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Path Of An Electron Assignment - Chapter 3

Cameron C. Delaney

RAD-1110: Radiologic Physics

Dr. Larry A Spicer, B.S., D.C.

June 10, 2024

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Electrons become even more deeply important to us as we further examine the role they

play not just in the formation of an atom and its structure but in relation to electricity and the

electrical charges that electrons hold and can transfer between objects. According to Dr. Larry

Spicer electricity can be defined as “the movement and distribution of electrons in a conductive

source [or] conductor” (Spicer, Chapter 3 Lecture). Additionally the study of electricity can be

broken down into two major subdivisions: electrostatics and electrodynamics. “Electro-” is a

prefix in physics that directly refers to electrons and their study and behaviors, therefore

electrostatics would be the study of electrons that are “static,” meaning they are still or resting,

while electrodynamics, in turn, would be defined as the study of electric charges that are in

motion. Within each division there are concepts and laws to understand about the ways the

electrons function and what results they end up producing.

There are five laws of electrostatics that are crucial in understanding how the process of

electrification works. The first of these laws is known as The Law of Repulsion and Attraction

and essentially asserts that like charges will repel one another away while opposite charges in

objects will attract them towards one another. We often learn the overarching concept of this law

as children if we end up playing with magnets; we notice that when hovering two positive

magnetics ends near one another they emit a sort of force that attempts to push the two objects

apart. This results from the Law of Repulsion and Attraction and can sometimes be referred to

as an object's “electrostatic force.”

The second vital law of electrostatics is the Inverse Square Law which while seemingly

complex in nature can be boiled down to a concept more simple in understanding. If two cars,

both shining bright headlights, are headed towards each other on a dark street the drivers will

notice that the closer the other car comes in distance the brighter the intensity of the headlights

will be to the drivers’ vision (Spicer, Chapter 3 Lecture). This is a good real world metaphor

representing the idea of the Inverse Square Law, which states that if you decrease the distance

between two items with a charge or force then you will end up increasing the intensity of the
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force. Put simply- if distance is decreased then intensity will increase, and vise-versa. This is

important when considering the way that an x-ray tube functions because the intensity of the

radiation emitted at a given distance is also inversely proportional to the square of the distance

and often in the study of radiologic physics we will need to be able to make calculations that can

help us determine either the given intensity of the radiation or a given distance from a point

source.

The final three laws of electrostatics are distribution, concentration, and movement. The

law of distribution teaches that electrical charges will always reside on the external surfaces of

conductors and that because electrons will repel one another to the best of their ability, the

charges will be evenly dispersed around all edges of the conductor. Concentration can adjust

the distribution of charges; when a conductor has an irregular shape with varying levels of

curvature then the law of concentration teaches us that the charges will have the greatest level

of concentration in the areas of the conductor’s surface with the greatest level of curvature. The

final law of electrostatics, movement, asserts that only negative charges are able to move within

a conductor. Electrons will travel freely within the conductor while protons and neutrons remain

stationary in their place.

When electrons transfer from one object to another, and therefore transfer their electrical

charge onto the other object, the process is referred to as electrification and it can occur through

three different methods. The first method is friction, and occurs when two objects, with differing

starting values of electrons, rub against one another repeatedly while transferring electrons from

one object to the other, creating a deficiency in one of the objects. An example of this can be

seen when someone rubs a blown up balloon against a wool sweater and then, as if by magic,

sticks it to a wall where it will be held up on its own (Carlton, Adler, 2020, pg. 38). Low humidity,

or even cold weather, will cause the transfer of negatively charged electrons from the sweater to

the balloon, which then attracts itself to the electron deficient and positively charged wall.
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The second method of electrification is contact or conduction in which electrons are

transferred from one object to another via the direct physical touch of the items. When an

electron-rich item meets an electron-deficient item they connect and in an attempt to balance

out the charges will transfer the excess electrons through what is known as a “static discharge”

(Carlton, Adler, 2020, pg. 39). Occasionally this charge can occur even if the two items do not

directly touch if the charge is “sufficiently great” and distance is “sufficiently small” (Carlton,

Adler, 2020, pg. 39).

Electrons that travel between items over a further distance and through the force of their

electrical fields undergo a method of electrification called induction which according to a lecture

from Dr. Spicer (2024) is the “most important for our purposes” as radiologic scientists. This

form of electrification occurs without the objects ever coming into contact but by transferring

electrons through their aura-like electric fields that extend out around the objects. Induction is

not only highly important for radiologic scientists but for many humans in a way, as induction is

the method of electrification that allows all of our electronic devices to function.

