold climates. The purity and

composition of the bioethanol, derived from mango peels in this case, will

significantly influence its freezing point. A higher ethanol content in the

mixture will result in a lower freezing point, an essential factor for its

suitability as aviation fuel. This process might also include additional

methods, such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), to gain further

insights into the thermal properties of the bioethanol. Collectively, these

methods will help in accurately determining the freezing point, thereby

ensuring that the bioethanol fulfills the stringent requirements for aviation

fuel usage. These tests will be conducted in the ADMATEL Bicutan,

Taguig.

3.1.5 Methods of determining the flashpoint

The ASTM D56 is the most suitable method in determining

the flashpoint; this test method will be use in a controlled laboratory setting

to measure and describe the manner in which materials, products, or

assemblies react to heat and flame. It cannot be used to describe or rate

the fire risk or hazard of materials, products, or assemblies in real fire

situations. Based on the following characteristics about the closed-cup

flash point of liquids: a viscosity of 5.5 mm2/s (cSt) or more at 40°C

(104°F); a viscosity of 9.5 mm2/s (cSt) or more at 25°C (77°F); a flash point

of 93°C (200°F) or higher; a tendency to form a film on the surface under

test conditions; or solids that are suspended in the fluid. The test will be

67
 conducted in The Industrial Technology Development Institute (ITDI) one of

the DOST's RDIs (research and development institutes) in Bicutan, Taguig

City, Philippines

3.2 Methods of determining the Calorific Value and Water Content

The bioethanol will be sent to SGS located in Makati, Manila for the energy and

water content. The energy content, or calorific value, is typically measured using a bomb

calorimeter. In this process, a small, precisely measured sample of bioethanol is

combusted in a high-pressure container, and the heat released during combustion will

be measured. This heat, after necessary corrections for temperature and other factors,

indicates the energy content of the bioethanol. It’s essential to know this value as it

directly relates to the fuel's efficiency and performance in aviation engines. On the other

hand, the water content in bioethanol is crucial as excessive water can reduce fuel

efficiency and cause operational issues in aircraft engines. To measure water content,

the Karl Fischer titration will be used.. This method involves adding the bioethanol

sample to a reagent that reacts specifically with water. The amount of reagent consumed

indicates the amount of water in the sample. Precise measurement of both the energy

and water content is vital to ensure that the bioethanol meets the necessary standards

for use as aviation fuel, considering that both energy efficiency and safety are

paramount in aviation applications. Accurate assessment of these parameters helps in

evaluating the suitability of mango peel-derived bioethanol as a sustainable and effective

alternative to conventional aviation fuels.

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3.3 Methods of determining Volatility

The bioethanol will be examined at SGS located in Makati, Manila for volatile

testing and the process for testing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) consists of

measuring the weight percentage of volatile content that can be reduced by solvents

and water using the ASTM D2369 and EPA standards. Procedure 24. In the terms of

alcohol testing, the volatile testing process for ethanol involves using a diluter/dispenser

and headspace gas chromatography/flame ionization detector/mass spectrometer

(HSS-GC-FID-MS) to assess the ethanol concentration in both aqueous and biological

samples. The strategy employed in this study depends on the statistical sampling plan

used by the alcohol testing department.

3.4 Methods of determining the Corrosiveness

The bioethanol will undergo Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)

available in the University of the Philippines Diliman because it can be used to evaluate

the corrosiveness of bioethanol and its effect on the durability of materials used in

automotive components. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) graphs

show two different flows across all materials. The highest-frequency arc refers to the

dielectric reaction of the fuel mixes, while the second arc shows the properties and

changes in the metal/fuel interaction. The transfer resistance (Rt) obtained from the

second arc of the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements is

useful as an indicator of the materials' sensitivity to corrosion.

69
3.5 Method of determining the Purity of Ethanol

A gas chromatography procedure will be used to determine the purity of ethanol.

The researcher will use Agilent 8890 gas spectroscopy mass spectrometer with the

duration of 1 hour that is available in DLSU laguna campus. Gas chromatography will be

used as an analytical method for the purpose of determining the level of purity in

bioethanol. The Agilent 88990 gas spectroscopy mass spectrome provides the analytical

process for measuring ethanol content in ethanol used as fuel, whereas the study

conducted by Sánchez et al. (2020) presents the analytical procedure to determine

ethanol content in bioethanol samples. The analytical process involves the introduction

of a mixture including a certain amount of each alcohol, in proportion to the expected

composition of the final blend, into the gas chromatograph (GC) apparatus. The solvent

employed in this procedure is n-heptane. The ethanol sample's remaining durations are

then compared to the analytical standard to confirm its composition.

