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Industrial properties and uses of silica sand from Blue Nile Basin, Central
Ethiopia

Article in Arabian Journal of Geosciences · March 2023

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Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2023) 16:213
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-023-11302-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Industrial properties and uses of silica sand from Blue Nile Basin,
Central Ethiopia
Ashenafi Nigussie1 · Tesfaye Demisse2 · Worash Getaneh3

Received: 19 April 2022 / Accepted: 17 February 2023

© Saudi Society for Geosciences and Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Abstract
Silica sand samples from Fetra area in Blue Nile Basin were collected for revealing their physicochemical properties and
industrial uses. These samples were characterized by grain size analysis, optical microscopy, and X-Ray Fluorescence spec-
trometry methods for revealing the particle size distribution, grain shape class, and major element composition of the studied
silica sand deposit. Sand grains (average of 97.24%) with minor amounts of gravel (average of 1.77%) and mud (average
of 0.99%) size sediments constitute Fetra silica sand deposit. The majority of these sand particles possess less spherical
rounded to well-rounded morphology as revealed by the microscopic study. The obtained grain shape and grain size results
indicate the high textural maturity of sediments constituting the deposit. Geochemically, the studied silica sand deposit is
characterized by the abundance of S­ iO2 (96.65%) with lesser quantity of A ­ l2O3 (1.35%), F
­ e2O3 (0.85%), T
­ iO2 (0.13%), and
minor content CaO, MgO, and ­K2O (< 0.06%). The enrichment of ­SiO2 over the other oxides shows the chemical purity and
quartz copiousness of the deposit. Interpretation of both physical and chemical analysis results with international quality
specifications showed silica sand occurrence of Fetra area possesses the sufficient quality to be applicable in glass, foundry,
filtering media, abrasive, and cement industries.

Keywords Silica sand · Physicochemical properties · Industrial uses · Ethiopia

Introduction industries are its chemical composition, grain size distribu-

Silica sand is among the common types of industrial mineral
resources (Evans 1993; Edem and Malu 2014). It is origi-
nated as a deposit of siliciclastic sediments supplied from
rivers as described by Doronzo et al. (2016). It is widely
utilized in glass, steel, ceramic, paint, and water filtration
industries (Hamidullah et al. 1996; Chatterjee 2009; Dust-
man et al. 2011). The principal physicochemical properties
that determine the suitability of silica sand in the mentioned
Responsible Editor: Domenico M. Doronzo
* Ashenafi Nigussie
ashegeo41@gmail.com
1
Department of Geology, Debre Berhan University, P.O.
Box 445, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia
2
Department of Geology, Addis Ababa Science
and Technology University, Addis Ababa, P.O. Box 16417,
Ethiopia
3
School of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University,
P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
tion and grain shape class (Platias et al. 2014; Alemaka1
et al. 2021).
Chemical composition controls the color of glass and
ceramic products, the refractoriness of foundry sand and
the chemical inertness of filter media sand. Most industries
require a minimum of 95% ­SiO2 and a very low amount
of ­Fe2O3, ­Al2O3, and ­TiO2 (McLaws 1971; Ciullo 1996;
Brown 2000). Grain size determines the melting ability and
the permeability of industrial sand. According to Shaffer
(2006) and Platias et al. (2014), a narrow range of grain
size distribution is a desirable property. Grain shape is an
additional textural parameter for evaluating the quality of
silica sand deposit (Kogel et al. 2006; Osseni et al. 2018).
For effective utilization, glass manufacturers prefer angular
grains whereas foundries, bottled water, and abrasive indus-
tries favor rounded grains (Brown 2000; Bureau of Indian
standard [BIS]: 1987–2002 2022; British Standard [BS] EN:
12904 2005; Pohl 2011).
According to Mengistu and Haile-Michael (2003) and
Tadesse et al. (2003), Ethiopia is endowed with silica
sand resource within Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary

