1.

1 Introduction

Unit 1 introduces you to the basic concepts of research. It presents important definitions which are
required for the basic understanding of a scientific research process.

1.2 Learning Outcomes (LOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define research
• explain what a research approach is all about
• explain some basic research concepts and processes

1.3 Definitions of Research, the Basic Research Concepts,

Basic Operations in Scientific Research, and the Research Process

1.3.1. Definitions of Research

There are various definitions of research presented by various scholars and authors. In general,
research is a way of thinking and finding answers to the questions that come into your mind. Research
can simply be defined as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through planned
and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is an important tool for
advancing knowledge for promoting progress, and for enabling scholars to relate more effectively to
the environment, to accomplish their objectives, and to resolve conflicts.

In our day-to-day life, we formulate several questions in our mind. We want to get answers for these
questions. Some of these questions can be answered easily without any need of scientific scrutiny.
While there are also some questions that need to be answered in a logical manner, the process that
needs to be followed in finding answers to such questions should have to be empirical and subjective.
The techniques and procedures that need to be used should also be valid and logical. In this way, we
are able to get answers that are authentic and verifiable. The research process also requires scientific
scrutiny and the procedures involved in this scrutiny should have to be valid and reliable.

From the above statement, we can conclude that the process that is called research should have the
following features:

i) It should be undertaken in a scientific manner, biases and subjectivity should be avoided;

ii) The process should follow valid and verifiable tools, techniques and procedures;
iii) The process follows the logical and sequential procedures that are established by the academic
discipline in which you are conducting research.

The process to be followed in the conduct of the research might be different from one discipline to
other. The amount of rigor and control that needs to be applied also varies. In physical and natural
sciences the researcher has to apply as much control as possible in conducting the research. In social
sciences, the researcher cannot have similar control in the research process. In social sciences the
researcher observes behavior, subjectivity cannot be controlled completely. Subjectivity should not
be confused with bias, there is no place for bias in the research process.
There are several definitions of research, proposed by famous authors and scholars. You will find out
that the basic meaning and the context of these definitions are the same. The difference between these
definitions lies only in the way the author has undertaken research in his discipline.

Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of
knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge
to devise new applications.”[OECD, 2002]

Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing of curiosity. This research
provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the
world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by
charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can
be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.
Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such
as business schools, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because
the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate
totally).[Scott and Tad, 1994].

Shuttleworth (2008) in defining research maintains that research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.
Another definition of research is given by Creswell (2008) who states that – “Research is a process
of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. It
consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to
the question.

Research can simply be defined as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through
planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is systematic when
it adheres to the planned methodical collection of data, analysis of data and interpretation of result.
Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any given piece of research. More
specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable
results that address the research aims and objectives. For example, how did the researcher go about
deciding:

* What data to collect (and what data to ignore)

* Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
* How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
* How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

In a dissertation, thesis, academic journal article (or any formal piece of research), you’ll find a
research methodology chapter (or section) which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly,
a good methodology chapter in a project, dissertation or thesis explains not just what methodological
choices were made, but also explains why they were made.

In other words, the methodology chapter should justify the design choices, by showing that the chosen
methods and techniques are the best fit for the research aims and objectives, and will provide valid
and reliable results. A good research methodology provides scientifically sound findings, whereas a
poor methodology doesn’t.
So when investigation stops at the fact finding stage, it is not research but mere fact finding. It can
be dignified with the term research only when those facts/data, after analysis can be interpreted to
find out or discover the real facts, situation, meaning or essence of a phenomenon.

Research is an enquiry aimed at understanding a thing or phenomenon or solving a problem. Research

is an important tool for advancing knowledge for promoting progress, and for enabling scholars to
relate more effectively to the environment, to accomplish their objectives, and to resolve conflicts.
Research is often based on two types of definitions: conceptual definition and operational definition.
Conceptual definitions are definitions that describe concepts by using other concepts. As an example,
a conceptual definition for “political violence” might be an “aggressive behaviour toward political
institutions and persons occupying political roles. One conceptual definition of “intelligence” might
be “the ability to think in an abstract manner.” Another might be “the ability to solve problems.”

Operational definitions attempt to bridge the gap between the theoretical-conceptual level and the
empirical-observational level. An operational definition involves a series of instructions describing
the operations that must be carried out by a researcher in order to demonstrate the existence, or the
degree of existence of an empirical by a concept.

Many concepts in the social sciences and humanities are given operational definitions solely on the
strength of reactions to specific situations, since manipulation of the property to be defined is often
difficult. A research will often argue that a certain individual is “conservative” if he or she answers
a series of questions in a specific manner. The assumption is that certain answers to specific
questions represent particular personality patterns, one of which is “conservatism.” Research attempts
to discover relationships existing among important variables. It is aimed at finding the condition
under which a certain phenomenon of interest occurs and the conditions under which it does not
occur.

1.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Most research is best understood as being either quantitative or qualitative in nature.

