GRADE 10 DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Apply safety precautions in the workroom.

a) Define safety as used in the wood work shop.
 Safety refers to awareness or being conscious of accidents so as to apply ways of avoiding
them.
b) List general safety precautions.
 Never run about in the workshop.
 Avoid long sleeves and any loose fittings or attire.
 Avoid long hair.
 Wear safety attire such as gloves, goggles, overalls, boats.
 Make sure the workshop has sufficient ventilation and lighting.
 When giving a sharp tool to your friend, give it handle first.
 Don’t carry sharp tools in the pocket.
 Never work with loosely fitted tools.
 Don’t work with blunt tools. Sharp tools are safer to use.
 Don’t touch naked electric cables.
 Don’t operate any machine unless told by your instructor.
 Report all injuries to your teacher for immediate first aid.

c) Explain the use of the following safety equipment and clothing.

 Helmet: to protect the head from injury.
 Overalls/ Dustcoats: to protect the body from injury.
 Gloves: to protect the hands from injury.

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  Boots: to protect the feet from injury.
 Goggles: to protect the eyes from injury.
 Insulated electric cables: to prevent electric shock.
 Fire extinguisher: to put off fire in the workshop.

2. Apply basic first aid techniques in the workroom.

a. Make sure that you know where the first Aid box is so that you can use it at once in an emergency.
b. When an accident occurs, inform the person responsible for first Aid immediately
c. If someone receives an electric shook, switch off the power immediately and call for medical help.
d. If someone has a severe bleeding from a cut, take a clean piece of cloth and pressit on the cut or around
the edges if a foreign body is in it.
3. Describe methods of fire fighting are:-
i. Water
ii. Chemical form
iii. Cabon Dioxide
iv. Sand
v. Extinguishing/Dry powder

4. Describe the importance of ventilation:

i. It ensures clean filtered air in workroom or living environment for healthy living and removal of
diluting of stale air.
ii. Helps in regulating temperature in a room for comfort either an air conditioner or extractor can be
used.
iii. Helps reduce the risk of suffocation
iv. Helps to get rid of musty, unpleasant odors that causes discomfort and can irritate the nervous system.
v. Reduces the risks of inhaling poisonous gases and acquiring airborne infections and allergies.
The importance of lighting:
i. It provides a room or any work place with light
ii. It enables people to work both day and night.

5. Describe ways of managing waste from work rooms.

i. Landfill
ii. Recycling
iii. compost

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CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
TIMBER AS A MATERIAL

6. Outline the timber processes before use.

ANS:
i. Trees will be cut in to logs form forests taken to the saw mills using Lorries and trucks the process is
called felling.
ii. Logs will be converted into timber of marketable sizes. There are three methods of converting timber
which are (a) Live sawing (b) Quarter sawing (c) tangential (back) sawing.

iii. From the process of conversion, pieces (timbers) are taken to be seasoned. Seasoning is carried out to
remove surplus moisture from the timber. The removal of moisture causes shrinkage which may lead to
warping or twisting, and it is essential that it occurs before the timber is used. The moisture content
after seasoning should be between 10% and 20%. The diagram below shows two methods of seasoning:
(a) Air seasoning or Natural seasoning (b) Kiln seasoning or Artificial seasoning.

7. Describe common timber defects.

ANS: The following are common timber defects (a) Knots (b) Heart shake (c) Star Shake (d) Ring or cup Shake
(e) Check (f) Collapse (g) Bowing (h) Cupping (i)Spring (j) Twist

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8. Classify types
ANS: Types of manufactured boards are:- Plywood, lamin, batten, block board, chip board, hard and soft
boards, Medium Density Fibre Board (MDF) or Supawood

Manufactured boards are also known as engineered wood, composite wood, built up materials or manmade
wood. The difference to manufactured board is solid board

Advantages of manufactured boards are:-

i. Large sizes are available.

ii. Shrinkage, twisting and distortion are negligible.
iii. Manufactured materials are cheaper than using solid hardwoods.
iv. Scarce woods like bird’s eye maple go much further.
v. Manufactured materials are easily moulded to shape with steam and pressure.
Disadvantages of manufactured boards are:-

i. Edges are unsightly in constructional work.

ii. Care must be taken not to use the interior-grade materials for outdoor use or in damp situations

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 The following are the uses of manufactured boards.

i. They are used in a variety of applications, from home construction to commercial buildings to industrial
products.
ii. Used for joists and beams that replace steel in many building projects.
iii. Used as roof panels, wall linings and partitions in building constructions.
iv. Used for furniture and work surfaces, wardrobes, kitchen units, shelves ,doors, worktops and flooring.
v. Used in making tennis bats and coating electric appliances like television cabinets
vi. Insulating ceiling boards.
vii. Used as pin boards or notice boards, Display boards, backing boards and office screens.
viii. Used as protective covering boards are protective packaging
9. Apply edge treatment on manufactured boards.
ANS: Methods of treating edges: Painting, Solid edge, Mitre, Lipping, tongue and groove, plastic,
aluminum, veneering, plastic, aluminum,

METAL AS A MATERIAL
10. Describe the production process of metals.

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  The term metal production refers to all of the processes involved in the conversion of a raw material,
such as a metallic ore, to a final form in which the metal can be used for some commercial or industrial
purpose.
 In some instances, metal production involves relatively few steps since the metal already occurs in an
elemental form in nature. Such is the case with gold, silver, platinum, and other so-called noble metals.
These metals normally occur in nature uncombined with other elements and can therefore be put to
some commercial use with comparatively little additional treatment.
 In the majority of cases, however, metals occur in nature as compounds, such as the oxide or the
sulfide, and must first be converted to their elemental state. They may then be treated in a wide variety
of ways in order to make them usable for specific practical applications.

The following are the production processes of metals:

i. Metal Production - Mining

The first step in metal production always involves some form of mining. Mining refers to the process of removing the
metal in its free or combined state from the Earth's surface. The two most common forms of mining are surface and
subsurface mining. In the former case, the metal or its ore can be removed from the upper few meters of the Earth's
surface.

ii. Metal Production - Purification

In most cases, metals and their ores occur in the ground as part of complex mixtures that also contain rocks, sand, clay,
silt and other impurities. The first step in producing the metal for commercial use, therefore, is to separate the ore from
waste materials with which it occurs.

iii. Metal Production - Reduction

Metals always occur in their oxidized state in ores, often as the oxide or sulfide of the metal. In order to convert an ore
to its elemental state, therefore, it must be reduced. Reduction is a chemical reaction that is the opposite of oxidation.
Metals can be reduced in a variety of different ways.

iv. Metal Production - Alloys

Pure metals themselves are often not satisfactory for many practical applications. For example, pure gold is too soft for
most uses and is combined with other metals to form harder, more resistant mixtures. Mixtures that contain two or more
metals are known as alloys. Perhaps the best known and most widely used of all alloys is steel.

11. Classify metals

Metals and Alloys Metals are polycrystalline bodies consisting of a great number of fine crystals. Pure metals
possess low strength and do not have the required properties. So, alloys are produced by melting or sintering
two or more metals or metals and a non-metal, together. Alloys may consist of two more components. Metals
and alloys are further classified into two major kind namely ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals.
a. Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as pig iron, cast iron,
wrought iron and steels.
b. Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent, such as
copper, aluminum, brass, bronze, tin, silver zinc, invar etc.

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 FERROUS METALS
Ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all variety of pig iron, cast iron wrought iron and steels. The
ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituents. The ferrous metals commonly used in
engineering practice are cast iron, wrought iron, steel and alloy steels. The basic principal raw material for all
ferrous metals is pig iron which is obtained by smelting iron ore, coke and limestone, in the blast furnace.
 Iron ores are minerals from which iron can be extracted. The more important iron ores are magnetite,
hematite, limonite and siderite

12. Describe types of steel sections.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up to 1.7%. The carbon occurs in the form of
iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of the steel. Other elements e.g. silicon,
sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present to greater or lesser amount to import certain desired
properties to it. Most of the steel produced now-a-days is plain
The effects of impurities like silicon, sulphur, manganese and phosphorus, on steel as discussed under:
i. Silicon. Silicon content in the finished steel usually ranges from 0.05 to 0.30%. It is added in low carbon steels
for preventing them from becoming porous. It helps in removing the gases and oxides. It prevents blow holes
there by making steel tougher and harder.

ii. Sulphur. It renders free cutting properties in steel. It is found in steel either as iron sulphide or manganese
sulphide. Iron sulphide due to its low melting point, produces brittleness whereas manganese sulphide does not
affect so much. Therefore, manganese sulphide is less objectionable in steel than iron sulphide.

iii. Manganese. It serves as a valuable deoxidizing and purifying agent, in steel. Manganese also combines with
sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful effect of this element remaining in the steel. It increases wear
resistance, hardness and strength and decreases machineability. When used in ordinary low carbon steels,
manganese makes the metal ductile and of good bending quantities. In high speed steels, it is used to tougher
the metal and to increase its critical temperature.

iv. Phosphorus. It induces brittleness in steel. It also produces cold shortness in steel. In low carbon steels, it raises
the yield point and improves the resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The sum of carbon and phosphorus
usually does not exceed 0.25%. To produce needed improvement in properties of plain carbon steel, certain
elements in steel are alloyed for specific purposes to increase wearing resistance, electrical and mechanical
properties which cannot be obtained in plain carbon steels. The steel may be of various kinds and few important
types are explained as under. Plain carbon steel Plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It has good
machinability and malleability. It is different from cast iron as regards the percentage of carbon. It contains
carbon from 0.06 to 1.5% whereas cast iron possesses carbon from 1.8 to 4.2%. Depending upon the carbon
content, a plain carbon steels can divided to the following types:
a) Dead carbon steel — up to 0.15% carbon
b) Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
c) Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon

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 d) High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon.

Ferrous Materials
carbon steel.
Carbon steel has its properties mainly due to carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and
1.5% of manganese.
13. Describe different metal forming processes and machines used.
SHEET METAL PROCESSES
Sheet metal work processing is highly common in manufacturing sheet metal parts using from sheet stock. The
various sheet metal operations are performed on press machine of required capacity using press tools or dies.
The dies may be single operation die or multioperation dies. A simple piercing, blanking and shearing die.
However the basic sheet metal operations are described in the following lines. General Sheet Metal Operations
I. Shearing
It takes place when punch and die are used. The quality of the cut surface is greatly influenced by the
clearance between the two shearing edges. However, the basic shearing operations are described in the
following lines.
II. Cutting
It means severing a piece from a strip with a cut along a single line.
III. Parting
It signifies that scrap is removed between the two pieces to part them.
IV. Blanking
It means cutting a whole piece from sheet metal just enough scrap is left all around the opening to
assure that the punch has metal to cut along its entire edge. The piece detached from the strip is known
as blank and is led for further operations. The remaining metal strip is scrap. Blanking is nearly almost
the first operation and may be the only one necessary or it may be followed successively by many
others.

PLASTICS AS A MATERIAL

14. Describe the common structure and chemistry of plastics.

ANS: Plastics, unlike metal or wood are manufactured in chemical plants they are made from long chains of
molecules called polymers.