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213 Page 2 of 12
successions. Even if the presence of the resource in the
country is reported previously, little studies are conducted
to reveal the detailed physicochemical characteristics and
industrial uses of the resource. This creates constraints to
understand its properties and suitability for various sec-
tors. This research is therefore directed to fill these gaps by
undergoing detailed geological and physicochemical studies
on the silica sand occurrence of Fetra area (Fig. 1a) and to
outline its industrial applications.
Geologic setting
Blue Nile Basin is among the major sedimentary basins
situated in the Horn of Africa. It was developed as an
aulacogen-like intracontinental rift in response to Permo-
Jurassic drifting of Gondwanaland (Bosellini 1989; Bos-
worth 1992; Russo et al. 1994; Hunegnaw et al. 1998).
The basin consists of about 2600 m thick clastic to marine
sedimentary sequences sandwiched between Neoprotero-
zoic basement rocks and Tertiary volcanic rocks (Kazmin
1975; Assefa 1981; Gani et al. 2008; Enkurie 2010).
Stratigraphically, the sedimentary successions of the basin
Fig. 1  a The geographic location of the Blue Nile Basin within Ethiopia and East Africa. b Geological map of the Blue Nile Basin and location
of the study area (modified after Kazmin 1972)
13
Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213
are Paleozoic continental sediments (Karroo sediments),
a Triassic fluviatile deposit (Adigrat Sandstone), an early
Jurassic (Liassic-lower Oxfordian) argillaceous-gypsifer-
ous-calcareous succession (Gohatsion Formation), a mid-
dle Jurassic (Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian) marly-oolitic-
skeletal limestone interbedded with black shale (Antalo
Limestone Formation), and late Jurassic-early Cretaceous
clastic deposits (Muger mudstone and Debre Libanos
sandstone Formation) (Fig. 1b).
Debre Libanos sandstone formation (DLS), which
hosted the Fetra silica sand deposit, is supposed to reach
up to 280 m in thickness and is predominantly composed
of sandstone facies intercalated with beds of fine to coarse
clastic sediments (Assefa 1991; Wolela 2009). It conform-
ably overlies the Mugher Mudstone and unconformably
overlain by the Trap volcanics. DLS was deposited in
broad alluvial and braided river systems following the
withdrawal of the Indian Ocean from the Horn of Africa
in response to the uplifting of the region (Bosellini 1989;
Assefa 1991; Russo et al. 1994; Wolela 2009). Mineral-
logically, this formation was dominated by quartz with a
minor amount of feldspars and lithic fragments according
to Mohammedyasin and Wudie (2019).
Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213
Methods and materials
Field geological survey and sampling
The geology of Fetra area was studied by field observations
and descriptions of geological units along traverse routes
with the aid of geological instruments. The encountered
lithological units were mapped at 1:10,000 scale. During
the field survey, fifteen silica sand samples were collected
from the outcrops of the Debre Libanos sandstone forma-
tion based on the variation of color, texture, and spacing.
These samples were first coned and quartered to obtain a
representative fraction. Then, they were analyzed for their
physicochemical properties.
Grain size analysis
Grain size analysis was conducted through a dry sieving
technique. From each quartered specimen, 1 kg of the sam-
ple was taken and dried in an oven for 24 h. Then, they
were weighed and placed in a set of stacked sieves arranged
according to their opening diameter. The sieves were shaken
electrically for 10 min. After sieving, the masses of sedi-
ments retained on each sieve and pan were recorded. This
data is processed to determine the grain size distribution, the
median size ­(D50), the inclusive graphic standard deviation
(𝜎i ), the coefficient of uniformity ­(Cu), and the coefficient of
curvature ­(Cc) values of Fetra silica sand deposit.
Grain shape analysis
To conduct the grain morphology test, sand grains retained
on sieve number 30 and 50 were washed and dried in an
oven for 24 h. The prepared samples were inserted into
Zeta-20 optical profiler microscope. Photomicrographs of
sand grains were observed through an objective lens hav-
ing 5 × magnification power and captured on the computer
screen connected to the microscope. The numerical val-
ues of sphericity and roundness for each sand grain were
determined by visual comparison of their micrographs with
the standard roundness and sphericity comparison chart
of Krumbein and Sloss (1963). The results are interpreted
based on the particle shape class limit of Powers (1953).
Geochemical analysis
Geochemical analysis was conducted on 14 silica sand sam-
ples. These samples were pulverized separately below 75
microns to produce suitable particle size distribution. From
each sample, 0.66 g is fused with a 12:22 lithium tetrabo-
rate–lithium metaborate flux to dissolve and create a fused
Page 3 of 12 213
bead. The dissolved sample was poured into a platinum mold
and analyzed by X-ray fluorescence to determine major ele-
ment composition and by WST-SEQ instrument to deter-
mine loss on ignition (LOI). The geochemical analysis was
conducted in the Australian Laboratory Service (ALS) geo-
chemical laboratory found in Ireland.
Results
Geology of Fetra silica sand deposit
Geologically, Fetra area is characterized by an abundant
occurrence of clastic to marine sedimentary successions that
are unconformably overlain by thick volcanic rock. From
bottom to top, the different lithological units cropping out
in the study area are limestone, mudstone, sandstone, and
basalt (Fig. 2). The silica sand deposit of Fetra area is con-
fined within the sandstone unit. This unit is exposed in the
northern, southern, and eastern segments of the study area
due to intermittent streams, roads, and quarries.
The average thickness of the sandstone unit reaches
150 m and covers 18 k­ m2 from the mapped area. It domi-
nantly consists of sandstone facies interbedded with thin
beds of siltstone, shale, and conglomerate. Silica sand lay-
ers are estimated to be 85% (127 m) of the unit. Based on
hand specimen observation, these layers are composed of
poorly consolidated, friable quartz grains. In places, white
clay matrix is also found with the quartz grains. Silica sand
layers possess white to light grey and locally pink color.
Grain size distribution
Among sediments that constitute Fetra silica sand deposit,
sand-size grains are the predominant ones in all samples
with the average value of 97.24% (Table 1). From these
grains, 92.3% are found between 0.60–0.15 mm size ranges.
Gravel and mud-size sediments subsequently made an aver-
age of 0.99 and 1.17% of the deposit. The calculated results
of ­D50 in all samples fall between 0.34 to 0.50 mm (Table 2)
and averages 0.41 mm, which is the range of medium size
sand grains. The average value of the inclusive graphic
standard deviation is 0.30. Particle size analysis also reveals
the average values of C ­ u and C
­ c in Fetra silica sand samples.
Accordingly, they are 1.30 and 2.18 respectively.
Grain morphology
Comparing the photomicrographs of sand grains constituting
Fetra silica sand deposit shown in Fig. 3 with the standard
grain shape chart of Krumbein and Sloss (1963) showed
that their roundness generally varies from 0.1–0.9 (Table 3).
According to Powers (1953), roundness class limit, these
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 213 Page 4 of 12 Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213