1.4.1 Quantitative research

In general, quantitative research specifies numerical assignment to the phenomena under study,
whereas qualitative research produces narrative or textual descriptions of the phenomena under study.
Quantitative scientific research methods are employed to establish general laws or principles through
rigorously controlled experimentation. Employee selection techniques used by human resource
personnel involve standardized tests such as aptitude tests; production and sales managers are vitally
interested in trend analysis and business forecasting; economists engage in the calculation of index
numbers to chart changes in the costs of goods and the effects of price rises on demand, while the
organizational psychologist is interested in objective measurements of stress levels and absenteeism
in the work force as a response to real and objective changing technologies. The advantage of
quantitative research is that the findings from the sample under study will more accurately reflect the
overall population from which the sample was drawn.

The disadvantage of the quantitative approach is that, because the study contains so many
participants, the answers research participants are able to give do not have much depth. They have to
be superficial, or else the researchers would be overwhelmed by information that cannot adequately
be analyzed.
As we will see throughout this course material, each approach has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Ideally, a two-pronged approach that employs both quantitative and qualitative
techniques can be employed. However, practically speaking, limitations of resources and time often
prohibit such an exhaustive endeavor. Therefore, it is best to match the particular research goal to the
research strategy that will help achieve that goal. If a large, accurate sample that will be generalize
to the larger population is desired, quantitative research would be preferred.

1.4.2 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research stresses the validity of multiple meanings of events with ‘reality’ not a fixed
stable entity but a variable that can only be discerned through an analysis of multiple understandings
and meanings held by different persons. For example, qualitative research has made managers realize
they must become more sensitive to individual needs and motivations of employees in order to have
more productive and satisfied staff.

Qualitative research enables researchers to gather and analyze information conveyed through
language and behaviour exhibited in natural settings. It captures expressive information not conveyed
in quantitative data about perceptions, values, needs, feelings, and motivations that underlie
behaviour at an individual level. Qualitative methods are used to learn directly from employees and
customers what is important to them, to provide the context necessary to understand quantitative
findings, and to identify variables important for future quantitative studies.

Qualitative approaches tend to use thoughtful reflection and analysis of verbal/written content. With
specific questions in mind, qualitative researchers immerse themselves in an environment to discover
the meanings, conventions of behaviour, and ways of thinking important to individuals of a group as
they emerge in unrehearsed encounters.

The essential task is to observe study subjects in their natural settings. They can do so as silent
background observers or as ‘participant-observers’ who ask questions as they accompany study
subjects in their activities. In either role they collect data in both unstructured and structured ways.
They can write spontaneous ‘field’ notes that detail what they see and hear, or organize their
observations around categories, checklists, or rating scales that they bring to the setting. Beyond
observing, they conduct in-depth openended interviews and learn from well-positioned individuals
who can provide useful information (also called ‘key informant’ interviews); to understand
experiences especially important to shaping perceptions and decisions (‘critical incident’ reports); or
to generate new information from groups of employees and customers in focus groups. Audiotaping
or videotaping these interactions helps guarantee that expressive data are captured accurately and
completely as they emerge.

The use of more than one evaluator helps ensure the reliability of qualitative data, as does a detailed
accounting of how a study analysis is performed. Researchers can be reasonably assured of the
validity of their findings by collecting data from independent sources, presenting preliminary findings
to study participants for their feedback, and fully examining unusual information. These strategies
are likely to become increasingly standardized as consensus emerges around the need for greater
methodological rigour in qualitative research, and the methods are appropriate for practical situations
in which a fuller understanding of behaviour, the meanings and contexts of events, and the influence
of values on choices might be useful for managers and businesses.
1.4.2.1. Limitations of the qualitative research method

i Problems of generalization

Qualitative studies are valuable tools to understand and describe the world of human experience.
However, this world is often dismissed as ‘subjective’ and regarded with suspicion by scientifically
inclined researchers. It is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity, yet
subjective qualitative studies have the redeeming quality in the depth to which explorations are
conducted and descriptions written. Contexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions cannot
be replicated to any extent nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied
with any confidence. This difficulty of applying the usual scientific criteria does not, however, make
such understandings any less real or valid for that participant, and the explanatory function of such
understandings for that person’s behaviour is highly predictive.

ii Time commitment

Perhaps one of the major limitations of qualitative research and evaluation is the time required for
data collection, analysis and interpretation. There is a critical need for the researcher to spend a
considerable amount of time on the factory floor, at company meetings, or in the employees’ cafeteria
in order to observe, holistically and individually, the interactions, reactions and minuteby-minute
activities, or conduct unstructured interviews (conversations) with numerous subjects.
Sample sizes are usually small and non-random, and therefore the findings may not generalize to the
larger population from which the sample was drawn. Furthermore, the samples are often non-random,
and thus the people who participate may not be similar to the larger population.