CATEGORIES

The two main categories of plastics are:

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 a) Thermoplastics
b) Thermo-Setting Plastics

Though some books indicate Elastomers as the third category in which rubber is extracted from.

A) THERMOPLASTICS
These are plastics that can be re-heated several times and are made up of few cross linkages between their
molecules.
Molecule

Cross linkage

PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTICS

 They can be re-heated many times

 They are durable
 They are light in weight
 They are fairly hard
 They undergo a reversible chemical change when heated
 They are brittle when cold but soften (turn to liquid) upon heating.
 They are fairly hard but easily scratched
 They are good electrical insulators
 Good resistance to water and chemicals
 Good resistance to wear
 The molecules are not heavily cross linked
 They are fairly softer than thermosets.

EXAMPLES OF THERMOPLASTICS

 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Used for making sewer pipes, hose pipes, electrical cable insulators, etc.

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 Poly-Tetre-Flouro-Ethylene (PTFE)
This is the plastic used for coating on non-stick pans, pots and other utensils.

 Acrylic (Perspex)
This is also called Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). It is used for making bath tabs, advertising signs, safety
goggles, glass windows, etc.

 Polythene
Used for making water tanks, buckets, ice cubes, etc

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 Polypropylene
Used for making cutlery, helmet, toys, etc

 Nylon
Used for making combs, gearwheel, hinges, etc

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 B) THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
These are plastics which do not soften once they have hardened. They cannot be reshaped when reheated. When
heated once they become permanent because they are made up of molecules which are heavily cross linked.

Molecule

Cross linkage Discontinuous cycle

PROPERTIES OF THERMO-SETTING PLASTICS

 They can only be heated once and become permanent hard

 They undergo irreversible chemical change when heated
 They are very strong
 They are brittle and hard
 They are good chemical resistance
 They are heavier than thermoplastic
 They retain their strength and shape even when reheated
 They have good electric and thermal insulation.
 Most of them have a higher molecular weight

EXAMPLES OF THERMO-SETTING PLASTICS

 Phenol formaldehyde
Used for making toilet seats, saucepan handles, cisterns, cooker knobs, bottle tops, etc.

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 Urea Formaldehyde
Used for making electrical fittings such as switches, sockets, plugs

Melamine Formaldehyde
Used for making tableware, chess pieces, cups, plates, etc.

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 Polyester Resin
Used for making canoes, some car bodies, swimming pools, etc.

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ELASTOMERS

This is a rubber group. Elastomers are very flexible and elastic. They are used for making tyres, rubber bands,
shoe soles, rubber balls, oil seals, etc.

15. Describe
the various processes involving plastics.
I. Extrusion-is a process that can be compared to squeezing toothpaste out of a tube. Thermoplastic
granules are forced through a heated barrel and the fused polymer is then squeezed through a die that is
the profile of the extruded component.

FIG 1
II. Injection moulding- This process is one of the most common of all plastics manufacturing processes.
The polymer, in granule form, is heated until fused and forced into a closed mould. Because of the
viscous (thick, syrupy) nature of the fused polymer, very high pressures are needed to make it flow,
which means that the machine and mould have to be very strong to withstand the forces involved.

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 FIG 2

FIG 3

III. Blow moulding- is a simple process where compressed air is introduced underneath a warmed sheet of
thermoplastic material forcing the material into a mould cavity, or allowing it to expand freely into the
shape of a hemisphere. It is a good way of forming large domes, which when made out of clear acrylic
sheet are often used in shop displays.

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 FIG 4

FIG 5

IV. Vacuum forming This is a very common manufacturing process used, for example, to make a range of
plastics packaging. Think of the boxes sandwiches come in, or the inner in a chocolate box, or your
acrylic bath. It is really the opposite of blow moulding. Instead of the warmed plastic sheet being
forced into a mould by air pressure, in vacuum forming the air is drawn out from under the softened
plastic sheet, so it is forced over or into a mould by atmospheric pressure. Vacuum forming is a very
common and effective way of producing complex shapes in thermoplastic sheeting.

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 FIG 6

FIG 8

V. Extrusion blow moulding-This is a combination of extrusion and blow moulding and is often used
wherethe article to be made has a narrow neck, such as a bottle. The plastic materialis first extruded as
a tube shape into an open die. The die is then closed to seal the ends of the tube and air is blown in
forcing the plastic tube to take up the shape of the die cavity. As the material is extruded first and then
blow moulded, the process is known as extrusion blow moulding.

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 FIG 9
VI. Rotational moulding- is used to produce hollow thermoplastic products such as drums, storage tanks
and litterbins. A carefully calculated amount of plastic is placed in a closed mould that is heated in an
oven and rotated slowly around both a vertical and horizontal axes. The plastic material fuses and
sticks to the hot mould surface, building up the required thickness. The mould is then gradually cooled
by air or water while still rotating. The mould is opened, the finished product removed and the mould
reloaded and closed for the next cycle. The time it takes to make one of the product is known as the
product’s cycle time.

FIG 10

VII. Calendering- is used to produce plastic sheeting and products such as floor tiles, coated fabrics and
coverings for car interiors. Fused thermoplastic is extruded on to heated rotating rollers that squeeze
the material into a continuous sheet or film. The film is cooled by jets of air or water, before being cut
to suitable lengths or loaded onto rolls.

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 FIG 11
VIII. Foaming Plastic foams used in packaging and the upholstery industry can be produced by using
blowing agents that are mixed with the base polymer. When heated these agents release gas which
form bubbles in the plastic. Another method is to inject compressed nitrogen gas into molten plastics
during the moulding process. A third method is to freeze a gas within the plastics granules which then
expands due in the heat of the moulding process.
IX. Compression moulding is one of the oldest manufacturing technologies associated with plastics and
was used in 1854, for example, by Samuel Peck to make picture frames from shellac mixed with wood
flour. The process is almost always used with thermosetting plastics. A carefully weighed amount of
thermosetting polymer is placed into a preheated lower mould cavity. The mould is then closed by the
placing of the upper half and subjected to further heat, and pressure provided by a press, often of
several hundred tons capacity. The pressure and heat causes polymerization and the flow of the
plasticized material within the mould.

FIG 13

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 FIG 14
16. Apply safety precautions when machining plastics.
I. When you are sawing plastics try to put the part that you are sawing as near to the jaws of the vice as
possible, otherwise the material will bend as you push the saw backwards and forwards, and may well
break.
II. When sawing plastics you create dust. Use a hand brush to brush this into a bin or onto the workshop
floor. Do not try to blow it off of the bench, it may well go in your eyes, and is very difficult to get out
III. Do not push down too hard on the file, and keep watching what is happening to the material.
What are the advantages of using plastics?
a) They are lightweight
b) They come in wide range of colours
c) They are available in different forms: as granules, as resin, in sheets forms etc.
d) They have good chemical resistance
e) They form easily by cutting, casting (pouring in a mould), moulding etc.
f) They came in different textures.
g) Products made from plastics need no surface lamination
What are the disadvantages/limitation of using plastics?
a) They can be fire risk
b) Some types become brittle when exposed to weather.
c) They are expensive
d) Some have low strength

17. Describe the uses of other locally available materials: Leather, rubber, glass, grass, foam, rexin, clay, paper,
canvas, concrete, ceramics and any local materials.
A large numbers of engineering materials exists in the universe such as metals and non metals (leather, rubber,
asbestos, plastic, ceramics, organic polymers, composites and semi conductor). Some commonly used
engineering materials are broadly classified differently.
i. Leather is generally used for shoes, belt drives, packing, washers etc. It is highly flexible and can easily
withstand against considerable wear under suitable conditions.
ii. Rubber is commonly employed as packing material, belt drive as an electric insulator.
iii. Asbestos is basically utilized for lagging round steam pipes and steam pipe and steam boilers because it
is poor conductor of heat, so avoids loss of heat to the surroundings.
iv. Glassy materials are hard, brittle, and noncrystalline. The lack of crystalline grains often results in
optical transparency. The glass we are used to is a ceramic usually consisting of a mixture of silicates or
sometimes borates or phosphates formed by fusion of silica or of oxides of boron or phosphorus with a
flux and a stabilizer into a mass that cools to a rigid condition without crystallization.

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 v. A ceramic is a non-metallic material composed of inorganic molecules, normally prepared by heating a
powder or slurry. Many common ceramics are made up of oxides or nitride compounds and are highly
crystalline with long-range molecular order. Some ceramics are partially or fully amorphous, with no
long-range molecular order; these are typically classified as glassy materials.
vi. Engineering materials may also be categorized into metals and alloys, ceramic materials, organic
polymers, composites and semiconductors. The metal and alloys have tremendous applications for
manufacturing the products required by the customers.

18. Explain the factors to consider when selecting materials to ensure suitability for purpose. Factors to consider:
Properties: attraction, Functional, strength etc.Material selection is one of the foremost functions of effective
engineering designs as it determines the reliability of the design in terms of industrial and economical aspects.
A great design may fail to be a profitable product if unable to find the most appropriate material combinations.
So it is vital to know what the best materials for a particular design are. How we are going to get an idea about
the best design in this aspect engineers use several facts of materials to come to the most reasonable decision.
They are mainly concentrated on the properties of the materials which are identified as potential materials for
that specific design.

I. Mechanical Properties: understand that the properties of materials eg strength, durability,

influence the selection for a design. When a certain design is going to be actually produced it
must be subjected to a number of manufacturing practices depending on the material and design
process. At the completion of production it must be totally fit for the service phase, too. In order
to predict the reliability of both of these requirements, the materials must be able to withstand a
certain load. Therefore the material must possess a certain a certain strength and stiffness
values, and then potential materials are further inspected for othe desired properties.
II. Wear of materials:Wear is a problem when the materials are contacting each other in a
product. So it must be ensured that the selected materials have sufficient wear resistance. They
are many production techniques avaliable to improve the wear resistance and make the material
for a particular design. In the engineering design process this has to be considered with great
care.
III. Corrosion:The importance of material selection in engineering is clearly visible in corrosive
environments. Also it is an important engineering design criterion for designsopen to the
environment for a longer period of time. Some materials are very likely to be corroded in the
service depending on the service environment. Metals like iron are heavily pron to corrosition if
it is not prepared to resist.
IV. Cost of materials
V. select materials and match them to appropriate making processes
VI. learn how to use heat treatment and other processes to change the working properties of
materials
VII. learn about the diversity of one product, eg tool rack sand the influence of lifestyle
VIII. Consider minimizing environmental damage, see materials sympathetically, and find out about
the importance of reuse and recycling issues.
IX. Conduct fair test procedures using qualitative and quantitative measures.
X. learn about the uses of modern materials eg composites
XI. Consider different structural designs to withstand greater loads.