3.6 Methods of determining the Yield

Assessing the yield of bioethanol purification from mango peels requires a

multiple approach, but when detailed information about the starting material and

potential losses is unavailable, a simpler method can estimate the present yield, which

is the actual amount of bioethanol produced. This method relies on the final analysis of

the purified product. First, Gas Chromatography (GC) determines the final concentration

of ethanol (g/L) in the bioethanol. Second, the total volume (L) of the purified bioethanol

is measured. Finally, by multiplying the final concentration by the total volume, we can

calculate the total mass of ethanol produced using the formula:

70
 Equation 6. Present Yield

This approach has limitations. It only provides the final amount of bioethanol and

assumes no significant ethanol losses occurred. While a simplified method, it offers a

starting point for assessing bioethanol production from mango peels. For a more

comprehensive analysis, a multi-step approach that considers the starting material and

potential losses throughout the purification process would be necessary.

3.7 Methods of determining the Ethanol Concentration

Analyzing bioethanol purity from mango peels is achieved through Gas

Chromatography (GC), a technique separating the bioethanol mixture based on how its

components interact with a special column inside the GC. By injecting a diluted sample

alongside a standard ethanol solution, GC separates and creates a chromatogram with

peaks representing each component. The ethanol peak area in the sample is then

compared to the standard's peak area using a calibration curve to determine the

concentration of ethanol in your sample. This method offers high accuracy and can

even identify other impurities. Although requiring specialized equipment and expertise,

GC remains the go-to method for its ability to provide a detailed analysis of bioethanol

purity.

71
 The concentration of ethanol (C-ethanol) in the sample can be calculated using

the following formula:

Equation 7. Concentration of ethanol sample

Where:

- Peak area of ethanol in the sample solution

- Peak area of ethanol in the standard solution

- Known concentration of ethanol in the standard solution

- Volume of the diluted sample solution

- Volume of the sample injected into the GC

3.8 Methods of determining the Purification Efficiency

A multi-step approach is recommended. The initial step involves quantifying the

fermentable sugars present in the unprocessed mango peel solution. This serves as the

starting point, representing the available substrate for ethanol production. Techniques

like High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) or enzymatic assays specifically

designed for the targeted sugar types can be employed for this purpose.

Following quantification, a thorough evaluation of potential ethanol losses

throughout the purification process is crucial. Ideally, researchers would aim to quantify

ethanol present inside streams or waste products generated during stages of distillation.

72
This accounting allows for estimation of the amount of ethanol that was not successfully

isolated in the final product.

Finally, GC comes back into play for the step of measuring the final yield. Here,

GC determines the concentration and total amount of ethanol obtained after complete

purification. By comparing the initial fermentable sugar concentration, as determined in

the first step, to the final ethanol yield obtained through GC analysis, the purification

efficiency can be calculated. However, it is essential to acknowledge inherent

challenges in this process.

4. Methods of determining the final testing parameters

4.1 Methods of determining fuel quality and stability test

The process of determining the quality of bioethanol fuel in the Philippines

includes a variety of testing services offered by companies such as SGS Makati,

Manila and Intertek. These services include conducting tests on biofuel

components according to ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards, verifying petrol

and diesel according to EN228 and EN590 standards, determining and

characterizing biofuel components in mineral fuels, performing microbiological

analysis, improving processes, and determining additive treatment to enhance

product quality. In addition, biofuels undergo physical testing to analyze their

qualities and ensure adherence to quality requirements.

73
 4.2 Methods of determining emission test

SGS Philippines offers a comprehensive evaluation of testing services for

biofuels, including bioethanol. The services provided include the investigation of

raw biomass products, the certification for emissions trading, and the supply of

products for the aviation and marine transportation industries. SGS offers

certification services for biofuel components by the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214

standards. Additionally, they provide certification for gasoline and diesel products

according to the EN228 and EN590 standards.

Equipment/Facilities/Programs

This section contains the equipment, facilities, and programs that will be used to

evaluate the bioethanol derived from ripe Mango Peels (Mangifera L.)

1. Mortar and pestle

Will be used to powderize the dry mango peel samples before proceeding

to acid hydrolysis.