1.4.2.2. Advantages of qualitative research methods

i Awareness of complexity

Because qualitative investigation is like the net of a deep-sea explorer, trawling up unexpected and
striking things on which to gaze with the investigator maintaining close association with both
participants and activities within the business setting, an insider’s view of the field can be obtained.
This proximity to the field often allows the evaluator to see (and document) the qualities of human
motivation, needs and pressures too often missed by scientific, more positivistic inquiries. Such
propinquity can reveal subtleties and complexities that could go undetected using more standardized
measures.

ii As a preliminary to a quantitative study

Qualitative open-ended surveys, focus groups, in-depth interviews and observational techniques can
play the important role of suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes
in business settings, and provide the bases for possible hypotheses that can be subjected to more
detailed and controlled quantitative scientific scrutiny on large representative samples using reliable
and valid measuring instruments. Qualitative methods can highlight, for example, subtleties in
employee behaviour in response to variations in managers’ management and leadership styles that
could then be subject to more formal investigation. This link between the two approaches will be
raised again in discussing inductive and deductive methods later.
After determining from a large-scale controlled investigation that there are considerable differences
between individuals on a particular behaviour, the selection of a few subjects from each end of the
spectrum for detailed qualitative study, say using open-ended interviews, can tease out some of the
important but rather subtle reasons for the differences in the range of responses from the large- scale
scientific study

1.4.3. Other Types of Research

1.4.3.1. Experimental Research

Experimental research takes place in laboratory settings. Here, the researcher manipulates the level
of the independent variable and observes any corresponding change in the dependent variable. The
purpose is to determine if there is a causal relationship between the two variables. Experimental
studies require strict control of all variables and are sometimes called laboratory studies, in contrast
to field studies that occur in natural uncontrolled situations like observing a management meeting or
shop floor interactions. The goal is to advance knowledge, extend a theory into a new area, and
provide evidence to support or refute a theory. However, they are costly in time and money with
control often difficult to achieve. The major advantage of the experimental study is the degree of
control it provides. In an experiment, every participant is exposed to the same environment—
including the characteristics of the room, the experimenters, and the instructions the participants
receive. The one aspect of the study that is not the same is the independent variable, that is, the
variable that is systematically controlled by the researcher to determine the effect of that variable. By
systematically changing the independent variable and holding all other variables constant, the
researchers can be confident that any change in the dependent variable—the outcome the researchers
are measuring—is actually due to the effect of the independent variable. Such control cuts down on
random variation that makes it difficult to interpret the results.
One important disadvantage of experimental studies is that the nature of the experiment may be very
unlike what people actually experience in the real world. Although experimental studies benefit from
exerting control, they suffer from being conducted in artificial settings.

1.4.3.2. Descriptive studies

Here the researcher attempts to document what is actually occurring. The study may be either
qualitative (descriptions in words) such as records of a business meeting, or shop floor interactions,
or quantitative (descriptions in numbers) such as variations in sales by month or changes in the client
base. Surveys, census data, trade figures are common sources of information. Summarization by
descriptive statistics is the major form of analysis for numerical data. Some marketing research would
fall into this category. The researcher has no control over the phenomena of study, but simply records
what is observed or reported. Again, like exploratory techniques, they offer information for further
research, but additionally offer help in making very simple decisions. The major strength is that quite
accurate information is provided although causal links cannot be established.

Descriptive research is just what it sounds like: it describes the attitudes and behaviors observed
during the investigation. This approach to research is in many ways the converse of experimental
research with respect to advantages and disadvantages. Whereas experimental research exhibits much
control over the setting in which the participants’ behavior is observed, descriptive research take
place in natural, real-life settings. A common descriptive research technique is naturalistic
observation, which involves collecting data where people are ordinarily found.
1.4.3.3. Survey Research

Surveys provide the advantage of sampling a large group of randomly selected people to measure
their attitudes and behaviors. For a relatively low cost in time and money, a researcher can collect
self-reported attitudes and behaviors about virtually any social issue. Furthermore, with the data
analysis training provided in this course material or in a more comprehensive data analysis class,
even undergraduate students can download survey data or perform analyses right at the websites of
major survey organizations. This means that researchers may not need to collect original survey data;
rather, they can perform secondary data analyses—data analysis on previously collected data—as
part of their investigations. If researchers do indeed construct and administer their own surveys, they
have several options for administering them. Like most decisions regarding research designs, each
option has both advantages and disadvantages.

Researchers who design and administer their own surveys should use the techniques for randomly
selecting participants. After a sample has been selected, the researcher must make a decision about
how to gather the data. The most common survey methods are telephone surveys, mail surveys, email
surveys, and face-to-face interviews.

Telephone surveys produce a relatively high response rate, but there is the risk of selection bias
regarding those without land lines or those who have caller ID and screen calls. Mail surveys are
inexpensive and efficient, but are even more likely to suffer from low response rates or non-response
bias than phone surveys. Email surveys are even less expensive, but have a sampling bias toward
those with greater computer access. Face-to-face interviews produce the highest response rates, but
are the costliest in money and researchers’ time. As with most decisions regarding research, each
technique has advantages and disadvantages.