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 XII. Redesign products to distribute the forces of tension, compression and shear more evenly
throughout a prod

19. Apply correct techniques when wasting materials. Wasting materials are materials that are considered useless
or unwanted and are a hazard to humans and the environment.
How do we manage waste from the work rooms?
i. Landfills: This involves burying the waste normally in layers of thin spreads beneath the soil which is
then compacted to increase density and stability.
ii. Recycling: This is the systematic diversion of waste for another use.
iii. Compost: This is preferably favorable for materials that are organic in nature e.g. branches, leaves,
food scraps and paper. These materials are decomposed by bacteria, fungi, worms and are often used as
manure for agriculture.
Why is it important to manage waste
 Improves the hygiene and sanitation of the community
 Controls Environmental pollution
 Preserves the natural beauty of the environment and reduces bad odors.
 Ensure the efficient use of raw materials which minimizes on the threat of resource depletion.
 Proper waste management ensures that animals are protected e.g fish, domestic animals.
 Improves the quality of water flowing into the water supply dams, rivers and lakes hence a safe
water cycle

Wasting tools used on

I. Wood-Saws, chisels ,planes, spokeshaves ,Files ,drill bits

II. Metal-Files, Hack saws, chisels, drilling
III. Plastics –coping saw, Tenon saw, dovetail saw
IV. concrete,
V. ceramics,
VI. glass Cutting on waste side.

20. Apply different methods of joining materials.

Permanent and Temporary joints:

I. Wood: Haunched Mortice and tenon, Common Dovetail, Stopped Bridle

II. Metal: Riveting, Soldering, Welding (Arc and Gas), Brazing, Force fitting and tolerance.
III. Plastic: Laminating, Screwing. Precautions to protect work pieces and humans

MATERIALS

1. What are fixing?

Ans: These are materials used to join two or more members of a structure and these are: Nails, Screws and
rivets.
2. What are the different types of nails?

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 Ans: These are such as wire nails, oval nails, clout, and panel pin.
3. Name different types of screws.
Ans: Roundhead, Countersunk, Raised head and Self-tapping.
4. There are different types of rivets, name them.
Ans: Countersunk rivet, Round/Snap head, Raised head, Pop rivets, Solid and Bifurcated rivet.
5. What are fittings?
Ans: These are hardware items that are used for finishing a piece of cabinet work and are such as Hinges,
Locks, Catches, Latches, and Knob and Castor wheels.

6. What is an adhesive?
Ans: It is a substance used to fix joints or pieces together commonly known as glue.
7. What are the three classes of adhesives?
Ans: (1) Protein adhesive (2) Synthetic resin adhesive (3) Contact adhesive
8. What are the different types of adhesives?
Ans: Casein glue, PVA (polyvinyl Acetate), Contact glue, Urea formaldehyde, Epoxy resin, Resorcinol
formaldehyde, Phenol formaldehyde ad Melamine formaldehyde.
9. What are driving tools?
Ans: These are tools which pushes/strikes things like nails or screws such as Hammers, Mallets and
Screwdrivers.
10. Identify different types of driving tools.
Ans: Hammers, Mallets, Screwdrivers, Pincers, Pop rivets, gun rivet, set/snap, Spanners and Allen keys.
11. What is heat treatment?
Ans: This is the process of heating and cooling of a material in order to improve different physical properties
to the steel.
12. What are the different forms of heat treatment?
Ans: Hardening, Annealing, Normalizing, Tempering, Casehardening, Casting, Bluing and Forming.
13. What are the different methods of treating plastic?
Ans: By using the process of bending, cold casting, embedding, moulding and vacuum forming.

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 One of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some form of picture or drawing. This is
especially true for the engineer. The purpose of this guide is to give you the basics of engineering sketching
and drawing.
We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching" generally means freehand drawing. "Drawing"
usually means using drawing instruments, from compasses to computers to bring precision to the drawings.
14. What is a drawing?

A drawing is a picture or plan made by means of lines on a surface.

Its through drawings that a design and technology specialist is able to express ideas, plans, and design works.

15. What is a sketch?

A sketch is a quick /rapid drawing or painting.

Sketches are used as records of ideas, and a form of short hand for designers. These drawings must be enhanced.
Enhancing means improving visual appearance of a drawing by increasing its quality or value

NOTE; B type pencils are soft and most suitable for drawing and sketch

16. Describe the enhancing techniques

Value technique.

Value is used to create form on flat surfaces.

The side which faces the light source looks
lighter than the side which is away from the
light source.
a. Shading value technique. Method of darkening the surface
of a drawing using a dark medium (Black into white, Linear,
Close stipple, Cross hatching, Scribble, and Contour line
shading)
b. Tinting value technique. Method of lightening or softening of a
drawing by adding white. This technique is mostly used when
working with paint.
. Texture technique.
Texture is the roughness or smoothness of a surface as perceived
by sight. Texture is mainly used in drawing to:
a. emphasis shape
b. create visual harmony
c. highlight form

Shape technique.

Shape enables us to distinguish objects from each other. Shape is

used in drawing to

25
 a. express ideas and represent objects
b. suggest movement

Colour technique.
Most common pigment colours are inks and paints. They have
three properties namely; hue, value, and intensinty.
a. Hue. Enables us to name colours.
b. Value. Describes lightness and darkness of colour. When there is
more value, it means that there is less light reflected.
c. Intensity. Intense colours are pure and clean but intensity can
be lowered by adding other colours.

Thick and thin line technique.

Makes the drawing stand clear from the surrounding. This

technique is governed by two rules.
a. Thick line is drawn where two surfaces meet and only one
surface is seen.
b. Thin line is drawn where two surfaces meet and both surfaces
are seen.
Rendering technique.
Rendering is depicting or giving an impression of materials . It
creates sense of realism.

.. NAILS

17. To which group of material nails belong?

Nails belong to Fixing or Fastening materials.
18. Nailing is the simplest way of joining piece of wood together and other materials. By what means do nails
hold into wood fibers?
Nails hold by fiction of the nail against the fibers of the wood.
19. Nails possess a head, a shank and a point. What is the recommended material for manufacturing Nails?
Nails are usually made of mild steel wire and are platted to prevent rusting. Steel wire nails are also galvanized
with Zinc, nickelled, brassed and blued in order to prevent rusting. Brass and copper nails are used for work in
contact with water.
20. The process of coating iron or steel with zinc is called ……………………………………
Galvanizing.
21. How do we give names to nails?
Nail names are derived from their uses (e.g. panel pins are used for fixing thin panel of wood), shape of head
(e.g. Round heads) and sectional shape (e.g. ovals).

26
TYPE OF NAILS COMMONLY USED IN WOODWORK TECHNOLOGY

22. WIRE NAILS: The wire nails are also known as French nails.
- They are round in section with flat head for easy withdrawal.
- The heads are also ridged or chequered to prevent the hammer slipping off when the nail is being driven
into the wood.
- The neck is also ridged or roughened in order to increase the gripping quality in the wood.

Using the description above make a neat sketch and label the parts of a Wire nail or French nail.

23. State three uses of wire Nails.

Wire nails or French nails are used for:
(i) General construction work particularly in the building industry.
(ii) Making of packing case e.g. tomato cases.
(iii) Rough work in soft wood where the appearance of finished job is not important.

24. Describe and state the uses of the following nails.

(i) LOST HEAD NAIL :This is similar to wire nail and panel pin. It is a fine type of wire nail and larger
version of panel pin, circular in section.

Lost head nail is used:

- Where there is need to punch the head below the surface of wood to give the finished job neat appearance.
This is the advantage this nail has over a wire nail.
- For fixing timber that has to be painted

(ii) PANEL PIN: The panel pin shank is very fine and round in section. The head of the panel pin can be
punched below the surface of the wood.

27
 Panel pin is used for:

- Fixing light and fine work

- Securing plywood, mouldings, cabinet doors and in some joints.
(iii) VENEER PIN: The veneer pin is much thinner than the panel pin. They are almost headless and short
variety.

Veneer pins are used for:

- Securing veneer in position whilst the adhesive/ glue is setting. The heads are not driven in so that the pins
may be removed after the glue has set.
(iv) OVAL WIRE NAILS (OVAL- BRAND HEAD NAILS): These nails as the name implies are oval or
elliptical in section. They have small heads which can be punched below the surface of the wood and the
created hole is stopped or filled in with a suitable filler, to make the job look neater.
Oval wire nails are used for:
- Nailing close to the ends and edges of the wood because its oval shape of the cross section makes it less
liable to split the wood.
When nailing oval nails, the major axis of the nail should be in line with the grain of the wood to prevent
splitting.
The neck of the oval nail roughened to increase its grip in the wood.
(v) CUT NAILS: These nails are cut from mild sheet steel and are square or rectangular in section which
gives a good grip.

The cut nails are used by builder mainly for:

- Fixing floor board.

- Timber to block work walls, etc.
(vi) WIRE CLOUT NAIL OR SLATE NAIL: The clout nail has a short shank and large diameter head. The
clout nails are galvanized to prevent rusting. The clout nail large head prevent or covers the hole or tears
that develop in the roofing materials such as iron sheets
The clout nail is used for:
- Fixing roofing felts or iron sheets or webbing.
(vii) TACK NAILS: These are short nails with large heads and are blued to prevent rusting.
Tack nails are used in upholstery work for:
- Securing soft and thin materials such as lexin to wooden framework.

28
(viii) UPHOLSTERY NAILS: This nail has a large doom shaped head and the head and shank are made from
mild steel plated with bronze, brass or nickel.
Upholstery nails are used for:
- Fixing leather, cloth, etc. to wood e.g. on upholstered stool.
(ix) ESCUTHEON PINS: These pins are made of brass.
Escutcheon pins are used for:
- Fixing keyhole plates on door locks. The pins have ornamental effect and cannot rust, so they are often used
in bathrooms, kitchen and outside door locks.
(x) CORRUGATED FASTENER OR WIGGLE NAIL: These nails are used to fix pieces of wood which are
butt joined and fix frames which have to be covered with hard board or ply-wood.
25. A grade 11 pupil at Mukuba Boys Secondary School is asked to go and buy nails from Kitwe hard ware.
What information should he give to theshop keeper?

When ordering or buying nails, state the following information:-

(i) Quality by weight (kg)

(ii) Type
(iii) Length
(iv) Gauge (diameter or thickness of the shank)
(v) Finishing materials if necessary
E.g.: 1kg steel, round lost head nails 38 X 4g

10. Briefly state the advantages and disadvantages of nails over screws.

The following are the advantages of nails:

- Nails are cheaper than screws.

- Nails are quicker and easier to insert than screws.
- Nails grip better than screws in end grain.

The following are the disadvantages of nails:

- Nails are difficult to withdraw without damage.

- Nails are unsightly on finished work.
- Nails might split the work.
- Nails alone do not make a very strong joint unless they are used with glue.

29
 11. With the help of sketches and brief notes explain the methods of nailing.

(i) DOVETAIL NAILING:

- Dovetail nailing or angle nailing gives the nails greater holding power. Plain butt joint and other joints at
the corner of simple boxes are strengthened if they are dovetail nailed.
(ii) STAGGERING OR ZIG-ZAG NAILING:
- When nailing near the end of a board there is a danger of splitting. This can be prevented by staggering the
nails across the width of the wood.
(iii) CLENCHING:
- The clinching of nails is the bending over of nails when they emerge from the back, e.g. when making ledge
doors.
- Punching heads of nails below the surface of wood helps to draw piece together as well as improving the
appearance of a finished work. The resulting small holes are then filled and the surface cleanedoff.
12. As an instructor or a supervisor preparing learners for TEVETA trade test levels three (III) and (I). What nailing
hints would you give to the learners?
The following are some of the nailing hints:
- Always nail the thinner piece of wood to the thicker piece.
- Always choose the correct nail to suit the job.
- Do not place nails in straight lines as this tends to split the wood.
- Before nailing in wood which splits easily, small how must be made with a bradawl.
- A bore hole should be smaller than the diameter of a nail to allow for gripping.
- Do not use more nails on a job that are necessary to avoid weakling the job.
- If the nail tends to split the wood, try filling the sharpness off the point.
- Do not nail too near to the corner of the job, otherwise the wood may split.
- Always keep the hammer face clean. Polish it with sand/glass paper.
- A dirty hammer face tends to bend the nails.