Fig. 2  Geological and sampling map of Fetra silica sand deposit

Table 1  Grain size distribution Sample Sieve size (mm)

of 10 Fetra silica sand samples
(%) 2.36 2 1.18 0.6 0.425 0.3 0.15 0.106 0.075 Pan

FSS-01 0.78 0.27 2.61 20.35 31.33 27.47 14.90 1.12 0.53 0.62
FSS-02 0.70 0.21 2.82 14.18 19.14 25.24 34.26 2.32 0.63 0.48
FSS-04 0.23 0.21 4.27 24.64 28.43 24.35 16.64 0.69 0.23 0.31
FSS-06 1.22 0.55 5.66 20.14 17.17 22.17 30.98 1.32 0.55 0.24
FSS-07 0.25 0.10 1.07 7.39 22.85 32.04 32.27 2.47 0.78 0.79
FSS-08 0.00 0.00 0.16 5.86 22.07 45.28 24.31 1.07 0.38 0.88
FSS-10 1.64 0.43 5.61 27.09 35.68 17.37 9.07 0.90 0.44 1.77
FSS-11 0.01 0.01 0.29 6.77 26.95 41.20 22.27 0.98 0.79 0.73
FSS-13 2.20 0.66 6.85 21.67 20.61 24.47 19.32 1.42 0.57 2.24
FSS-15 0.01 0.01 0.64 10.16 21.27 25.43 29.99 7.28 1.57 3.64
Mean 0.70 0.29 2.99 15.83 24.55 28.50 23.40 1.96 0.65 1.17

Table 2  Grain size Parameters Sample

characteristics of Fetra silica
sand deposit FSS-01 FSS-02 FSS-04 FSS-06 FSS-07 FSS-08 FSS-10 FSS-11 FSS-13 FSS-15