1.4.3.4. Quasi-experiment

In terms of control, a quasi-experiment falls somewhere between naturalistic observation and

experimental research. A quasi-experiment involves conducting an experiment, usually in a real-life
setting, without the benefit of random assignment of participants to conditions or other controls.
Because quasi-experiments are usually done in real-life settings rather than in laboratory settings,
they are often considered not truly experimental research, but rather correlational research, which
involves identifying statistical relationships between two variables rather than causal relationships.
Thus, while the researchers have control over the independent variable in a quasi-experiment, they
do not have control over other factors in the environment. A quasi- experiment involves some control
in that the independent variable is monitored by the researcher. However, it occurs in a naturalistic
setting and the experimenter may not have control over when the independent variable occurs.

1.4.3.5. Correlational Study

A correlational study leads only to interpretations about the degree to which certain things tend to co-
occur or are related to each other. For example, does an increase in the sales force increase the number
of items sold? The purpose is to measure the strength of the association between variables. It is not
to use values in one variable to predict values in another. Prediction takes us beyond correlation into
the realms of regression. The researcher has only moderate, if any, control over the variables in this
type of study. The correlational study is the most often used approach in business as well as in many
areas of the social and behavioural sciences and is typically fairly easy to conduct. The major
disadvantage is that the actual reason for the associations found remains quite unclear as correlation
does not imply causality. This is because no independent variables are being manipulated and the
researcher therefore has no control over variables. The cause of a relationship may be a third
unmeasured variable. For example, there is a close relationship between the number of umbrellas
raised and the number of people putting on rain coats and the like – the cause is wet weather.

A correlation is a statistical measure of association between two variables. The measure of

association that is used to assess the association between variables is called the correlation
coefficient. A correlation coefficient has both a direction and a magnitude. The direction can either
be positive or negative. A positive correlation indicates that high scores on one variable co-occur
with high scores on another variable in the study. An example is the relationship between shoe size
and height. In general, people who wear large shoes tend to be taller, and those who wear small shoes
tend to be shorter. A negative correlation indicates that high scores on one measure co-occur with
low scores on another variable in the study.

1.4.3.6 Exploratory studies

Exploratory research explains the phenomenon using hypotheses and theories.

When the study area is new or vague some initial exploration is needed before a conceptual and
theoretical framework can be devised. It is like a fishing expedition which will give insights and
suggested directions but not conducted with sufficient rigour for decision making and hypothesis
testing. The goal is to improve the final research design by becoming familiar with basic facts and
concerns, developing a picture of what is occurring, generating tentative conjectures and determining
the feasibility and sense of direction for more rigorous follow-up. Exploratory designs therefore tend
to be mainly qualitative, using in-depth interviews, observation, focus groups, and pilot studies as a
preliminary step in the research process.

Their advantage is that they are quick and cheap and clarify the direction the research should take,
however, they lack experimental control, adequate sampling, so interpretation of results tends to be
judgmental.

1.5 Research and Scientific Method

Science can be defined as a methodological and systematic approach to the acquisition of new
knowledge. This definition of science highlights some of the key differences between how scientist
and non-scientists go about acquiring new knowledge. Specifically, rather than relying on more
causal observations and on informal approach to learn about the world, scientist attempt to gain new
knowledge by making careful observations and using systematic, controlled and methodical
approaches (Shanghnessy and Zechmeister, 1997). By doing so, scientists are able to draw valid and
reliable conclusions about what they are studying. In addition, scientific knowledge is based on
objective data that were reliably obtained in the context of a carefully designed research study. In
short, scientific knowledge is based on the accumulation of empirical evidence (Kadzin.2002). The
decoding characteristic of scientific research is the scientific method.

The scientific method is best thought of as an approach to the acquisition of new knowledge and this
approach effectively distinguishes science from non-science. The scientific method is not actually a
single method, as the name would erroneously lead one to believe but rather an overarching
perspective on how scientific investigations should proceed. It is a set of research principles and
methods that help researchers obtain valid results on their research studies. Because the scientific
method deals with the general approach to research rather than the content of specific research
studies, it is used by researchers in all different scientific disciplines. The biggest benefit of the
scientific method is that it provides a set of clear and agreed - upon guidelines for gathering,
evaluating and reporting information in the context of a research study (Cozby 1993). Although some
disagreement exists regarding the exact characteristics of the scientific method, most agree that it is
characterized by the following:
1. Empirical
2. Observations
3. Questions
4. Hypothesis
5. Experiment
6. Analysis
7. Conclusion
8. Replication

The scientific method is firmly based on the empirical approach. The empirical approach is an
evidence based on that approach that relies on direct observation of new knowledge (Kazchin 2003).
In the empirical approach, scientific decisions are made based on the data derived from direct
observation and experimentation. The empirical approach with emphasis on direct observation is best
thought of as the guideline principle behind all research conducted in accordance with scientific
methods.

An important component of scientific investigation is observation. In this sense observation refers to

two distinct concepts being aware of the world around us and making careful measurements.
Observations of the world around us often give rise to the questions that are addressed through
scientific research. In the context of science, observation means more than just observing the world
around us to get research ideas. Observation also refers to the process of making careful and accurate
measurement which is a distinguishing feature of well-conducted scientific investigations.