SCREWS (FASTENING MATERIALS)

- Wood screws are an effective way of joining most solid materials together.
- In general, a screwed joint is stronger than a nailed one and has the advantage of being easily removed or
easy to withdraw and be replaced when required.

30
 1. What are the appropriate materials for manufacturing wood work screws?

The most common materials used in wood screw manufacture are:

- Steel and brass.

- Some coating materials for steel wood screws are chromium, zinc nickel, black jappaning etc.
2. How can you determine the type and name of screw?
- The shape of the screw head determines the type and name of screw.
3. How the screw enters into the wood?
- With the help of the screw driver the threads of the screw pull the screw into the wood.

The length of the screw means only that part which is inserted into wood. Screws are sized by length and gauge or
diameter of the shank.

The advantage of steel screws is that they are the strongest and cheapest. The advantage of brass screws is that they
have better appearance and will not rust but they are not very strong.

TYPE OF SCREWS

The type of screws is determined by the shape of the head.

4. With the help of well labeled sketches describe the wood screws and state their uses.
(i) Counter sunk screw: This screw is sometimes called Flat headed wood screw.
Uses: Countersunk screw is mainly used for:
- Joining wood where the head has to be flushed or sunk slightly below the surface of wood.
- Securing hinges on the doors.
- Fixing bottoms or bases of the boxes
(ii) Round head screw: The round headed wood screws are painted with black lacquers to prevent rusting.
Uses: Mainly used for:
- fastening external metal fitting to work.eg fixing tee/strap- hinges, shelf brackets to wood, catches, etc.
where they will be exposed to weather e.g. garage doors
(iii) Raised head counter sunk screw: The raised head counter sunk screw is the combination of flat and round
head screws. It is usually chromium plated brass.

USES: The raised head counter sunk screw is used for:-

- Decorative work
- Fixing door plates, metal bath room fittings

31
 - Fixing cover furniture tower bolt etc.

The advantage of this screw is that it can be easily removed without damaging the surface surrounding the
screw.

Philips and pozidriv screws: These screws are designed to give the more positive positioning of the screw
driver. The other advantage of these screws is that the screw driver is self-centering and the possibility of
the screw driver to slip off is very minimal. They also allow more vertical pressure.
(iv) The couch screw:The coach screw is driven into the wood by means of a spanner. It is much stronger and
heavier than other screws. It is made of mild steel or galvanized steel.
Use:
- It is used for outside work such as gate hinges, railway carriages and coach building.

How to buy/order wood screws

When ordering wood screws state the following information:

- The quality.
- The type of head.
- The screw length
- The gauge/diameter of the shank (thickness).
- Material
- Details of plating/coating if necessary.

Examples of statement

- 2gross, 38mm, NO8, steel, countersunk.

- 1gross, 19mm, NO4, brass, round head.
- Steel, slotted csk head wood screws, 38mmx8g

Note: CSKis the abbreviation for counter sunk.

How to prepare the materials to receive wood screw.

- Locate and bore the pilot hole for the screw thread slight less than the diameter of the roof/care using a
twist bit.
- Bore the clearance hole to suit the diameter of the screw shank (counter bore) using a twist bit equal to
shank diameter.
- Counter sink: To receive or accommodate the head of the counter sunk screw, using a rose head bit.

32
NB: There is no need to count sink when driving in the round head screw.

Hints on driving wood screws into wood

- Use the right sized drill for the holes.

- Thinner piece of wood should be screwed to the thicker piece.
- The length of the screw used should be at least twice the thickness of the thinner piece of wood.
- In safe wood, it is only necessary to drill the core diameter half the length of the threaded part of the screw.
- Brass screws are suitable for screwing into Oak wood because the acid in oak will corrode steel screws and
stain the wood.
- Brass screws tend to break easily when used with hard wood. To minimize this tendency, start with the same
sized steel screws to obtain the pattern, and then replace them with brass screws.
- Always apply little soap, wax, or grease on the end of the thread to make cutting easier and to make
removal easier at the later date the soap, wax, and grease will also protect the screw from chemicals in the
wood.

Advantages of wood screws over nails

- Screws are easier towithdraw than nails.

- Screws are better in appearance on finished work than nails.
- Screws have lesser tendency of splitting work.
- Screws make stronger joints than nails.

Disadvantages of wood screws over nails

- Screws are more expensive than nailed.

- Screws are sometimes difficult and take time to insert.
- Screws do not grip better in end grain.

ACTIVITY
1. (A) (i) complete the sketch below to show a clearance hole and a countersunk hole.

33
 (1)
(ii) Complete the sketch to show the construction of block board.

(1)

(iii) The diagram shows an unfinished 3D sketch.

- Apply grain and shading to the sketch so that it resembles a piece of wood.
- On the sketch, show the face side and face edge using the appropriate symbols.
(2)

34
 (B) (i) Name the woodworking tool shown in the diagram.

NAME: …………………………………………………………………………............................................
- State the function of the part A of this tool.
FUNCTION: ………………………………………………………………………………………………...
(1)

(ii) The diagram shows a tenon saw and a close up view of its teeth. Every second tooth is bent left and right.

-
What is this feature called?
FEATURE: ……………………………………………………………………………………….
- Why is this feature necessary?
ANSWER: ……………………………………………………………………………………….
- What is the function of part A?
FUNCTION: …………………………………………………………………………………….
- Apart from plastic, which other specific material is the handle made of?
MATERIAL: ……………………………………………………………………………………................
(2)

C) (i)The diagram shows a common defect in timber.

35
 - Give the correct name for this defect.
NAME: ………………………………………………………………………………………........................
- What is the most common cause of this defect?
CAUSE: ……………………………………………………………………………………..........................
(1)

(ii) The board shown in the diagram has become distorted across its width.

- What is this form of distortion commonly called?

ANSWER: …………………………………………………………………………………………………...
- What causes a board to distort in this manner?
ANSWER: …………………………………………………………………………………...........................
(1)
(iii) The edge of a piece of timber is finished with a common moulding as shown.

- Name the moulding.

NAME: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Give one practicalexample where this feature is applied.
EXAMPLE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(1)
(D) (i) Shown are two pieces of equipment associated with woodturning.

36
 - Name the two pieces of equipment.

…………………………………….. ………………………………………

- State TWOsafety precaution that should be observed when using the woodturning lathe.
PRECAUTIONS:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………......
(2)

(ii) The diagram shows a common type of hinge.

(i) Name this hinge type.

TYPE: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) Where would this type of hinge normally be used?
USE: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(1)

37
(E) (i) Name the woodworking tool show in the diagram.

NAME: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- For what purpose is this tool used?
PURPOSE: ……………………………………………………………………..............................................
(1)

(ii) Using a tick, identify the woodworking tool shown.

Marking Gauge CuttingGauge Mortise Gauge

- Give one specific use for this tool.

USE: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(1)

(F) (i) Typical stages associated with a Design Process are listed on the table below. Place these stages in the correct
order, from 1 to 5.
Stage Order (1-5)
g STAGE ORDER (1-5)
Sketches/Working Drawings 4
Evaluation 5
Design Ideas/Solutions 3
38
Investigation and Research 2
Analysis of Brief 1
(5) (
(i) The diagram shows a selection of wood veneers for use on a marquetry panel.

- Suggest the most suitable adhesive for gluing the veneers to the panel.
ADHESIVE: ………………………………………………………………………………………………...
- Give a reason for your choice.
REASON: …………………………………………………………………………………………………...
((1)

(G) (i) State TWO specific safety precautions that should be observed when using wood chisels.
PRECAUTION 1: …………………………………………………………………………….......................
PRECAUTION 2: …………………………………………………………………………….......................
(1((1(
(i) State TWO reasons why it is necessary to apply a finish to a wooden artefact.
REASON 1: …………………………………………………………………………………………………
REASON 2: …………………………………………………………………………………………………
(2)

(H) (i) Name the TWO manufactured boards, labelledA and B, in the diagrams.

A: …………………………………………………………

39
 B: ………………………………………………………….

(ii) State FOURadvantages of manufactured boards.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………
…………………
(3)

Section I Part B
Answer ANY TWO questions. You are advised to answer two questions within 35 minutes.
Use separate answer sheets provided.

2. Two stages in a typical design process are sketches/working drawings andevaluation.

(i) Explain these two stages.
(ii) The diagram shows a collection of items which are often found in a home. Using notes and neat freehand sketches
to communicate your ideas, design a unit to store these items.

(i) State TWO specific requirements that must be considered in your design.
(ii) Suggest a suitable material for the manufacture of the unit and give TWO reasons for your choice.
(12)

3. The diagram shows a woodturning lathe.

40
 (i) Name the parts of the lathe labelledA, B and C and briefly describe the function of each part.
(ii) The diagram shows a table lamp turned from wood. Describe, in detail, and with the aid of notes and
neatfreehand sketches, how a hole could be formed in the body of the lamp to accommodate the electric
cable.

(iii) The lamp has a maximum diameter of 150mm. Which of the following speeds would be the most
appropriate for turning the lamp, 100 RPM, 400 RPM or 1000 RPM?
(iv) State THREE specific safety precautions that should be observed when turning wood on a lathe.

4. The diagrams show two methods of timber conversion.

41
 A B

(i) Name the TWO methods of conversion.

(ii) State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of each conversion method.

(iii) The board shown below is prone to cupping.

Using a neat freehand sketch, show the direction of the cupping and explain why this happens.
(12)

5. (i) State the correct name for each of the planes labelledA, B and C below.

A: …………………………………………….. B: ………………………………………………

42
C: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

(i) Select any TWO of the above planes and describe their appropriate use.

(ii) The diagram below shows the cutting assembly of a plane.

Name the parts labelled U, W,Xand Y and state the function of each.

(iii) The blade of the plane, which is shown, has been badly damaged.
Describe, in detail, with the aid of notes and neat freehand sketches, the steps involved in re-sharpening
the cutting edge of the blade.

26. Define a tangent

The the tangent is a line that touches the circumference of a circle at one point
27. construct a tangent at a given point ‘p’ on the circumference
 construct a circle given radius of 35mm
 locate point P on the circumference and draw a line from the centre ‘O’
 construct 90o on a point where the line from the center is cutting through the circle
 the line which is at 90o is the tangent

43
28. constrct a tangent given a point outside a circle

. Join OP.
Erect a semi-circle on OP to cut the circle in A.
PA produced is the required tangent (OA is the radius and is perpendicular to PA
since it is the angle in a semi-circle). There are, of course, two tangents to the circle
from P but only one has been shown for clarity

29. construct the common interior (or transverse or cross) tangent to two equal circles, centres O and O
Join the centres OO 1 .
Bisect OO 1 in A.
Bisect OA in B and draw a semi-circle, radius BA to cut the circle in C.
With centre A and radius AC, draw an arc to cut the second circle in D.
CO is the required tangent.