Figure 5. Mortar and pestle

Source: Home Science Tools, n.d.

74
2. Microwave

Will be used to dry the mango peel samples.

Figure 6. Microwave

Source: Fisher Scientific, 2019.

3. Agilent 8890 gas spectroscopy mass spectrometer

Will be used to identify the purity of bioethanol and glucose.

Figure 7. Agilent 8890 gas spectroscopy mass spectrometer

Source: Agilent, n.d.

75
 4. 4 liters of plastic bottle

Will be used as a storage container during the fermentation process.

Figure 8. 4 Liters Plastic bottle

Source: Dynaplas Ltd., n.d.

Data Collection and Treatment

The researcher plans to gather data from several facilities and use different

methods for the evaluation of bioethanol derived from ripe Mangifera indica L as an

aviation fuel. The Chemical Laboratory of the Department of Science and Technology

(DOST) will be used for the pretreatment process where a two-step acid hydrolysis

method will be used to extract glucose from the mango peel waste and the Analytical

76
Service Laboratory (ASL) at the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) will

evaluate various properties of the bioethanol derived from the mango peels which

includes measuring pH levels, determining the freezing point, evaluating energy content,

assessing water content, and testing for corrosiveness using variety of techniques like

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). On the other hand, the Industrial

Technology Development Institute (ITDI), part of DOST's Research and Development

Institutes (RDIs), will contribute by evaluating the density, viscosity, color, boiling point,

and conducting various physical tests on the bioethanol samples. In testing the final

parameters, the SGS Philippines, located in Makati, Manila, will conduct tests for volatile

organic compounds (VOCs), fuel quality, stability, and emissions testing, ensuring the

quality for international standards.

77
Budget Requirements

Material Quantity Price

Ripe Manggo (Mangifera 3 kg 500

indica) peels

Yeast 1 550

Gas chromatography Test 3 hr 8100

PH Meter 6 2160

Viscosity Index Test 3 3960

Hydrometer 3 900

Purify ethanol test 1 5680

ASTM D56 Test 2 1400

ASTM D2369 Test 1 500

HPLC 1 3100

Emission test 1 600

Fermentation testing 1 3850

Mild Hydrotreating 1 1320

TOTAL PHP 32,620.00

Table 1. Budget Requirements

78
 The table provided above presents the estimated expenses and prices

associated with the different materials necessary for the evaluation and testing.

The raw materials and other testing procedure and cost are also indicated.The

overall expenses of the research study reach PHP 32,620.00

Expected Output

The expected output of the researcher is to produce a lightweight

bioethanol derived from ripe Mangifera indica L. peels as aviation fuel. It aims to

enhance the performance and efficiency of produced aviation fuel to power

aircraft engines. Evaluate and apply the characteristics and properties of

bioethanol derived from ripe Mangifera indica L. peels as aviation fuel and to

compare the product to the existing study

79
GANTT CHART

TASK NAME LOCATION

JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY

WEEK WEEK WEEK WEEK WEEK

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Conceptualizing Alangilan,
Batangas
City

Collection of Batangas
materials City

Preparation of Batangas
the materials City

Extraction of
glucose in ripe
mangifera indica
L. peels

Conduct Makati,
preliminary Metro Manila
testing

Conduct final Makati,

testing Metro Manila

Finalization of Alangilan,
paper Batangas

80
 City

Oral defense Alangilan,

Batangas
City

Revision of the Alangilan,

Paper Batangas
City

81
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85
 CURRICULUM VITAE

ATIENZA, ROMA ANGELA M.

Sinisian West, Lemery, Batangas
09975542281
romaangelaatienza@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Date of Birth : December 1, 2002

Place of Birth : Lemery, Batangas
Age : 20
Gender : Female
Nationality : Filipino
Religion : Roman Catholic
Civil Status : Single
Father : Rolando M. Atienza
Mother : Maria Victoria M. Atienza

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

TERTIARY : Batangas State University - Alangilan Campus

Alangilan, Batangas City
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering
2021 - Present

SECONDARY : Lemery Senior High School

Lemery, Batangas
Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM) Strand Academic Track
2019-2021

: Governor Feliciano Leviste M.N.H.S

Lemery, Batangas
2015 - 2019

PRIMARY : Saint Raphael Archangel Parochial School

Calaca, Batangas
2006 - 2015

ORGANIZATION AFFILIATION

● Member, Society of Petroleum Engineers, BatState-U Chapter, SPE (2021 –

Present)
● I hereby declare that all information contained herein is true and correct to the
best of my knowledge.
 CURRICULUM VITAE