An important aspect of measurement is an operational definition.

Researchers derive key concept and terms with context of their research studies by using
operational definitions. By using operational definitions, researchers ensure that everyone is talking
about the same phenomenon. Having a clear definition of terms also ensures that researchers study
can be replicated by other researchers.

The scientific method is thus based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as follows:
1. It relies on empirical evidence
2. It utilizes relevant concepts
3. It is committed to only objective considerations
4. It presupposes ethnical neutrality ie it aims at nothing but making
only adequate and correct statement about population objects.
5. It results into probabilistic predictions.
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny
and for use in testing the conclusion through replication.
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands
of logical and objective procedure. Accordingly, scientific method implies an objective, logical and
systematic method ie. a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain
diminishable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method where in the researcher
is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method where in the investigation proceeds in an orderly
manner and a method that implies consistency.

1. 6 Basic Research Concepts

We look at the two often used research concepts:

(i) the Variables; and,
(ii) the Hypotheses

1.6.1. Variables

A variable is an empirically applicable concept that takes on two or more values.

Most variables investigated in the social sciences are however, not dichotomous. They are instead,
characterized by a large number of values. In many studies, we manipulate one variable and note the
effects of the manipulation on another variable. For example, you could manipulate the amount of
overtime to be worked and measure the effect on employee motivation, or vary the price of a product
and assess the change in demand. The variable that is varied such as management style, overtime or
price is termed the independent variable or IV.

These variations are often termed different conditions of the variable. The variable that is measured
or observed to chart the effect of the manipulation, e.g. retention rate in the above examples, is the
dependent variable or DV. Changes in the dependent variable depend on variations in the
independent variable.

A third type of variable is the moderating variable which affects the nature of the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. For example, the effect of varying levels of stress
in different employees act to influence the relationship between the management style and retention
in that it is likely that the more stressed an employee is by the management style the more likely he
is to leave. Gender and Age are often moderating variables. The mediating variable is one that lies
between the effect of the IV on the DV. Whereas the moderating variable affects the IV-DV
relationship through the different levels of the moderating variable, it is the variations in the IV’s that
influence the effect of the mediating variable on the DV. Here staff turnover and availability of
training both influence the level of job related skills, which in turn affect the performance of the
employees. The moderating variable is almost a DV for the original IV’s and then converts into
another IV in its effect on the DV.

The variable that the researcher is interested in explaining is the dependent variable. The explanatory
variables are the independent variables. An independent variable is the hypothesized cause of a
dependent variable, and the dependent variable is the expected outcome of the independent variable.

The distinction between the above types of variables is analytic and relates to a particular purpose of
research. An independent variable in one study may be a dependent variable in another. The decision
to treat a variable in terms of the above types of variables will depend on the objective of a given
research. Nevertheless, after making a decision, the researcher has to be consistent in his or her
classification throughout the research process.
You can illustrate the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable using a
two-dimensional graph. Following the mathematical custom, .X can be referred to as the independent
variable and you can represent it by the horizontal axis, while Y, the dependent variable, can be
represented by the vertical axis. The X-values are plotted on the X-axis, and Y-values on the Y-axis.

1.6.2 Qualitative and Quantitative variables

A variable can either be qualitative or quantitative. A qualitative variable can be referred to as a non-
numerical attribute of an individual or object. Qualitative variables such as gender or colour attempt
to divide people or objects into groups. Other qualitative variables like job position or social class,
which both divide and order objects or people are known as ordered qualitative variables.

A quantitative variable can be referred to as a numerical attribute of an individual or object.

Nevertheless, to obtain a quantitative variable, you need to find a suitable measuring tool. For such
variables as income, age, and height, this will not be a problem, since they have accepted measures
that are already in use. There are some difficulties with other variables, such as loyalty, honesty, and
intelligence. Here, you may have to devise your own measuring tool, or look for what other
researchers may have used as measures For instance, psychologists measure intelligence as an
intelligence quotient (or IQ), which is a score coming from a specially designed test. This measure is
often referred to as a hypothetical construct.

Quantitative variables are classified into discrete and continuous variables. A discrete quantitative
variable takes only one of range of distinct values between the start and end of a scale. As an example,
the number of sales assistants in a shopping mall on different days of the week might range from one
to five. Between the start and end of this scale, the variable can only take the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and
5.

A continuous quantitative variable can take any value between the start and end of a scale. As an
example, a suitable range for an adult’s age might be from 22 to 40 years. Between the start and end
of this scale, any value of the variable (that is, age) can be possible. One adult can be 30 years of age,
another might be 30.5 years, or another 30.56 years, and so on, with increasingly more accurate
measurement.

Table 1.1 contains examples of qualitative and quantitative variables.