D50 0.46 0.36 0.48 0.39 0.36 0.37 0.50 0.37 0.43 0.34
Cu 2.08 2.22 1.63 2.52 2.17 2.00 2.07 1.90 2.50 2.71
Cc 1.14 1.01 1.14 0.86 1.04 1.28 2.48 1.22 1.16 0.99
𝜎i 0.27 0.26 0.32 0.35 0.17 0.14 0.34 0.14 0.37 0.19

13
Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213
values fall under angular to well-rounded grain shape cat-
egories. However, an average of 82.6% of the observed
sand grains retained on sieve number 30 and 62.4% of sand
grains retained on sieve number 50 are exclusively found in
rounded to well-rounded grain shape categories. Regard-
ing sphericity, the deposit is dominantly composed of less
spherical, elongated sand grains.
Geochemistry
The major element composition of Fetra silica sand samples
is given in Table 4. Accordingly, all samples are enriched in
­SiO2 (av. 96.65%) and depleted in other metallic oxides. The
maximum amount of S ­ iO2 (98.59%) is recorded from sample
FSS-02 while the minimum amount (92.72%) is found in
FSS-03. Following silica, ­Al2O3, ­Fe2O3, and ­TiO2 subse-
quently constitute the chemistry of Fetra silica sand deposit.
Their average percentage is 1.35, 0.85, and 0.13 respectively.
Alkali and alkaline elements are present in trace quantities
not exceeding 0.06%. The values of Loss on Ignition (LOI)
in the samples varied between 1.76 and 0.17%.
Discussion
Quality of Fetra silica sand deposit
Physical parameters
Grain size distribution is the primary textural property that
reflects the physical quality of silica sand deposit (Shaffer
2006). According to Hamidullah et al. (1996) and Platias
et al. (2014), the deposit should possess uniform grain size
distribution to have sufficient quality. Correlating the aver-
age inclusive graphic standard deviation value of Fetra silica
sand deposit (0.3) with Folk and Ward (1957) sorting verbal
scale shows this value is found in the limit for very well
sorted sediments, which is less than 0.35. This indicates that
the studied silica sand deposit is composed of sediments
having a narrow range of size variation. As the median size
values of all samples imply, medium-size sand grains are
the predominant size class in the deposit. Gravel and mud-
size particles on the other hand made less than 3% of the
deposit. Furthermore, interpreting the average values of C ­ u
(1.30) and ­Cc (2.18) based on Kalinski (2011) specification
demonstrated that sediments constituting the Fetra silica
sand deposit satisfy the criteria to be uniformly graded sand,
which is having ­Cu value less than 6 and ­Cc value between
1 and 3.
The grain size character of the studied silica sand deposit
corresponds with the requirements of different industries at
different magnitude. As shown in Fig. 4A and B, an aver-
age 31.4% of grains are found in the specification of filter
Page 5 of 12 213
media sand and 52.2% fall in the suitable range of abrasive
sand. Moreover, 70.6% of grains in the studied silica sand
deposit are within the optimum range of glass-making sand
and 92.0% falls in the range of foundry sand.
Grain shape is an additional textural parameter that
defines the physical quality of silica sand deposits (Oss-
eni et al. 2018). The required property from this parameter
depends on the application sector. For example, rounded
sand grains are appropriate in foundry and filtration indus-
tries in which the permeability of the silica sand is a critical
issue. On the other hand, angular sand grains are desirable
when the melting speed of sand is mandatory in the case of
glass making (Hamidullah et al. 1996; Kogel et al. 2006).
As described in the “ Grain morphology” section, a high
proportion of rounded and less spherical sand grains is the
characteristic feature of Fetra silica sand deposit. Accord-
ing to McLaws (1971) and Brown (2000), this sort of grain
shape is the most preferable in the foundry, water filtration,
and abrasive industries. Graphically, the grain shape char-
acteristics of the Fetra silica sand deposit are presented in
Fig. 5.
Chemical properties
The chemical composition indicates the purity level of the
silica sand deposit. Pure sand is characterized by abundant
silica content with a minimum amount of contaminant
oxides (Kogel et al. 2006).
Likewise, the Fetra silica sand deposit contains a high
amount of ­SiO2 (av. 96.65%) with less than 3% of contami-
nant oxides such as ­Al2O3, ­Fe2O3, and ­TiO2. Based on Her-
ron (1988), geochemical classification technique for terrig-
enous sediments, most of the Fetra silica samples are found
in the quartz arenite section whereas some are found in the
Fe-sand region (Fig. 6). This further justify the high chemi-
cal purity and quartz-rich nature of the deposit.
Possible fields of application
Glass manufacturing
The glass industry is the largest consumer of industrial sand
extracted worldwide (Lavender 1999; Osseni et al. 2018).
The basic properties studied from this mineral to evaluate
its suitability for the glass industry are grain-size, grain
shape, and chemical composition (McLaws 1971; Platias
et al. 2014).
Grain size controls the melting property of sand grains
(Kuzvart 1984). Excessively coarse grains survive during
melting and ultimately cause structural defects in the glass.
On the other hand, excessively fine grains carry impurities
and they disappear early from the furnace (McLaws 1971;
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 Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213
◂Fig. 3  Photomicrographs of sand grains in Fetra silica sand samples.
A, B, E, and F are sand grains of sample FSS-1, FSS-2, FSS-4, and
FSS-15 retained on the sieve number 50. C, D, G, and H are sand
grains of sample FSS-1, FSS-2, FSS-4, and FSS-15 retained on the
