ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

BODY MOVEMENT
CHAPTER 3 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
By
NHR 202
outline
• Overview of endocrine system
• Endocrine system function
• Type of glands
• Hormone
• Function of hormone
• Types of hormone
• Regulation of hormone
• Hormone: Mechanism of action
• Control of hormone release
• Major endocrine organs & it hormones
AN OVERVIEW OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• The endocrine system is a major controlling system of
the body. Its effects are mediated by hormones and are
more prolonged. Through hormones, it stimulates such
long-term processes as growth & development,
metabolism, reproduction, & body defense

• Some endocrine organs are part of mixed glands (both

endocrine & exocrine in function) eg: pancreas & gonads
(ovaries & testes)

• Endocrine glands are ductless, well-vascularized glands

that release hormones directly into the blood or lymph
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTION

• General function: Controlling activity of

specific organ or tissue in maintaining
homeostasis by secreting hormones

• Acts together with nervous system to help the

body to react to stress properly. But for last
lasting activities.
Endocrine vs exocrine
Endocrine exocrine
Product Hormone Non hormonal substance
Duct system Ductless (no duct) Have ducts
Method of transport Secreted into blood and Through duct
transported via blood
vessel
Distance of target away Near
organ/cell
Example Adrenal gland, Sebaceous(oil),sweat
parathyroid gland, digestive gland
Exocrine & endocrine
Endocrine gland
Types of gland
Types of gland Endocrine Autocrine paracrine
Product hormone Local hormones Local hormones
(prostaglandins) (prostaglandins)
Action Act on distinct act on the cell that act on a different
target cell released them cell type nearby
Hormone
• Chemical substances secreted by cells into
extracellular fluid (bloodstream) that regulate
the metabolic activity of other cells in the body.

• Affect the target cell via binding to specific

receptor.

• All hormones are amino acid-based or steroids.

 Hormone chemical structure

Estrogen Insulin
 FUNCTION OF HORMONES
1. Help regulate
▫ Chemical composition and volume of internal
environment(interstitial fluid)
▫ Metabolism and energy balance-TH
▫ Water & electrolyte (Na+, Cl-,)(ADH).
▫ Regulate Ca2+ (TH, PTH)
▫ Muscle activity
▫ Glandular secretions
▫ Immune system-Tymosine, TF
2. Control growth and development-(GH).
3. Regulate operation reproductive system-(LH, FSH, estrogene,
progesterone)
4. Recognize circadian rhythms-melatonin
5. Etc.
 TYPES OF HORMONES

• Amino acid based (water soluble) - Most

hormones are amino acid-based.

• Steroids (lipid soluble) - synthesized from

cholesterol. Of the hormones, only gonadal
& adrenocortical hormones are steroids.
Types OF HORMONES
Lipid Soluble Hormones Water Soluble
Hormones
Types Steroid Hormones Amine Hormones

Produce from
Synthesized from cholesterol Synthesis from Amino
or lipid based acid / protein based

Example only gonadal (estragon)and Most of the hormone

adrenocortical hormones are in the body
steroids Adrenalin, thyroid
hormone, insulin
 REGULATION OF HORMONES
SECRETION

• Negative feedback
▫ Response that reduces the initiating stimulus
(opposite direction)
▫ Important in regulating hormone levels in the
blood

• Positive feedback
▫ Reinforce the initial stimulus
 MECHANISM OF HORMONES
ACTION
▫ Hormones alters cell activity by stimulating or inhibiting
characteristics cellular processes of their target cells

▫ Hormonal stimulus produces one or more of following changes:

 Alters plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential,

or both by opening or closing ion channels
 Stimulates synthesis of protein or regulatory molecules such as
enzymes within the cell
 Activates or deactivates enzymes
 Increases secretory activity
 Stimulates mitosis
 TWO MAIN MECHANISM ACCOUNT FOR HOW A
HORMONE COMMUNICATES WITH TARGETS
CELLS:

a.Amino acid- based hormones

(second-messenger system)

1. Hormones bind to hormone receptor in the plasma

membrane (then bind to G protein) which linked to
enzyme adenylate cyclase which initiate the
conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP)
2. cAMP (second messenger) activates protein kinases
in the cytoplasm
3. Protein kinases activated other proteins in the cell
4. Activated proteins induce changes in the cell
Second-messenger system
b. Steroid hormones
(direct gene activation)

1. Diffuse directly through plasma membrane

(target cells)
2. Binds with protein receptor and turns into
steroid protein complex
3. Entering nucleus to a specific DNA region
(activating DNA, which initiates messenger RNA
formation leading to protein synthesis)
4. Reaction between steroid-protein complex and
DNA activates genes to synthesize new proteins
and enzymes and induce changes in the cell
Direct gene activation
CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE
• Synthesis & release of most hormones are
regulated by negative feedback system
• Endocrine glands are stimulated to manufacture
& release their hormones by 3 major types of
stimuli:

• Humoral Stimuli
• Neural Stimuli
• Hormonal Stimuli
Types of hormonal stimuli
MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS

• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Thymus gland
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas
• Gonads (ovaries, testes)
HYPOTHALAMUS
Hypothalamus (Neuroendocrine Organ)
(Master Controller)

Located beneath thalamus in lower walls and floor of third ventricle of the
brain

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Attached to hypothalamus by the infundibulum within the sphenoid bone