Table 1.1: Examples of Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

Qualitative Variables Discrete

Quantitative
Variables
Name Number of dependants
Job Title, Employment Status, Place of Birth, Number of
Colour of Eyes/Hair subordinates, Number
of cars owned, Date of
birth, Clothes/shoe size
Ordered Qualitative Variables Continuous Quantitative Variables
 Social class Income
Qualifications, Job grade Height ,Weight

Figure 1.2: Generation of Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Data Type Question Type Responses
Qualitative Do you own company Yes --- No --- shares
-
Quantitative:
Discrete How many Cigas do you smoke a day? Number -----
Continuous How tall are you? Number------
-

Note again that discrete quantitative data are numerical responses which arise from a counting
process, while continuous quantitative data are numerical responses which arise from a measuring
process.

1.6.3. Independent and Dependent Variables

The independent variable is the variable that can be manipulated in order to be able to predict the
values of the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable whose values are being
predicted by the independent variable. For example, you may wish to vary the intensity of lighting in
your factory (the independent variable) in order to observe the effect on the productivity levels of
employees (the dependent variable). Or you may place individuals in a stressful situation, may be by
creating loud, random noises (the independent variable), in order to observe their ability to complete
complex tasks (the dependent variable).

1.6.4. Extraneous and Confounding Variables

An extraneous, often referred to as exogenous variable, is any variable other than the independent
variable which might have an effect on the dependent variable. If your research involves an
investigation of the relationship between productivity and motivation, for example, you may find it
difficult to exclude the effect on productivity of other factors such as heat wave, a work to rule or
domestic problems. A confounding variable is one which obscures the effects of another variable
such as, the novelty for employees of being the centre of attraction by the researcher, or working in
an unfamiliar place, especially when the research is laboratory based.

1.6.5 Induction

Research involves both description and explanation. If the research starts with specific
observations/descriptions followed by analysis that produces explanation of the
observations/explanations we have an inductive process. This develops theory from initial data – a
bottom-
up approach. This is open-ended and exploratory, major characteristics of the qualitative interpretive
approach. Inductive procedure essentially reverses the process found in deductive approach. The
inductive approach involves the researcher formulating a hypothesis as a generalization from
observed relationships. These empirical observations can be based on many factors, for example,
they can simply be based on personnel experience. This reasoning process should be followed by an
examination of previous research to determine what findings other investigations have reported on
the problem. For instance, a researcher has observed a high degree of anxiety that is rounded by his
classroom text and believes that this has an adverse effect on student’s performance. Further, he has
noticed that when he gives the student opportunity to write comments about objective questions, their
test performance seems to improve.

1.6.6 Deduction

If, however, the sequence is reversed, starting with a theory or hypothesis from which certain other
things should logically follow, these implications can be tested and on the basis of the results the
initial theory/hypothesis can be supported or rejected. This process is the deductive process – a top-
down strategy, working from the general to the specific Positivist researchers, by the very nature of
their approach, tend to be deductive rather than inductive while interpretive researchers generally
emphasize induction. You can see a link between the scientific approach and the qualitative method
here, since the conclusions of an inductive approach (a developing theory) can be further evaluated
with a view to confirming it by the deductive approach. Conversely, a quantitative deductive study
may unearth some unexpected and hard to explain result which could be explored using an inductive
approach. For example, a study might be investigating the problems of being a single parent who can
only find part-time work. This is an inductive qualitative study as it employs one-to-one interviews
to tease out the issues. These issues form patterns and themes which lead to two different general
propositions about single male and single female parents. Then a more controlled study can be
designed to test these two propositions or theories among a properly selected sample to seek
confirmation that significant differences are substantial between the two gender groups over
particular part-time work issues. Much research, as indicated earlier, will involve both inductive and
deductive stages as investigators cycle and recycle observations up to theories and down again to
observations and back up to revamped theories. This is often termed the

Research Cycle.

1.6.7 Hypotheses

Hypotheses are regarded as tentative answers to research problems. They are usually expressed in the
form of a relationship between independent and dependent variables. Hypotheses are said to be
tentative because their validity are evaluated only after they have been empirically tested. When you
as a researcher proposes a hypothesis, you will lack assurance that it will be verified. Researchers
construct a hypothesis, and if it is rejected, they consider another hypothesis.

You can come up with a hypothesis either by deduction from theories, or directly from Observations
or by intuition, or from a combination of these. The source of a hypothesis is of little significance
compared with the way in which it can be rejected or accepted.

If hypotheses are rejected, there is a need to modify the theory from which they were deduced.

Where formal theories are not available for hypothesis deduction, hypothesis can be generated from
conceptual frameworks. In such cases, the failure to reject a hypothesis may lead to the construction
of a more systematic and rigorous theory.
Self -Assessment Exercises 1
1. Define research and enumerate the characteristics of research
2. Discuss the major classifications of variables.
3. Enumerate the basic postulates on which the scientific method is based

1.7 Scientific Explanations in Research Process

Scientific explanations in the research process, whether deductive or probabilistic, explicate the
factors in a situation that are responsible for the occurrence of a particular phenomenon. In practice,
this involves four distinct operations.

i. Demonstrating Co-variation: Co-variation simply means that two or more phenomena (or
variables) vary together. For example, if a change in the level of education is accompanied by a
change in productivity (or income), one can say that education co-varies with productivity (income).