44
30. To construct the common tangent between two unequal circles, centres O and O 1 and radii R
and r , respectively ( Fig. 5.6 ).

31. Define the term loci

A locus (plural loci ) is the path traced out by a point that moves under given definite conditions

45
46
 32. The movement of the crank is continuous. The movement of the piston is also continuous between the top
and bottom of its travel. This movement, as before, must be ‘ stopped ’ several times and the positions of the
centre of the connecting rod found. As with most machines that have cranks, the best policy is to plot the
position of the crank in 12 equally spaced positions. This is easily achieved with a 60 ° set square. The piston
must always lie on the centre line and, of course, the connecting rod cannot change its length. It is therefore a
simple matter to plot the position of the connecting rod for the 12 positions of the crank. This is best done
with compasses or dividers. The mid-point of the connecting rod can then be marked with dividers and the
points joined together with a smooth curve.

33. Construct a conic when the distance between its focus and its directrix is equal to 60 mm and its eccentricity
is one. Name the curve. Draw a tangent at any point on the curve

solution

1. As the eccentricity of the conic is one, the curve is a parabola.

2. Draw the directrixDD and the axis AB perpendicular to DD. Mark the focus F such that
Method AF = 60 mm. By definition, VFNA = 1 and hence mark the point V, the vertex at the midpoint of AF as shown
3. Mark any number of points (say 6) on VB and draw verticals through these points.
4. With F as centre and Al as radius draw an arc to cut the vertical through point 1 at Pl' Similarly obtain points Pz' P3,
P4, etc.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through these points to obtain the required parabola.
6. Tangent at any point P on the parabola can be drawn as follows. From point P draw the ordinate PE. With V as
centre and VE as radius draw a semicircle to cut the axis produced at G Join GP and extend it to T. Draw NP
perpendicular to TP. Now, TPT and NPN are the required tangent and normal at P.

47
To draw a cycloid, given the radius R of the generating circle

With centre ° and radius R, draw the given generating circle.

B
2. Assuming point P to be the initial position of the generating point, draw a line PA, tangential and
equal to the circumferance of the circle. 3. Divide the line PA and the circle into the same number of
equal parts and nuber the points.
4. Draw the~ line OB, parallel and equal to PA. OB is the locus of the centre of the generating circle.
5. Errect perpendiculars at 1 I,2I,3I, etc., meeting OB at °1, 0z' 03' etc. 6. Through the points 1,2,3 etc.,
draw lines parallel to PA.
7. With centre 0, and radius R, draw an arc intersecting the line through 1 at PI' PI is the position of
the generating point, when the centre of the generating circle moves to °1, S. Similarly locate the points
Pz, P3 etc. 9. A sIIlooth curve passing through the points P,P I' P z,P 3 etc., is the required cycloid.
Note: T-T is the tangent and NM is the normal to the curve at point M.

Define a Helix curve

A helix is the locus of a point which moves around and along the curved surface of a cylinder.

14.2.2 Construct a Helix curve as a locus on a right cylinder and right circular cone

The drawing below shows the construction of a simple helix.

Procedure

 Draw the two views of the cylinder

 Indicate the direction of the movement of the point with an arrow over the circle

48
  Divide the circumference of the circle into 12 equal parts and number each point
 Divide the lead in the front elevation into 12 equal parts
 Number each point and draw vertical constructional line
 From the points on the circumference project horizontal lines to meet the corresponding vertical in the front
elevation
 Join all the point to obtain the helix

5 Reduce and enlarge polygons to specified linear and area ratios

 To reduce the figure by the ratio of 3:2

1. Divide AB into the ratio of 3:2 to obtain C
2. Draw radials from A to each corner
3. Complete the figure (dotted) by drawing parallels

 To reduce the figure by the ratio of 3:5 by means of central pole

4. Divide AB into the ratio of 3:5 and position P near the centre of the figure.
5. Draw radials from P touching each corner.
6. Obtain CD by means of parallels
7. Complete the new figure (dotted) by drawing parallels

49
 To reduce the area of the figure by the ratio of 3:5
1. Bisect base and divide it into the ratio 3:5
2. Bisect E5 and draw semicircle centre A
3. Drop perpendicular from O and join CE
4. DrawDF parallel to CE
5. FO is the base of the new figure which can be drawn as shown

50
  To enlarge the area of the figure by the ratio of 2:1
1. Extend the Base and divide it into the ratio of 2:1
2. Bisect E2 and draw semicircle centre B
3. Bisect E1 and draw semicircle centre A
4. Drop perpendicular from O and join CE
5. DrawDF parallel to CE
6. FO is the base of the new figure which can be drawn as shown

6.1.6 Relate and use polygons to solve practical problems

The figure below shows the outline of a school Badge in which ABCD is a half hexagon whose side is length is 35 mm.
AED is a right angle. Construct the outline of the school badge.

51
34. Explain how a theme can be analysed and show all the stages clearly.
Start by defining the given THEME with the help of the following;
 Dictionaries
 Encyclopedias
 Internet

52
  Margazines
 By asking other people

From the understanding taken from these dictionaries and other sources, come up with your own definition.

Your own definition is now what will be considered as your working definition
35. Give an example of a theme and analyse it using the 5 Ws.

A theme is analysed using the 5 Ws and these are;

 What
 Why
 When
 Where
 Who
36. Give examples of a theme and analyse it using the 5 Ws.

Examples

 Learning
 Safety
 Display etc

THEME

A Theme is a topic to be discussed.For example-LEARNING

THEME DEFINITIONS - LEARNING

LEARNING is the act of acquiring new or modifying and reinforcing existing knowledge,behaviours,values and may
involve synthesizing different types of information……..wikipedia.

LEARNING is a conscious activity involving the acquisition of new knowledge,skills,attitudes,behaviour and

manners.Oxford dictionary.

LEARNING is a change of behavior after one gains knowledge.

WORKING DEFINITION

LEARNING is a change of behavior after one gains knowledge.

GENERAL ANALYSIS

General analysis –where does it take place

On the At home
road

53
 WHERE

In the
workshop At school

WHO ARE INVOLVED IN LEARNING PROCESS?

Workers and
Instructors Drivers and
Pedestrians

WHO?

Pupils and
Teachers Adults and
children

What is LEARNING?

54
Gaining knowledge in the
Knowing how to drive and cross
workshop
the road

WHAT

Knowing how to do things at

Getting new ideas at home
school
why learning

For workers/instrutors
knowledge/experience
To be more
knowledgeable

WHY

To gain experience To know household

and prevent chores
accidents

WHEN DO WE LEARN?

When Working in the When

workshop cooking in
the
kitchen

55
 WHEN

When the teacher

is teaching When driving
and crossing
the road

DETAILED ANALYSIS OF CHOSEN AREA

HOME

KITCHEN
Keepin
Back yard
Bedroom
k Keeping kitchen utensils

Eating Cooking food

CHOSEN ANALYSIS

KITCHEN

COOKING AND KEEPING KITCHEN UTENSILS

Kitchen unit Kitchen table Stove

From the analysis above,formulate a situation and problem.

56
SITUATION.

Whenever my daughter is chopping some vegetables in the kitchen,she always cut her fingers. Describe the important
aspects that makes up or forms a situation.

- Activity, what is really happening or taking place

-Concern, what is bothering people

-Place, this is where an activity is taking place.

What is a situation?

A situation is a statement or a picture that depicts the condition in which things are found or seen.

Example of a situation.

My son who is aged 2 years, falls from his bed at times when he is asleep in his bedroom and usually he sustains
injuries

PROBLEM

The kitchen does not enough devices for using when cutting vegetables.

DESIGN BRIEF

Design and make an artifact that will protect my daughter from injuries when chopping vegetables in the kitchen.

Basic technology
Energy
37. Define the term energy.
 It is the capacity to do work.
 Or it is the qualitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat
the object.
34.Energy is needed to………….
(i) Make things move
(ii) Heat our living space
(iii) Light the area where we live and work
35.Identify different forms of energy.
(a) Heat energy
(b) Mechanical energy

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 (c) Chemical energy
(d) Sound energy
(e) Light energy
(f) Kinetic energy
(g) Potential energy
(h) Renewable energy
(i) Non-renewable energy
35Explain how energy is transformed from one form to another.
 The energy is neither created nor destroyed but it transforms from one form to another. However, the total
energy remains constant, gain or lost.
 While energy can change forms the total energy of a system will always be conserved, there will be always
be conservation of energy.
36 Describe different forms of energy
(a) Heat or thermal energy
 A form of energy transferred from hot objects to cold objects, type of energy that reflects the temperature
differences between two objects is called heat transfer. It comes as a result of the movement of tiny particles;
this can be in liquids, solids and gases.
 Heat moves in three ways
(i) Radiation
(ii) Conduction
(iii) Convection
(i) Radiation
 Happens when heat moves as energy waves called infrared waves directly from its sources to something else.
This is how heat move from the sun gets to earth through the vacuum.
 Infrared waves are part of a spectrum of energy waves know as the electromagnetic spectrum e.g. light, x-rays
radio waves.
(ii) Conduction
 Happens when heat moves as energy when it comes into contact with matter. This happens when atoms move
and start colliding with each other making other atoms move too in this way heat is transferred through matter.
Such as metallic solids e.g. A handle of a pot becomes hot when only the bottom of the pot is touching the
stove.
(iii) Convection
 Happens when heat moves as energy in s substance that can flow e.g. water or air. The transfer happens when
there is heat at the bottom of the air or water, the atoms or molecules in contacts with the heat starts to move

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 making heated water or air less dense giving way to the new air or water to fill the space that was vacated by
heated molecules. This set a circular motion because the air or water that is heated at the bottom travels to the
top, cools gets denser falls again.