Divided into 2 lobes:

Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
 Store hormones from hypothalamus:
 Oxytocin & ADH
• Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
▫ Influenced by hypothalamic hormone
▫ GH, PRL, ACTH, TSH, FSH & LH
▫ ACTH, TSH, FSH & LH are tropic hormones (regulate other endocrine
gland)
PITUITARY GLAND
ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

(1) Growth hormone (GH): An anabolic &

protein-conversing hormone that promotes total
body growth. Its important effect is on skeletal
muscles & bones. Untreated hyposecretion
during childhood results dwarfism;
hypersecretion produces gigantism (childhood)
& acromegaly (adult)

(2) Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates production of

breast milk (lactation)
(3) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the
adrenal cortex to release its hormones (mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids & gonadocorticoids)

(4) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid

gland to release thyroid hormones (throxine & triiodothyronine)

Gonadotropic hormones :
(5) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Beginning at puberty,
stimulates follicle development & estrogen
production by female ovaries; promotes sperm
production in male.
(6) Luteinizing hormone (LH): Beginning at puberty, stimulates
ovulation & stimulates ovarian to produce estrogen & progesterone;
stimulates the male’s testes to produce testosterone
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY
HORMONES
(1) Oxytoxin: Stimulates powerful uterine
contractions (trigger labor & delivery of infant)
& causes milk ejection in the nursing woman.
Also promote sexual arousal

(2) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or

vasopressin: Causes kidney tubule cells to
reabsorb & conserve body water & increased
blood pressure by constricting blood vessels.
Summary of Pituitary gland
hormone
PINEAL GLAND
 PINEAL GLAND

• Located in the diencephalon/ third ventricle of

the brain(epithalamus).
• Releases melatonin, which acts as biological
clock; reproductive behavior; affects daily
biological rhythms such as body temperature,
sleep & appetite.
THYROID GLAND
 THYROID GLAND

• Located on the trachea, just inferior to the larynx

(in the anterior throat)
• Thyroid hormone (TH) includes thyroxine (T4)
& triiodotyronine (T3), which increase the rate
of cellular metabolism. Consequently, O2 use &
heat production (Its hormone has calorigenic
effect)
• Lack of iodine leads to goiter. Hypersecretion of
thyroxine results Graves’ disease.
• Calcitonin produced by parafollicular (C) cells
in response to high blood calcium levels. It
causes calcium to be deposited in bones
PARATHYROID GLAND
 PARATHYROID GLANDS
• 4 small glands located posterior/dorsal aspect of
the thyroid gland.

• Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the release

parathyroid hormone (PTH). It causes bone
calcium to be liberated into the blood, the
intestine to increase calcium absorption from
food & the kidneys to increase calcium
reabsorption.
THYMUS GLAND
 THYMUS GLAND

• Located deep to sternum

• Large and conspicuous in infant and children
• Diminishes in size throughout adulthood
• Its hormones, thymosins, thymic factor, &
thymopoietins, are important to the normal
development of the immune responses
(thymosin promotes maturation of T
lymphocytes, important in body defense)
ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS
Lies on top of kidneys
Divided into:
a. Adrenal cortex b. Adrenal medulla

Adrenal cortex hormones include:

(1) Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone): regulate sodium ion (Na+) &
potassium ion (K+) reabsorption by the kidneys. Their release is stimulated
by low Na+ and/or high K+ levels in blood.
(2) Glucocorticoids (cortisol): enable the body to resist long-term stress by
increasing blood glucose levels & depressing the inflammatory response.
(3) Gonadocorticoids/Sex hormones (androgens): responsible for sex drive
in female

• Adrenal medulla hormones produce catecholamines (epinephrine &

norepinephrine) in response to sympathetic nervous system stimulation.
Its hormones enhance and prolong the effects of the ‘fight-or-flight’
response to short-term stress.
Summary of adrenal gland
hormone
PANCREAS
 PANCREAS
▫ Located behind stomach
▫ Composed of both endocrine and exocrine gland cells
▫ Hormones produced from pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) containing alpha () cells (glucagon) and
beta () cells (insulin)

▫ Insulin(Beta Cells) is release when the blood levels

of glucose are high. It increases the rate of glucose
uptake & metabolism by body cells; stimulates glycogen
formation.
▫ Glucagon(Alpha Cells) is release when blood levels
of glucose are low, stimulates the liver to release glucose
to the blood.
GONADS
• Ovaries located in abdominopelvic cavity
• Ovaries release:

(1) Estrogens: Release of estrogens by ovarian follicles

begins at puberty (FSH). Estrogens stimulate
maturation of female reproductive organs & female
secondary sex characteristics. With progesterone, they
cause the menstrual cycle.

(2) Progesterone: Release in response to LH, works with

estrogens establishing the menstrual cycle
 TESTIS

• Testes located in the scrotum

• Testes begin to produce testosterone at puberty
in response to LH stimulation.
• Testosterone promotes maturation of the male
reproductive system, male secondary sex
characteristics, & production of sperm by the
testes.
 Other Hormone-Producing
Tissues & Organs

• Heart – atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

• Adipose tissue – leptin & resistin
• Skin – cholecalciferol (active vitamin D3)
• Kidney - erytropoietin
• Placenta – estrogens & progesterone
• Duodenum – Cholecystokinin (CCK) & secretin
• Stomach – gastrin & serotonin
Thank you