In scientific research, the notions of co-variation are expressed through measures of relationships,
commonly referred to as Correlation or Association. Thus, a correlation between variables is
necessary evidence for a casual interpretation.

ii. Eliminating Spurious Relations: This operation requires the scientist to demonstrate that the
observed correlation is non-spurious. A non-spurious relation is defined as a correlation between two
phenomena (variables) that cannot be explained by a third factor. In other words, if the effect of all
relevant factors are eliminated and the relation between the investigated phenomena is maintained,
then the relation is non-spurious.

iii. Establishing the Time Order of Occurrences: This requires the researcher
to demonstrate that one phenomenon occurs first or changes prior another phenomenon. For example,
studies have shown that the correlation between urbanization and democratic development is non
spurious. To establish that urbanization is casually related to democratic development, it must also
be demonstrated that the former precedes the later.

iv Theorizing. Theory is viewed here as an interpretation of, or conceptual justification for, an

observed co-variation. This interpretation specifies the casual nature of a co-variation by explicating
the mechanism that connects the phenomenon under investigation.

1.8 The Research Process.

The research process is the overall scheme of scientific activities in which research scientists engage.
Seven principal types of activities are enumerated below, each of which can be regarded as a process
in the research process:

Problem Identification. A problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of
scientific solution. The first stage in any research process is to identify the research problem(s).

Statement of Hypotheses about the Identified Problem(s). Stimuli (or problems) that
are too general or too abstract present difficulties in the investigation and therefore requires
concretization. This is attained by hypotheses. Hypotheses are regarded as tentative answers to
researchable problems. The researcher breaks down a problem into a set of concrete hypotheses and
investigates each separately. Consider the problem, “What brings youth to universities?” This
involves considerations such as the motivation to study, the individual’s financial state, the social
background of one’s family, encouragement by peers, and one’s academic achievements in secondary
school.

These five considerations generate five hypotheses:

- the inclination to enroll at university increases with the motivation to study;

- an individual’s financial state co-varies with his or her propensity to study at the university;
- youth from relatively well - to-do families tend to enroll at
universities;
- the greater the encouragement to study at university given by peers, the stronger the tendency
to do so; and
academic achievement in secondary school co-varies with the tendency to study at university.
- Each of these hypotheses can be tested by observation on the basis of which it will either be
rejected or accepted. The rejection option is the characteristic feature of hypotheses and the
reason for viewing them as tentative answers.

Research Design: A research design is the structure, program, and strategy upon which hypotheses
are evaluated.

Measurement: Measurement can be defined as any procedure whereby observations are

systematically assigned symbols. These symbols are amenable to logical, mathematical and statistical
manipulations that reveal information that otherwise could not have been revealed. Symbols can be
added, subtracted, percentage introduced as subjects or objects in sentences, or employed as elements
in graphs and diagrams. Data Collection: This is the stage whereby observations are made and
recorded. Data can be collected in several ways including field observations and survey (for primary
data), and journals and publications (for secondary data). Any data collection method can also be
used to gather information concerning different hypotheses.
Data Analysis. At this stage, all available data is analyzed according to objectives, research questions,
and hypotheses. The analytical method to be used will depend basically on the type of research as
well as the research design.
Empirical Generalizations. An empirical generalization is a statement asserting universal
connection between variables of interest. The logic whereby observations are transformed into
empirical generalization is referred to as induction. We may distinguish two types of inductive
principles: one is the principle of enumeration in which inductive hypothesis is treated as being well
established if it has not been refuted by experience. The other inductive principle is that of
elimination, according to which an inductive hypothesis is taken to be well established if, while it has
not been refuted by experience, alternative hypothesis have been so refuted.

Self -Assessment Exercises 2

1. Explain the seven principal types of activities involved in the research process
2. Describe the four distinct operations in scientific operations.

1.9 Summary
You have been informed on the theoretical definition of scientific research. You must have also
learned about what variables are and what research hypotheses stand for.

Research can begin with an intuition that you want to subject to scientific scrutiny. It can also begin
with a business’s or organization’s need for a specific answer to a specific question. The research
process involves generating hypotheses, collecting data to test the hypotheses, then analyzing and
interpreting the results of your investigation. Research can be quantitative or qualitative in nature,
depending on whether you want to collect statistical information or narrative information.

Research is based on two types of definitions: conceptual definition and operational definition.
Conceptual definitions are definitions that describe concepts by using other concepts. Operational
definitions attempt to bridge the gap between the theoretical- conceptual level and the empirical-
observational level. An operational definition involves a series of instructions describing the
operations that must be carried out by a researcher in order to demonstrate the existence, or the degree
of existence, or empirical occurrence represented by a concept.

A variable is an empirically applicable concept that takes on two or more values. There are three
common types of variables in scientific research, whether dichotomous or multi valued. These are:
(i) Independent variables or predictor variables; (ii) Dependent variables or criterion variables; and,
(iii) Control variables or test variables.