(b) Mechanical energy

 A form of energy that combines both potential and kinetic energy. The sum of the potential energy and kinetic
energy is total amount of mechanical energy.
(i) The hammer on its own has no kinetic energy when at rest but it has potential energy because of its weight.
(ii) To drive a nail into the piece of wood (which is work) he has to lift the hammer up. This increases the potential
energy because of its high position.
(iii) He then force the hammer to move at a great speed downwards (now has kinetic energy) to hit the nail.
The sum of the potential and kinetic energy that the hammer acquired to drive in the nail is called the
mechanical energy which resulted in the work done.
(c) Electrical energy
 A form of energy possessed by moving charged electrons since the electric charged electrons are moving, they
possess energy called kinetic energy. The faster the electric charges are moving the move electrical energy they
carry.
E.g. A ball being thrown at a window representing an electrical charge. If a ball is not thrown very fast it cannot
have energy to break the window. The faster the ball the more energy.
 Electrical energy is basically generated the same way regardless of the starting form of energy.
37.State sources of electrical energy.
(i) Nuclear energy
(ii) Hydro-electrical energy
(iii) Windmill energy
(iv) Solar energy
(v) Geothermal energy
(i) Nuclear energy
 If the nuclear energy is used, the energy released heats water into steam. The steam is then used to turn a turbine
blade which fires up a generator and gives the electric charge their energy.
(ii) Hydro-electric energy
 If hydro electric energy is used then energy from the falling water is used to spin turbine blades which turns the
generator creating electrical energy.
(iii) Windmill energy

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 If the wind mill is used the energy in the moving wind can turn the turbine blades which makes the generator
create electrical energy.
(iv) Solar energy
 If the solar energy is used the energy from the sun is used which comes in form of heat. The water in the water
tanks is heated by the energy from the sun to produce steam which turns turbine blades which fires up a
generator and gives the electric charge or solar cells are used to store energy from the sun to produce electricity.
(v) Geothermal energy
 It is the energy in hot rocks below the earth’s surface. The energy in the rocks is used to heat water it the rocks
are hot enough, they can be used to generate steam to drive a turbine and produce electricity.
(d) Chemical energy
 This is the types of energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds. Chemical energy comes as a result of
chemical reactions between atoms or molecules. Chemical energy is released during a chemical reaction often
in the form of heat such reaction are called exothermic.
 Usually the substance from which the energy comes is often changed to completely different substance e.g. coal
reaction converts chemical energy into light and heat.
 Exothermic reaction: - kind of reaction which release energy in form of heat, sound and light.
 Endothermic reaction:- kind of reaction observe heat from its surrounding e.g. melting ice cubes
(e) Sound energy
 Is a form of energy associated with the vibration of matter or an object. Sound is produced when force causes an
object or substance to vibrate, the energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.
 Sound vibration creates sound waves which move through medium such as air and water before reaction
entering our ears.

(f) Light energy

 The potential for light to perform work is called light energy. Light energy is the only form of energy that we
can actually see directly. It is formed through chemical radiation and mechanical means. Light energy can also
be converted into other forms of energy. Light energy is always moving and can therefore no be stored.
 Light is also called electromagnetic ration when speaking of light other than visible light.
 The reason we see different colours of light is because each colour has a different wave length.
(g) Kinetic energy
 Kinetic energy is the energy a moving body has by virtue of its motion. It is the work done to that cause the
body to accelerate from rest to a stated velocity.

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 For kinetic energy to be possessed by a body work must be done to accelerate that body e.g. a moving car
kinetic energy of an object depends on both it’s mass and velocity.
(h) Potential energy
 Potential energy is the ability of a body to perform work because of its position or the arrangement of the
particles of the system.
 It is called potential energy because it has potential to be converted into other forms of energy such as kinetic
energy e.g. a ball resting on top of the table has potential energy called gravitational potential energy because its
energy the object gains from its vertical position. The more massive an object is the greater it’s gravitation
potential energy.
(i) Renewable energy
 A renewable energy resource is one that will not ran out during the lifetime of the earth e.g. plants are
renewable energy resources. They are renewable because we can grow fresh crops each year. Energy from
plants are known as biomass.
 Other renewable resources include wind, waves and tides, moving water, sun and geothermal energy.
(j) Non-renewable energy
 Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished in our life time most of
the non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels, coal, petroleum and natural gas. Carbon is the main element
in fossils fuel. They are fuel because they release heat energy when they are burned.
38.State the advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy
Advantages
(i) Renewable is stable
(ii) Renewable is reliable
(iii) It is safe and improves public health]
(iv) It is clean when compared to fossil fuels
(v) Multiple forms of renewable energy exist
(vi) It provides foundation for energy independence
(vii) It is a technology instead of a fuel.
Disadvantages
(i) Many forms of renewable energy are location – specific
(ii) Pollution is still generated with renewable energy
(iii) Renewable energy often requires subsidies to make them affordable.
(iv) Some forms of renewable energy require a massive amount of space and can be difficult to generate.
(v) Many forms of renewable energy is commercially viable.
39.State the advantages and disadvantages of non-renewable energy

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 Advantages
(i) They are abundant and cheap
(ii) They easier to find.
(iii) They are very efficient can generate a lot of energy even from just small amount of fuel
(iv) They are easy to set up, can be set at any location
(v) They are simple to transport, fossil fuel can be easily transported e.g. using underground pipes to move oil
and gas.
Disadvantages
(i) Cause environmental pollution because of burning fossil fuel
(ii) Needs huge amount of fuel reserve to keep power station working
(iii) Brings about public health issues due to air pollution and cause different diseases.
(iv) Can finish or run out
(v) In case of accidents oil spills can go into the rivers, oceans and pollute land which can destroy living
organisms which contribute to ecology.
40.Name two types of sources of energy
(i) Primary sources
 Can be used directly as they appear in the natural environment e.g. coal
(ii) Secondary source
 Derive from the transformation of primary energy source e.g. petrol that derive from the treatment of crude oil
41. State the source of different forms of energy.
 The different forms of energy have different sources
Types of energy Sources
1 Heat energy Hot objects e.g. sun, geothermal burning fuels
2 Mechanical energy Movement /location of an object
3 Chemical energy Chemical reactions energy stored in chemical bounds
4 Sound energy Vibrating object to make sound waves
5 Light energy Natural :- sun, star & fire & electricity in storms
Artificial:- electricity, batteries to produce light
6 Kinetic energy Moving objects (doing work)
7 Potential energy Position of an object
8 Renewable energy Sun, wind, moving water, geothermal
9 Non-Renewable energy Coal, petro fossil fuels

42. Explain the effects and dangers of energy sources.

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  Some energy sources have effects and dangers to the environment. These are coal, oil and natural gases.
 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
(a) The processing of fossil fuels can lead to emission of harmful gases into the air, emission of carbon dioxide
damages the ozone layer that protects us from the sun’s radiation. This can bring about health problems like
cancer diseases.
(b) During the processing of fossil fuel or oil there can be some oil spill which can pollute water, or land this can
affect the habitats.
(c) Due to burning of fossil fuel e.g. coal to produce electricity, there is a lot of emission of gases e.g. surphur thus
can led to formation of acid rain. In line with the sentence acid rain can damage soil, organisms which can help
to support ecology.
(d) In order to generate greater energy large amount of coal is required to generate enough energy, hence, a large
area of space is needed to set a plant this result in loss of Habitats.
(e) Due to demand of energy burning of coal and fossil fuel has created excess emission of harmful gases which
has negatively affects people respiratory system and brings about health problems.
(f) For the fuel to produce energy it is to burn, this has polluted the environment and affects the ecology system.
43. Describe the dangers and effects of energy sources
Some energy sources have a number of effects and dangers. These sources include:
 Coal Power Station
 Oil Power Stations
 HEP Stations
 Nuclear Power Stations

ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
The production of energy from coal power stations leads to the emission of gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur.
Carbon dioxide:- carbon dioxide produced from the burning of coal causes global warming.

This global warming results in:

Increase in the average temperature of the earth (over heating)
Melting of ice polar regions leading to death of bears and other animals in the arctic regions.
Floods which lead to the reduction of the land for settlement.
Sulphur:- Sulphur produced from coal reacts with atmospheric oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide which in return react
with rain water forming sulphuric acid.

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This acid fall to the ground as acid rain. This acid rain reduces the pH of the soil. Hence reducing the fertility of the soil.
Moreover this leads to death of micro-organism. Also acid rain cause corrosion of buildings due to the attack of
limestone in the cement by the acid.

INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
Incomplete combustion of fuels such as coal leads to production of carbon monoxide. This poisonous gas once inhaled
combines with haemoglobin. This reduces the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart causing difficulties in breathing
leading to suffocation and death.

OIL POWERED STATIONS

Oil powered stations liberates a number of oil spillages discharged in rivers and lakes. Oil blocks light from entering
into rivers. This causes death of small acquatic plants needs to photosynthesis. The other acquatic animals such as fish
that feed on these planst greatly reduce in number due to oxygen starvation. This condition is called Eutrophication.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS
The production of electricity by hydro-electric power stations has as adverse effect on land. During the setting up of an
HEP station land is degraded on aa larger scale leading to displacement of wild life.
Nuclear power stations
Nuclear power stations uses nuclear reactions to generate electric energy. Nuclear reactions such as nuclear fission leads
to production of radio-active materials. This include uranium, polonium, raon etc. These radio-active materials can pose
a danger to human life. Long exposure to these radio-active materials causes gone and chromosom mutation.
Apply suitable forms of energy in artefcts
During the manufacturing of an artificial energy can be applied when
Lighting heavy things e.g. iron hammer from the floor an iron hammer posses mass potential energy.
When trying to fix a nail in an artifact with an iron hammer, there is transfer of energy.
As a hammer is lifted up it increases a potential energy as the hammer is moved to strick a nail there is transfer of
energy from potential to kinetic and when the hammer hits the nail again there is some transfer of energy. Therefore,
during the manufacturing of artifact different types of energy are applied.

State the advantages and disadvantages of mechanism

ADVANTAGES
 Mechanisms have played a useful role at many times in movement of things
 They are versatile
 They are efficient in certain areas e.g. where rollers or bearings are used.
 There are times when there is no alternative but use a mechanism

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DISADVANTAGES
Mechanism always need maintains e.g. parts that need oiling ‘A lot of rubbing parts are liable to wear
Many times moving parts may be dangerous
Mechanical function may not be better than digital functions
Classify types mechanisms
Levers
Pulley
Linkages
Cams
Gears
Chain and Sprockets
Describe various types of mechanisms
Lever mechanisms
The type of mechanism that involves the fulcrum, effort and load (resistance) This kind of machine makes our work
easier.
A lever changes an input motion and force into a desired output motion and force.
State three classes of levers
First class lever
Second class lever
Third class lever
Explain the three classes of lever
First class lever
It is a type of lever which has the fulcrum (pivot) somewhere between the load at one end and the effort at another end.
Examples of first class levers
Tin opener and scissors
Second class lever
It is a type of lever with a pivot at one end and the effort applied at another end. The load is in between the two.
Examples of second class lever
Wheel borrow
Third class lever
Effort is between pivot and load. The effort is applied in between the load and the pivot.
Unlike class 1 and 2 levers, class 3 has a mechanical disadvantage. The input force the effort is greater than the force
produced at the load.
The distance moved by the load is greater than the distance moved by the effort.

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The longer the distance between the pivot and the effort the lesser the force applied.

To understand electricity one need to understand the electric symbols.

The following are some common electrical symbol.

What is electricity?

Electricity is the flow of electrons. The electrons flow from negative to positive in a circuit.

the speed at which the electrons flows through a circuit is considered to be an electrical current in other words we can
say the rate at which electricity flows around the current is known as electric current which is measured in amps (amps)

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What is an electric current?

An electric current is the path that an electric current passes in order to power an appliance.

A complete circuit is one that has conductors run from the source of power through an appliance back to the source of
power i.e. positive (live) to negative (neutral).

Types of electric circuits

(A) series circuit

(B) parallel circuit

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 (C) OTHER CIRCUITS INCLUDE

I. closed circuit
II. open circuit
III. short circuit
IV. earth or leakage circuit
What are the advantages and the disadvantages of circuits (a) and (b)?

Advantages

CIRCUIT A CIRCUIT B
lamp will be well light when one lamp is blown no current will pass

Disadvantages

CIRCUIT A CIRCUIT B
1: when one lamp blown no current will pass (no : When lamps is blown the other will continue
light ) lighting.
2: : the bulbs will not as blight as in a.