sieve number 30. (AR angular, SR sub-rounded, R rounded, WR
well-rounded, LS lower sphericity, HS higher sphericity)
Chatterjee 2009). According to Ismaiel et al. (2017), silica
sand deposit should contain abundant sand grains between
0.5 to 0.09 mm to ensure effective and consistent melting.
The Fetra silica sand deposit contains an average of 70.6%
of grains in the recommended size range of glass industries.
Furthermore, its uniform grain size distribution increases the
suitability of the deposit for extracting glass sand.
In a similar manner with grain size, the shape of sand
particles also affects the melting characteristics of sand
grains during glass making. According to Hamidullah et al.
(1996) and Pohl (2011), angular and spherical sand grains
are more desirable. They melt uniformly at a higher speed
than rounded and elliptical ones. In contrast with these
specifications, the majority of sand grains in the Fetra silica
sand deposit are highly rounded and less spherical shape.
These characters reduce the suitability of the deposit for
glass making.
Chemical composition controls the color and the transpar-
ency of glass sand (Kogel et al. 2006; Platias et al. 2014).
Since ­SiO2 constitute the major part of the glass, it is a desir-
able oxide whereas ­Fe2O3, ­Al2O3, and ­TiO2 are undesirable
constituents that affect the color of glass and reduce its trans-
parency. Comparing the average silica content of the studied
silica sand with the specifications of Norton (1957) and BS:
2975 (1988) standards reveal, the deposit has an adequate
amount of silica for producing green glass, amber glass,
flint glass, and fiber glass (Table 5). However, the average
quantity of iron oxide (0.85%) limited the suitability of the
deposit for the manufacturing of amber glass that tolerates
­Fe2O3 up to 1%.
Foundry industry
Fetra silica sand deposit can be used as foundry material
in steel industries. Its grain size distribution corresponds
with the specification set by Brown (2000) that stated silica
sand should contain a minimum of 95% of grains on four
or five successive screens to be good quality foundry sand.
As shown in Table 1, 95.3% of grains in the studied silica
sand deposit are reserved on five consecutive screens having
a diameter of 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.425 mm, 0.3 mm, and
0.15 mm. The abundance of rounded sand grains in Fetra
silica sand deposit further increases the suitability of the
deposit as foundry material. According to Chatterjee (2009),
rounded sand grains are more preferable for making molds
and cores since they demand less quantity of binder and offer
Page 7 of 12 213
higher permeability. In addition to the physical properties,
the chemical composition of the studied silica sand is found
in the favorable range for the foundry industry. As specified
by BIS: 1987-2002 (2002), silica sand having a minimum
of 95% of ­SiO2 and a maximum of 1.5% of ­Fe2O3 is suit-
able as foundry material (Table 5). It can withstand high
temperature.
Water filtration and treatment
Silica sand is also used as a filtering agent for removing
suspended particles from turbid water (Galvin 1992). As
described by Chatterjee (2009), the chemical composition of
silica sand, its grain size distribution and grain shape class
are the basic criteria for choosing silica sand for water filtra-
tion and treatment purposes.
Chemical composition controls the inertness of the sand
from reacting with toxic substances present in wastewater
(McLaws 1971; Kogel et al. 2006). BIS: 8419 (1977) for
using high silica sand as filtering media specified a minimum
of 90% of ­SiO2 and a maximum of 0.7% of LOI to be inert
(Table 5). Alternatively, BS EN: 12904 (2005) stated a mini-
mum of 80% of ­SiO2 and a maximum of 2% of F ­ e2O3 for the
lowest-grade filter media sand. Comparing the percentage of
­SiO2, ­Fe2O3, and LOI in the Fetra silica sand samples with
the mentioned specifications reveals the deposit possess suit-
able chemistry to be used in water filtration and treatment.
The grain size of silica sand determines the speed of
water purification to be achieved (GWP Consultants 2010).
Finer sands offer lower speeds of filtration but more effective
in giving quality water. On the other hand, coarser sands pro-
vide faster filtration but yield less quality water. According
to Chatterjee (2009), medium-size sand grains are ideally
suited to be filtering media. In addition to the actual grain
size, uniformity of grain size also controls the suitability of
the sand for filtration use. BS EN: 12904 (2005) set out the
limits of the ­Cu, and effective grain size (­ D10) of silica sand
used for filtration. Accordingly, silica sand having C ­ u up to
3 and ­D10 above 0.15 mm is appropriate as filtering media. If
the ­Cu is less than 1.50 and ­D10 is above 0.55 mm, the sand
is used for rapid filtration. Whereas, if the ­Cu is between
1.60 and 3.0 and ­D10 between 0.15 and 0.55 mm is used in
slow filtration.
As the average values of D ­ 50 (0.43 mm), D ­ 10 (av.
0.20 mm), ­Cu (2.18), and C ­ c (1.30) reveal, Fetra silica sand
deposit is characterized by the abundance of medium size
uniformly graded sand grains. Based on the above specifi-
cations, these properties of the studied silica sand deposit
make it an appropriate resource from which filter media sand
particularly used for slow filtration can be extracted.
Even if Fetra silica sand deposit is suitable in the men-
tioned industries, its chemical composition does not let for it
to manufacture high-grade glass and ceramic products. The
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 213 Page 8 of 12 Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213