BERUELA, GENGHIS
Balagtas, Batangas City
09455804644
genghisberuela23@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Date of Birth : October 1, 2002

Place of Birth : San Pablo City, Laguna
Age : 21
Gender : Male
Nationality : Filipino
Religion : Roman Catholic
Civil Status : Single
Father : Lito P. Guevarra
Mother : Mardie R. Beruela

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

TERTIARY : Batangas State University - Alangilan Campus

Alangilan, Batangas City
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering
2021 - Present

SECONDARY : Tanauan Institute Inc.

Tanauan City, Batangas
Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM) Strand Academic Track
2019-2021

: San Jose National High School

San Jose, Batangas
2015 - 2019

PRIMARY : Francisco Balagtas Elementary School

Santa Cruz, Manila
2006 - 2015

ORGANIZATION AFFILIATION
 ● Member, Society of Petroleum Engineers, BatState-U Chapter, SPE (2021 –
Present)
I hereby declare that all information contained herein is true and correct to the
best of my knowledge.

CURRICULUM VITAE

BUGHAW, KRIZAH ASHLEY N.

Tanguay,Lipa, City,Batangas
09385793137
ashleybughaw1603@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION
Date of Birth : October 16, 2002
Place of Birth : San Jose, Batangas
Age : 20
Gender : Female
Nationality : Filipino
Religion : Roman Catholic
Civil Status : Single
Father :Elmer D. Bughaw
Mother : Edelrose N. Bughaw

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
TERTIARY : Batangas State University - Alangilan Campus
Alangilan, Batangas City
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering
2021 - Present
SECONDARY : Saint Joseph Academy of San Jose Batangas Inc.
San Jose, Batangas City
Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM) Strand Academic Track
2019- 2021
:Saint Joseph Academy of San Jose Batangas Inc.
San Jose, Batangas City
2015-2019
PRIMARY : Padre Imo Luna Memorial Elementary School
 San Jose, Batangas City
ORGANIZATION AFFILIATION

● Member, Society of Petroleum Engineers, BatState-U Chapter, SPE (2021 –

Present)
I hereby declare that all information contained herein is true and correct to the
best of my knowledge.

CURRICULUM VITAE

CABACIS II, RAMON S.

Address: 210 Brgy. Parian Calamba city, Laguna
Contact No. 09983057178
E-mail Address: ramonthegreatbearer@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Date of Birth : October 2, 2002

Place of Birth : 210 Brgy. Parian Calamba City, Laguna
Age : 21 years old
Status : Single
Sex : Male
Citizenship : Filipino
Religion : Iglesia Ni Cristo

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

College Education Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

Batangas State University, Main Campus – II
Golden Country Homes, Alangilan, Batangas City
(2021 – Present)
Secondary Education St. John Colleges
Brgy 3 Calamba, Laguna
(2015-2021)

Elementary Calamba Adventist Elementary School

Elepaño 2 Subd., Calamba City, Laguna
(2009-2015)

ORGANIZATION AFFILIATION

● Member, Society of Petroleum Engineers, BatState-U Chapter, SPE (2021 –

Present)
I hereby declare that all information contained herein is true and correct to the
best of my knowledge.

CURRICULUM VITAE

MENDOZA, NICKO P.
Address: Brgy. San Gregorio, San Pablo City, Laguna
Contact No. 09694447303
E-mail Address: nickomendoza2002@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Date of Birth : June 22, 2002

Place of Birth : Sta. Rosa City, Laguna
Age : 21 years old
Status : Single
Sex : Male
Citizenship : Filipino
Religion : Roman Catholic

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

College Education Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

Batangas State University, Main Campus – II
 Golden Country Homes, Alangilan, Batangas City
(2021 – Present)

Secondary Education San Pablo City Science Integrated High School

Brgy. San Jose Malamig, San Pablo City, Laguna
(2019 – 2020)

Elementary San Pablo City Central School

A. Mabini Street, San Pablo City, Laguna
(2008 – 2014)

ORGANIZATION AFFILIATION

● Member, Society of Petroleum Engineers, BatState-U Chapter, SPE (2021 –

Present)
I hereby declare that all information contained herein is true and correct to the
best of my knowledge.