WHAT ARE 5 TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARDS?

I. the bread board

II. the strip board (Vero board )
III. the matrix board
IV. nail and board and
V. The printed circuit board

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BREAD BOARD

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

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STRIP BOARD

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SCREW AND SCREW CAP CONSTRUCTION

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICs)

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BUILDING THE CIRCUIT 555 TIMER

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STRUCTURES

In the construction of structures various types of materialsare used namely; wood, metal, stone plastics concrete
composite and other logically available materials.

Statethe properties of the above materials used in construction of structures.

Wood –it is hard tough and durable, it deteriorate with weather and time.

Stone- it is hard but brittle

Plastics-it is soft but tough and durable

Concrete- it is brittle but tough

Bamboo

Elephant glass

Fable glass

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FORCES

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How can structures be stabilized?

What are the factors that causes structural failure?

1. Poor deign
2. Over loading/fatigue
3. Poor joints or material
 Failure occurs because of force acting on structures. These can be stationary force (static) due to
structures own weight or dynamic force (moving forces).
Moments on a beam balance are equal (equilibrium)

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 12 ELECTRONICS

Circuit construction techniques

What is the meaning of the abbreviation PCB?

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, you can turn a circuit design into a permanent circuit using a PCB.

How is a PCB made

PROCEDURE:

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List 2 safety precautions to be observed when handling acids during making of a PCB?

Why is soldering in circuits important?

How do you proceed with soldering?

CONTROL LOGIC

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88
Draw a circuit diagram involving the following;

(a)
I. a switch motor
II. motor
III. a capacitor
IV. bulb

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(b) circuit diagram ( domestic wiring)

State safety precautions when handing electrics

 wear protective clothing when working with electricity
 switch off power or disconnect when working on the circuit
 treat every circuit as live before stating to work
 ensure the conductors are not naked at any point
 use correct tools for the work
 do not test a live circuit

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What are the main safety hazard when working with electricity?

(a) Water is a good conductor of electricity avoid working at a dump place or where there is water (wet ground).
(b) Naked conductors (wires should be treated as being live avoid them)
(c) Put on safety attire Colten work suits safety boots and PVE gloves. Avoid nyrom work suit.
(d) Do not handle many tools in the hands or avoid carrying tools in the pocket

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PNEUMATICS

WHAT ARE PNEUMATICS?

Pneumatics are control systems which use compressed air in order to do the work. When ordinary air is
compressed i.e. forced under pressure in a small space, it stores energy that was used to compress it. Pneumatic
systems use that energy to do useful work and make things happen.
List down possible areas where pneumatics are applied
 Door of some buses and trains.
 Fair ground rides.
 Air tanks of trucks.
 Large vehicle brakes.
 Auto mated production like.

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HOW DO PNEUMATICS WORK?

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 HYDRAULICS

WHAT ARE HYDRAULICS, AND WHAT DO THEY DO?

Hydraulics are systems that use oil or fluids instead of air which is used in pneumatics, to transmit motion and force.

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 MEASUREMENTS AND TESTING

Conduct the following electrical test

 Continuity test
 Polarity test
 Insulation test
 Earth rod test
CONTINUITY TEST

TESTING INSTRUMENTS: - Continuity tester or Multimeter (set to continuity test)

Continuity test is carried mainly to check the follow:-

- If there is an opening in the circuit

- Or if there is a short circuit
PROCEDURE

Using a Continuity Tester

i. To check continuity of the cable or system, connect the leads to two ends and check the reading
ii. To check for short circuits connect, connect the leads to the conductors in a short circuit and check the leading
Using a Multimeter

i. Set the multimeter to continuity test and short the leads for a sound
ii. Connect the two leads to two ends of the conductor being tested for continuity
iii. Connect the two leads to the two ends of the conductors in a short circuit and if it sounds then short circuit if no
sound then no short circuit
POLARITY TEST

Polarity test is carried to verify the following:-

i. All fuses, circuit breakers and single pole control devices such as switches are connected in the phase conductor
only
ii. Type screw lam holder is connected to phase conductor and the outer metal threaded part is connected to the
neutral or is earthed
iii. Any socket outlets have been correctly installed… i.e. phase pin of 13A socket outlet on right when viewed
from the front
The test for continuity can be done using a continuity tester.

INSULATION TEST

Insulation tests shows the effectiveness of the insulators on conductors (cables)

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TEST INSTRUMENTS: - Insulation Tester

PROCEDURE

i. Close all switches, MCBs and fuses and where possible remove all lamps appliances and fixed equipment.
ii. Connect the phase (live) and the neutral at the Distribution Board
iii. Direct current is passed through the conductors and any leakage will be indicated by a relatively low reading.
The testing voltage should be twice the normal rms voltage of the supply, subject to a maximum of 500V for
MV circuits

EXPECTED READING

- The minimum permissible insulation resistance is 1 mega ohm.

INDUCTION MOTORS

Describe the operation of induction motors

- the operation of an induction motor depends on the production of a magnetic field which rotates whilst the
wings which produces it remains stationary.
TYPES OF INDUCTION MOTORS

- A three phase induction motor has two main parts

I. Stator
II. Rotor
1- STATOR
- Consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow cylindrical core made up of thin lamination of silicon
steel. The insulated conductors are placed in the stator slots and connected to form a balanced 3 phase star
or delta connected circuit.
2- ROTOR
- The rotor is mounted on the shaft. There are two types of rotors namely, 1, squirrel cage and 2, slip ring
(wounded) type
SQUERREL CAGE TYPE

 Has a laminated cylindrical core with a number of parallel slots. A copper/aluminum laminated bar is placed in
each slot. The bars are joint at each end by end rings which are permanently short circuited the rotor is not
connected electrically to the supply but has current induced in it by transformer action from the stator. These
type of motors are known as Squirrel Cage Induction Motors.

WOUND ROTOR TYPE

 It consist of a laminated cylindrical core and carries three phase winding. The rotor winding is distributed in the
slots and are star connected. The end of the rotor windings are brought out and joined to three insulated slips-

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 rings mounted on the shaft of the rotor with one brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes are connected
to a 3 phase star connected rheostat. These types of motors are known as Wound Rotor Induction Motor(
WRIM) OR Slip Ring Induction Motor(SRIM)
TRANSFORMERS

Definition: A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for lowering or raising the voltage of an AC supply
with corresponding increase or decrease in current.

CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER.

The transformer is made up of the following parts.

 The CORE – Made of silicon steel with low hysteresis loss and high permeability.
 The WINDINGS – Primary and secondary wound on the limbs.

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Principle of Mutual Induction

 When an alternating voltage V1 is supplied to the primary, an alternating flux ∅ is setup in the core. The flux
links both the windings by the process known as Mutual. The induced Emfs E1 and E2 are induced in both
primary windings and secondary windings. The magnitudes of E1 and E2 depend on the number of turns on
primary and secondary respectively.

Types of Transformers
Transformers are classified according to the way the primary and secondary are wound on the core.
The two common types are;
i. Core type transformer
ii. Shell type transformer

Core type transformer

Shell type transformer

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Half of the primary winding and half of the secondary windings are placed around each limb.

SINGLE PHASE AND 3 PHASE STEP UP AND STEP DOWN TX

Single phase

 A single phase transformer consists of two coils, insulated from one another and wound on a laminated soft-
iron core.
 The available supply is connected to the winding called the primary and the output is taken from the other
called the secondary.
Three phase TX

 The primary windings of a poly-phase transformer are inter connected to complete the primary circuit and all
the secondary windings are inter connected to complete the secondary circuit.
 Three phase transformer may be connected in either star or in delta.

Step up or step down

Step up

 When supply is lower than the output.

Step down

 The most common one – when supply is high than the output.

BASIC CALCULATIONS OF TX RATIO Emf EQUATIONS

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 1. A 5000/ 500 V1 10kVA single – phase TX has 40 turns on the secondary
Calculate
a) Primary turns
b) Primary full-load current
c) Secondary full- load current
(Neglect losses)

Solution
a) E1 = V1 = 5000V
𝐸 𝑉 5000
E2 = V2 = 500V Turns ratio = 𝐸1 = 𝑉1 = 500
= 10
2 2
𝑁1
𝑁2
= 10
Since N2= 40
So : N1 (Primary turns) = 40 × 10 = 400 Turns

b) I1 V1 = V A input
10 ×103
So: I1 = 5000
2A
c) I2 V2 = V A output
10 ×103
So: I2 = 500
20 A
2. A 20KVA single-phase Tx has 200 and 48 turns on primary and secondary windings respectively. If the primary
core is connected to a 1000V, 50Hz AC supply, calculate
N1 = 200, N2 = 48, E = V1 = 1000V
𝐾𝑉𝐴 20 × 103
So: I1 = 𝑉1
= 1000
= 20A
b) the secondary Emf
E1 = 100, N2 = 48, N = 200, E2 = x
𝑁2 48
E2 = E1× = 1000 × = 240V
𝑁1 200

𝐾𝑉𝐴 20 × 103
c. I2 = 𝑉2
= 240
= 83.3A

𝐸 1000
d. ∅m = 4.44𝑓1 𝑁 = 4.44 ×50 ×200 = 22.5mwb

MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMERS

The following should be checked to ensure the transformer is in good condition

1. Connections and the windings

2. The casing of the transformer and ensure correct gaps and joints are maintained
3. Windings are not over heating
4. Levels are maintained and changed the if necessary

ACTIVITY

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 1. A 2000/ 200 V1 20KVA transformers has 66turns in the secondary. Calculate
a) Primary turns
b) The full load current (660: 100A)

D.C GENERATORS

Construction of the DC Generator

 A generator is a machine which converts energy from a prime mover into electric energy. The principle is that
whenever the magnetic flux is cut by a conductor, an emf is induced which causes current to flow in a
conductor. The direction of the induced emf is determined by Fleming’s right hand rule.

 All DC Machines (Generators or Motors) consists of common principle components and these are :-
i. Field system
ii. Armature
iii. Armature windings
iv. Commutator
v. Brushes
 Emf equation of a DC Generator
Let =per pole in weber
Z= total number of armature conductor
P= number of poles

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 A= number of parallel paths
P(for lap windings)
2(for wave windings)
N= speed for armature in rpm
Eg= emf of the generator
= emf per parallel
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature Dia D = Dia P

Therefore
Eg= Dia ZN x P

TYPES OF DC GENERATORS
DC generators are classified into two categories
i. Separately excited DC generators and
ii. Self-excited DC generators

SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATORS

This type of generator has a field magnet winding supplied from an independent external source (e.g. battery)

SELF-EXCITED GENERATOR

This type of Generator has a field magnet winding which is supplied from output of the generator itself and is known as
self-excitation

SERIES GENERATOR

The field winding is connected in series with the armature winding

SHUNT GENERATOR

The field generator is connected in parallel with the armature winding so that the terminal is applied across it.