Hypotheses are regarded as tentative answers to research problems. They are usually expressed in the
form of a relationship between independent and dependent variables. Hypotheses are said to be
tentative because their validity are evaluated only after they have been empirically tested.

The research process is the overall scheme of scientific activities in which research scientists engage.
Seven principal types of activities in the research process include:
(i) problem identification; (ii) statement of hypothesis about the identified problem; (iii) research
design; (iv)measurement; (v) data collection; (vi) data analysis; and, (vii) empirical generalization.

1.10 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Cosby, P.C. (1993). Methods in behavioral research (15th ed.) Mountain View CA May Field
Publishing Co.

Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

Kadzin, A.E. (2003). Research design in Clinical Psychology (4th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Nachimias, D. and Nachimias, C. (1976) Research Methods in The

Social Sciences (New York: Martin‟s Press)

OECD (2002) Proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development,
6th edition. Retrieved 27 May 2012 from www.oecd.org/sti/frascatimanual
Scott Armstrong and Tad Sperry (1994). “Business School Prestige:
Research versus Teaching”. Energy & Environment 18 (2): 13– 43.

Shaughness, J.J. and Zechmeister, E.B( 1997). Research Methods in Psychology (4th ed.) Boston:
McGraw Hill.

Shuttleworth, (2008). “Definitions of Research”. Explorable.com.

Retrieved14 August 201

1.11 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Self -Assessment Exercise 1

i Define research and enumerate the characteristics of research

Research can simply be defined as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through
planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is an important tool
for advancing knowledge for promoting progress, and for enabling scholars to relate more effectively
to the environment, to accomplish their objectives, and to resolve conflicts.

From the above statement, we can conclude that the process that is called research should have the
following features:

i) It should be undertaken in a scientific manner, biases and subjectivity should be avoided;

ii) The process should follow valid and verifiable tools, techniques and procedures;
iii) The process follows the logical and sequential procedures that are established by the academic
discipline in which you are conducting research.

ii Discuss the major classifications of variables.

The variable that is varied such as management style, overtime or price is termed the independent
variable or IV.

These variations are often termed different conditions of the variable. The variable that is measured
or observed to chart the effect of the manipulation, e.g. retention rate in the above examples, is the
dependent variable or DV. Changes in the dependent variable depend on variations in the
independent variable.

A third type of variable is the moderating variable which affects the nature of the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. For example, the effect of varying levels of stress
in different employees act to influence the relationship between the management style and retention
in that it is likely that the more stressed an employee is by the management style the more likely he
is to leave. Gender and Age are often moderating variables. The mediating variable is one that lies
between the effect of the IV on the DV. Whereas the moderating variable affects the IV-DV
relationship through the different levels of the moderating variable, it is the variations in the IV’s that
influence the effect of the mediating variable on the DV.
iii. Enumerate the basic postulates on which the scientific method is based
1. It relies on empirical evidence
2. It utilizes relevant concepts
3. It is committed to only objective considerations
4. It presupposes ethnical neutrality ie it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statement about population objects.
5. It results into probabilistic predictions.
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in testing the
conclusion through replication. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be
termed as scientific theories.

Self -Assessment Exercises 2

i Explain the seven principal types of activities involved in the research process

Problem Identification. A problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of
scientific solution. The first stage in any research process is to identify the research problem(s).

Statement of Hypotheses about the Identified Problem(s

Hypotheses are regarded as tentative answers to researchable problems. The researcher breaks down
a problem into a set of concrete hypotheses and investigates each separately

Research Design: A research design is the structure, program, and strategy upon which hypotheses
are evaluated.

Measurement: Measurement can be defined as any procedure whereby observations are

systematically assigned symbols.

Data Collection: This is the stage whereby observations are made and recorded. Data can be collected
in several ways including field observations and survey (for primary data), and journals and
publications (for secondary data). Any data collection method can also be used to gather information
concerning different hypotheses.
Data Analysis. At this stage, all available data is analyzed according to objectives, research questions,
and hypotheses. The analytical method to be used will depend basically on the type of research as
well as the research design.

Empirical Generalizations. An empirical generalization is a statement asserting universal

connection between variables of interest. The logic whereby observations are transformed into
empirical generalization is referred to as induction.

ii Describe the four distinct operations in scientific operations.

i. Demonstrating Co-variation: Co-variation simply means that two or more phenomena (or
variables) vary together. In scientific research, the notions of co-variation are expressed through
measures of relationships, commonly referred to as Correlation or Association.
ii. Eliminating Spurious Relations: This operation requires the scientist to demonstrate that the
observed correlation is non-spurious. A non-spurious relation is defined as a correlation between two
phenomena (variables) that cannot be explained by a third factor

iii. Establishing the Time Order of Occurrences: This requires the researcher
to demonstrate that one phenomenon occurs first or changes prior another phenomenon.

iv Theorizing. Theory is viewed here as an interpretation of, or conceptual justification for, an

observed co-variation. This interpretation specifies the casual nature of a co-variation by explicating
the mechanism that connects the phenomenon under investigation.