Table 3  Numerical presentation of grain shape analysis result

Roundness in (%) Sphericity in (%)
Sample Size fraction AG and SA SR RD WR HS LS
(in mm) (C.L: 0.12–0.35) (C.L: 0.35–0.49) (C.L: 0.49–0.7) (C.L: 0.7–1.0)

FSS-1 0.60 0.0 0.0 66.70 33.33 83.30 16.70

0.30 6.90 48.30 10.30 27.58 38.00 62.0
FSS-2 0.60 14.30 28.60 0.0 57.10 28.50 71.50
0.30 0.0 33.30 25.0 41.70 41.70 58.30
FSS-4 0.60 0.0 14.30 28.60 57.20 37.50 62.50
0.30 4.35 17.40 21.70 56.48 30.40 69.50
FSS-15 0.60 12.50 0.0 0.0 87.50 25.05 74.97
0.30 16.70 16.70 25.0 41.70 50.0 50.0

AG angular, SA sub-angular, SR sub-rounded, RD rounded, WR well rounded, HS highly spherical, LS less spherical, CL class limit

Table 4  Major element Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO TiO2 Na2O K2O Cr2O3 LOI
composition of Fetra silica sand
samples (wt%) FSS-01 97.69 0.41 0.65 0.01 < 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 0.17
FSS-02 98.59 0.51 0.69 0.01 0.01 0.16 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 0.27
FSS-03 92.72 4.55 0.72 0.01 0.01 0.27 < 0.01 0.03 < 0.01 1.76
FSS-04 97.57 0.70 0.85 0.01 0.01 0.13 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.42
FSS-05 94.11 1.96 1.21 0.02 0.01 0.15 < 0.01 0.02 < 0.01 0.92
FSS-06 97.69 0.85 0.73 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.02 < 0.01 0.51
FSS-07 97.51 0.28 1.02 0.03 0.04 0.28 0.06 0.02 < 0.01 0.23
FSS-08 97.67 1.37 0.75 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.02 < 0.01 0.60
FSS-09 97.85 0.84 0.68 0.01 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 0.46
FSS-10 94.90 1.72 1.25 0.14 0.09 0.10 0.08 0.08 < 0.01 1.27
FSS-11 96.72 1.38 0.69 0.04 < 0.01 0.10 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 0.67
FSS-12 97.19 1.35 0.75 0.01 0.01 0.07 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 0.67
FSS-13 95.58 2.08 0.68 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.31 0.15 < 0.01 1.47
FSS-14 97.06 0.84 1.25 0.44 0.05 0.08 0.02 0.45 < 0.01 0.20
Mean 96.65 1.35 0.85 0.06 0.03 0.13 0.04 0.06 < 0.01 0.39