COMPOUND GENERATOR

There are two sets of field winding on each pole, one in series and the other in parallel with the armature. Therefore a
compound generator maybe short shunt and long shunt

D.C MOTORS

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Construction of a DC motor

 The DC motor is a machine which converts DC power into mechanical power. Its fundamental operating
principle is based on Fleming’s left hand rule. When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field the
conductor experiences a mechanical force
 The DC motor does not differ from the DC generator, the same DC machine can be run as motor or generator
Motor action

 When the armature of the DC motor rotates, the armature conductors move through the magnetic field and
hence emf is induced in them as in a generator. The induced emf acts in the opposite direction to the applied
voltage V.
TYPES OF DC MOTORS

Just like generators there are 3 types of DC motors namely

i. Series motors
ii. Shunt motors
iii. Compound motors

APPLICATION OF DC MOTORS

i. Industrial application
- Conveyers
- Turn tables, lathe machines etc
ii. Domestic application
- Vacuum cleaners
- Food mixers
DC MOTOR STARTERS

The resistance of the DC motor is very small if the motor is switched on tomains, the armature draws a heavycurrent.
The high current may cause the armature to burn, damage the commutator and excessive voltage drop in the line.

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To avoid this excessive current during starting the variable resistor is connected in series with armature. This resistance
is reduced as the motor gains speed.

TYPES OF DC MOTORS STARTERS

i. DC MANUAL 3 AND 4 POINT STARTERS(FACE PLATES)

This types of starters are usually used to start DC motors. They have inbuilt resistance to limit current through
the armature on starting and also provide special protection of the motor
ii. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
The 3 main methods of varying or controlling the speed of the DC motor are
(a) Flux control method
(b) Armature control method
(c) Voltage control method
iii. DYMANIC OF BREAKING OF DC MOTORS
Building Sub-Structure

1. State the importance of site clearance?

- To remove obstacles like rocks and hills
- Some sites may contain vegetative materials such as bushes, shrubs, trees, roots etc which should be cleared off
to pave way for construction works.

2. What are the main determinants for the choice and design of a foundation?
- Total loads of the building
- Nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil

3. What is a foundation?
- A foundation is the base on which a building rests
- It is a past which is in direct contact with the ground

4. Explain the purpose of a foundation.

- The purpose of a foundation is to safety sustain transfer to the ground the combined dead and imposed loads so
as not to cause any ground movement or other movement in any part of the building.
- Dead load it the constant weight of a structure itself and all its components.
- Imposed load/live load is the load that is created by the weight of people, vehicles, furniture and other objects
placed in or on the structure.

5. Describe the procedure that is laid at the base of foundation/

- Receive footing
- Create structure stability
- Place hard care
- Compact hard core
6. Outline the stage followed in building the foundation box
- Mark out
- Dry bond
- Square the first course only

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 - Gauge the brick
- Plumb the corners
- Level the corners

Concreting

7. Identify the materials used in concreting and state the ratios

- Cement
- River sand
- Stone
- Conforce wire
- Reinforcements

Ratios 1:11/2: 3
I cement, 11/2 sand, 3 stone

8. Briefly explain the stages of concrete operation

- Batching (Measuring)
- Mixing
- Transportation
- Placing
- Compacting
- Curing (7-28 days by ponding, flooding, must spraying hessian sack)

9. Define bonding.
- Bonding is the arrangement of bricks in a definite pattern in order to provide a pleasing appearance but she
maintains adequate strength for the work.
10. What is the purpose for bonding a wall?
- To carry loads down to the foundations.
To strengthen the wall
To ensure that the wall is able to resist sideways or lateral pressure

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 11. Explain the five principles of bonding walls
- To ensure maximum strength in a wall, all joints should be flushed up with mortar on every course.
- The bricks at junctions should be well bonded to secure the walls together.
- There should be no straight joints in a wall that is no vertical joints should coincide in consecutive course or if
they are unavoidable they should be kept to a minimum.
- The cross-joint in the wall should be kept vertical.
- When the wall changes direction, the bond must also change in the same course.

12. Identify the types of bonds

Decorative
- Basket weave bond

- Diaper bond

- Herring-bone bond

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 - Solder string

Structural
- Stretcher
- English
- flemish

13. Describe each type of structural bond

Stretcher
Bonding laid with stretcher faces showing

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 English Bond
Comprises alternating courses of hearder and strectcher

Flemish Bond
Comprises alternating headers and stretchers in the same course

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 14.Identify the floor finishing tools and materials
- Wooden float
- Steel float
- Drought edge
- Floor jointer

Materials
- Tiles
- Stone
- Wood flooring
- terazo
- Marble
- cork

15. What is monolithic flour finish?

- This is the floor obtained when the concrete floor is topped with 35mm thick cement and sand trowel led
to a smooth finish.

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16. Describe the process of applying monolithic floor.
- Mix semi-dry sand and cement ratio 3:1
- Lay dots should be leveled at carries and where necessary bay screed should be formed between the dots
- Deposit in the mix, in a bay spread and shovel up to a height slightly more than the finishing level.
- Use a wooden tamper crammer to consolidate or compact and bring the mix to a uniform

17. Identify the types of floor tiles

- Quarry
- Wooden
- Block
- PVC
- Rubber
- Porcelain
- Store
- Marble
- Granite

18. Describe the processes if porcelain tile fixing

- Prepare surface by cleaning leveling
- Treat the tiles
- Apples adhesive (mortar)
- Prepare the singles by clearing and leveling set at and measure
- Apply the adhesive
- Cut tiles as needed
- Set the tile
- Ground (full) joints (full)
19. Identify wall finishing tools (plastering)
- Steel or wooden float
- Straight edge trowel
- Spirit level

20. What materials are used for plastering

- Cement
- Sand

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 - Ratio 1:6

21. Outline stages in plastering

- Clean the surface thoroughly
- Spray the background with water and apply cement slurry spatter dash
- Apply the dust coast
- Roughen the dust coat using a metal comb or lath-scratcher to provide a good key for the second coat.
- Cure the dust coat for at least 48hours
- Place plaster screeds at convenient distance to form guidelines for straightening the surface.

121
22. Describe the procedure for fixing wall tiles
- Clean the wall, control suction
- Soak the tiles
- Butter the surface with tile adhesive
- Fix the tile

23. Describe surface defects and remedies

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 - Efflorescence crystalline deposit of salt given seen on the surface of concrete brick or natural store
surface on the blocks/surface – it occurs when water is present on or in the surface-
- remedy – power wasting can effectively remove the surface deposits

Lime staining
Salt deposits on the joints of the bricks
Can be removed using a wore brush

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- Mortar bees
Bees excavating funnels in the soft mortar
Spray insecticide into each country or rest that is found

- Perished brick
Brick that gets eaten away because of being old
Replace damaged brick work

- Perished mortar joints

Mortar joints that deteriorate because of prolonged explosive to the weather
Remove the degraded mortar joint to a depth of atleast 15mm and re-point the brickwork with new mortar

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 - Raping out/remove the degraded mortar to a depth of at least
- Cracks 15mm re-point the brick work with new mortar cracking relieves is internal or external stress on
the well
- Blusters
- Grinning
- Sweet outs flaking

External works

24. Identify types of external works for pavements

- Concrete paving slab
- Kerb stores
- Pavers

1 Produce drawing in first angle projections.

125
Question 1

126
Draw the Front Elevation, Plan and End Elevation of an object shown below in first angle projection.

Answer

Question 2

Draw the Front Elevation, Plan and End Elevation of an object shown below in first angle projection.

127
Answer

9.1.2 Produce sectional views in first angle projection

9.1.3 Apply first angle projection appropriately.

An object in isometric is shown below. Draw

128
 (i) The plan [arrow P]
(ii) The end [ arrow E]
(iii) Sectional front elevation, cutting plane X-X

An object in isometric is shown below. Draw

(iv) The plan [arrow P]

(v) The end [ arrow E]
(vi) Sectional front elevation, cutting plane X-X

129
1 Produce drawing in third angle projections.

130
Question 1

131
Draw the Front Elevation, Plan and End Elevation of an object shown below in third angle projection.

132
Draw the Front Elevation, Plan and End Elevation of an object shown below in third angle projection.

9.2.2 Produce sectional views in third angle projection

9.2.3 Apply third angle projection appropriately.

133
An object in isometric is shown below. Draw in third angle projection

(i) The plan [arrow P]

(ii) The end [ arrow E]
(iii) Sectional front elevation, cutting plane X-X

An object in isometric is shown below. Draw in third angle projection

(iv) The plan [arrow P]

(v) The end [ arrow E]

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 (vi) Sectional front elevation, cutting plane X-X

Ducts, pipe joints, smoke stacks, boilers, containers, machine castings etc., involve intersection of surfaces. Sheet metal
work required for the fabrication of the above objects necessitate the preparation of the development of the joints
objects. Orthographic drawings of lines and curves of intersection of surfaces must be prepared first for the accurate
development of objects. Methods of obtaining the lines and curves of intersection of surfaces of cylinder and cylinder,
prism and prism are shown to introduce the subject. Figure 8.1 Shows intersection of two cylinders.

135
 Intersection of cylinder and cylinder :

A T-pipe connection consists of a vertical cylinder of diameter 80mm and a horizontal cylinder of the same
size. The axes of the cylinders meet at right angles. Draw the curves of intersection.
Construction
Draw the projection of the prism assuming that the axis is perpendicular to VP, with one of its rectangular faces on H.P.

2. Draw the reference line XI-YI at any Convenient location representingAVP and inclined at 45° to the axis of the
initial top view. 3. Draw projectors perpendicular to XI' YI' from all the corners in the top view. 4. Measure the
distances of the corners in the front view from XV, corresponding to the above corners and mark from XI,YI, along the
above projectors. 5. Join the points in the order and complete the auxiliary front view. The auxiliary view and the initial
top view are the final views of the prism

136
: A horizontal cylinder of diameter 40 mm penetrates into a vertical cylinder of diameter 60 mm. The axes of the
cylinders intersect at right angles. Draw the curves of intersection when the a'(is of the horizontal cylinder is parallel to
the VP.

Solution:

1. Draw the top and front views of the cylinders.

2. Draw the left side view of the arrangement.

3. Divide the circle in the side view into number of equal parts say 12.

The generators of the horizontal cylinder are numbered in both front and top views as shown.

5. Mark point m, where the generator through 1 in the top view meets the circle in the top view of the vertical cylinder.
Similarly mark m2,········ .mI2.

6. Project m17 to m\ on the generator II II in the front view. 7. Project m7 to m17 on 71

7 , Similarly project all the point.

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8. Draw a smooth curve through m\ ....... mI7. This curve is the intersection curve at the front. The curve at the rear
through m1 4 , m1 s--m112 coincides with the corresponding visible curve at the front. Since the horizontal cylinder
penetrates and comes out at the other end, similar curve of intersection will be seen on the right also.

9. Draw the curve through n\ ...... nl7 following the same procedure. The two curves m\-mI7 and n\ -n\ are the required
curves of intersection.

: A T-pipe connection consists of a vertical cylinder of diameter 80mm and a horizontal cylinder of the same size. The
axes of the cylinders meet at right angles. Draw the curves of intersection.
Construction

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Hexagonal bolt head

A\C=2D

A\F=1.5D

Hexagonal Nut thickness = 0.8D

Hexagonal bolt thickness =0.6D

Where by D is the external diameter of the bolt

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ABREVIATIONS

140
141