percentage of silica in the deposit is slightly lower and the
amount of contaminant oxides is somewhat higher than the
permissible limits. However, the resemblance of the quantity
of these oxides to the specifications promises the deposit can
be a possible source of high-grade glass and ceramic sand if
it can pass through certain steps of beneficiation.
Possible beneficiation techniques
As discussed in the “Possible fields of application” section,
the physicochemical properties of Fetra silica sand deposit
meet the specifications of different industries. However, the
chemical composition of the deposit does not let for using it
in the manufacturing of optical glass, borosilicate glass, float
glass, and ceramic products. The typical impurities that limit
the applicability of Fetra silica sand deposit in the mentioned
industries are metallic oxides including ­Fe2O3, ­Al2O3, and
­TiO2. Because studied sand possesses considerable purity,
beneficiation of the deposit can yield even more high-quality
silica sands that can meet the requirements imposed by these
industries.
Bulatovich (2015) recommended acid leaching as an
effective method for the removal of iron and other metal-
lic impurities present in the silica sand deposit. The typi-
cal example of silica sand resource beneficiated by using
this technique was the glass sand deposit of River Benue,
central Nigeria (Edem and Malu 2014). The raw sand con-
tains 93.95% of ­SiO2, 0.71% of ­Fe2O3, and 0.014% of ­Al2O3.
After the introduction of acid leaching, the percentage of
­SiO2 rise to 96.16% whereas, F ­ e2O3 becomes 0.42% and
­Al2O3 reaches 0.0006%.
In addition to the mentioned technique, attrition scrub-
bing and magnetic separation can also be an alternative
approach for upgrading the quality of silica sand having
an undesirable amount of iron, aluminum, and titanium
oxides (Raghavan et al. 2017). For instance, this technique

13
Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213 Page 9 of 12 213

Fig. 4  A and B Grain size dis- FSS-1

tribution curves of Fetra silica 100 A
sand samples and commonly
specified size ranges of different 90 FSS-2
industries
80
FSS-4
70
FSS-15
60

Finer (%)
50 FSS-8

40 Glass sand

30
Foundry
20 sand

Filter
10 media
sand
0 Abrasive
10 1 0.1 0.01 sand
Grain size (mm)

100 B
FSS-10
90

80 FSS-6

70 FSS-11

60 FSS-13
Finer (%)

50 FSS-7

40 Glass sand

30 Foundry
sand
20
Filter media
sand
10
Abrassive
sand
0
10 1 Grain size (mm) 0.1 0.01

was employed to treat the Bulgarian silica sand deposit
found in the eastern part of the Danube plain. The crude
sand contains 0.024% of ­F e 2O 3, 0.31% of ­A l 2O 3, and
0.072% of T­ iO2. After it was processed through attrition
scrubbing and magnetic separator, the concentration of
iron oxide decreased by 50% and becomes 0.012%. Like-
wise, the content A
­ l2O3 and T
­ iO2 in the deposit decreased
by 58% and 43.1% and ultimately reach 0.18% and 0.031%
respectively (Valchev et al. 2011).
By considering the types of impurities present in the
Fetra silica sand deposit, the mentioned methods of benefi-
ciation could reduce the contents of impurities down to the
permissible limit. However, selecting the most appropriate
technique requires further investigations.

13
213 Page 10 of 12 Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213

Fig. 5  Graphical presentation

of roundness and spheric- 100
Roundness Sphericity
ity of sand grains constitute 90
Fetra silica sand deposit. (AR
angular, SA sub-angular, SR 80
sub-rounded, R rounded, WR
70

Percentage (%)
well rounded, HS highly spheri-

58
cal, LS less spherical)

50.3
60
50

42
40

19.8
30

22
20

6.8
10
0
AR&SA SR R WR LS HS
Grain shape

Economic aspects
From the various techniques of tonnage estimation, the pre-
sent study selected the conventional method. This is because
Fetra silica sand deposit meets the important requirements
for this estimation technique mentioned by Gandih and
Sarkar (2016) like having horizontal orientation and con-
stant thickness at different locations. The equation used to
estimate tonnage by the conventional method is provided by
Moon et al. (2006) as given below;
T = A ∗ Th ∗ BD
where T = tonnage (in tone), A = areal coverage (in ­m2),
Th = thickness (in m), BD = bulk density (in g/cm3). Accord-
ingly, the area contains about 16,654.3 mT of silica sand
resource.
According to Kuzvart (1984) size categorization of indus-
trial mineral deposits, Fetra silica sand resource is grouped
under a large type of deposit since it is greater than 5 mil-
lion tonnes. Depending on the current annual silica sand
demand of Ethiopia (84.5 thousand tons), this resource can
be extracted for 39 years. As shown in Fig. 2, it is situated at
favorable locations to the existing local demand and trans-
portation facilities.

Conclusion

Physical characterization of Fetra silica sand samples

Fig. 6  Geochemical classification of Fetra silica sand deposit using
Log(Fe2O3/K2O) versus Log(SiO2/Al2O3) based on Herron (1988)
reveals that the deposit is composed of texturally matured
sediments. The geochemical results indicate that these sedi-
ments are chemically pure and have abundant quartz grains.
This implied that they were passed through a long cycle
of modification before deposition. Findings from the phys-
icochemical characterization of Fetra silica sand deposit
also showed the resource has sufficient quality to be a raw
material for the manufacturing of fiber glass, amber glass,
cement, foundry, and abrasive materials. Based on the level
of geologic confidence in the information obtained from
the exploration work, the present study classified silica
sand occurrence of the Fetra area under indicated mineral
resource. The presence of this resource in substantial quality
and quantity certifies it can support the domestic demand
and minimize the country’s expenditure for importing silica
sand and processed products.

13
Arab J Geosci (2023) 16:213 Page 11 of 12 213

Table 5  Chemical specifications Product SiO2 (min) Fe2O3 (max) Al2O3 (max) CaO + MgO (max) LOI (max)
for using silica sand in different
industries (in wt%) Optical glass 99.8 0.02 0.10 0.10 0.20
Flint glass 95.0 0.035 4.0 0.50 0.20 ± 0.02
Green glass 95.0 0.30 4.0 0.50 -
Amber glass 95.0 1.0 4.0 0.50 -
Fiber glass 94.5 ± 0.5 0.3 ± 0.03 3.0 ± 0.5 - 0.50
Ceramic 97.5 0.25 1.9 - -
Foundry 95.0 1.50 5.0 2.0 -
Cement 65.0 - - 1.50 (MgO) -
Water filtration 90.0 - - - 0.70
Abrasives 78.0 - - - -
This study 96.65 0.85 1.35 0.090 0.39

Standards: Norton (1957), McLaws (1971), BIS: 8419 (1977), BS: 2975 (1988), and BIS: 1987–2002
(2002)

Acknowledgements We are very pleased to express our special thanks
to Addis Ababa Science and Technology University for providing mate-
rial and laboratory support to the research project. We would like to
extend our acknowledgment to the Geological Survey of Ethiopia for
offering us valuable data relevant to the research work. The authors
also appreciate the contribution of the Australian Laboratory service
for conducting a geochemical analysis.
Author contribution All authors of this research work contributed
significantly from the beginning to the end of this study. Field excur-
sion, sample collection, analysis, and interpretation were conducted
by Ashenafi Nigussie, Tesfaye Demisse, and Worash Getaneh. The
first draft of the manuscript was prepared by Ashenafi Nigussie and
further modified by all authors. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed dur-
ing the current study are available from the corresponding author on
reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval The authors declare the contents of the manuscript are
in accordance with the regulation of the journal and the study does not
involve the participation of human and/or animals.
Consent to participate Not applicable for this study.
Consent for publication Not applicable for this study.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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