This transference and movement of electrons is part of the study of electrodynamics and

forms what is referred to as an “electric current” in which electrons move in a circuit like dominos

falling. One such avenue that electrons travel through in a circuit is a conductor. Metallic

substances, such as copper, gold, etc. can provide wonderful pathways for electrons to travel

along because of their atomic structure that allows for the relatively easy flow of electrons

through the substance. According to Carlton and Adler, “the atoms of metallic conductors permit

valence electrons to drift” (pg. 40) meaning the electrification process is facilitated by these

specific types of materials. Adversely, insulators are materials that act in opposition to

conductors by restricting the flow of electrons through their atomic structure due to their tightly

bound or dense atomic structure. Typically materials such as wood, glass, plastic, or rubber are

used as insulators and oftentimes insulating materials will coat conductive materials for efficacy

and safety of the objects. A common real life example of this may be the electrical cord for a
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lamp, which would consist of a wire, likely copper or another metallic substance, coated with a

rubber surface so that the freely moving electrons are contained inside of the cord.

The conductors that the electrons travel upon are found within a system that is called a

circuit. A simple circuit consists of four main parts: the source, conductor, load, and switch. The

source of the conductor is the source of the electrons that will be traveling through the circuit

and can be an item such as a battery, generator, or solar converter. From the source the

electrons will travel along the conductor to arrive at the load or the resistor. The load is the part

of the circuit that will be using the electrons for power and can be something as simple as a

lightbulb and something as complex as an electric car motor. Finally, the switch of a circuit is the

component that allows the circuit to remain either open or closed and switch between the two

and can often be a physical switch, such as a lightswitch or a power button.

In addition to a simple circuit there are also other types of common circuits that exist for

electrical purposes. Two alternate types include the series circuit and the parallel circuit. In both

of these varieties there are multiple loads or resistors that are along a large circuitry system

however the specifications of each differ. In a series circuit the constant circuitry system all lies

along the same conductor with no breaks or deviations. As a result of this set-up if any part of

the circuit becomes interrupted then the entire circuit chain will end up being interrupted. Dr.

Spicer related this type of circuit to lights on a christmas tree wherein if one bulb breaks along

the strand the following bulbs will also fail to produce power or light. In order to remedy this type

of series circuit one would have to rectify the broken spot of the circuit in order to repair the

whole chain (2024). A parallel circuit varies in that while all the loads lie along the same large

circuitry there are bridges that connect various parts of the conductor to loop back around and

share a circuitry path for the electrons to travel. These multiple brides help ensure that if one

bridge breaks that there are other pathways in place for the electrons to move, maintaining the

flow of electricity through the whole circuit and the other remaining resistors. This system is
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representative of our circuit breakers that exist within single family homes where if one room or

outlet loses power it typically does not affect the loads that exist elsewhere in the home.

Within a circuit there are multiple measurable quantities to examine and understand. The

first of these is voltage, which can alternately be described as the force of a current and is

measured in volts. The voltage is the representation of the potential difference within a current in

a circuit and can be determined by calculating the difference between the excess of electrons at

the beginning of a circuit and the deficiency of electrons at the far end. The voltage can also be

thought of as the electromotive force of the current. The next measurable factor to consider is

amperage, which can be looked at as the total quantity of electricity within a circuit and is

measured in “ampere” or “amps.” The amperage of a circuit is calculated by measuring the

amount of electrons that pass through a given point on the conductor in a given set of time,

traditionally one second. This number will represent the amperage of the circuit and it relates

directly to what we consider to be the intensity of the electricity. The resistance or the

impedance of a circuit is measured in Ohms and represents the amount of opposition to the

current within the circuit. Various factors will have an impact on the resistance of a circuit

including the quality of the conductive material, the temperature, and the length and diameter of

the conductor within the circuit. When a longer conductor is used the friction of the traveling

electrons builds up over time, slowing their speed as well as creating a heat byproduct, which in

turn also heightens the resistance of the current. Alternatively, if a conductor with a larger cross

section diameter is used the electrons will have a larger space to travel upon, leading to lowered

resistance within the circuit.

All of these factors within a circuit are interconnected through both Ohm’s law as well as

the Power Formula- two simple equations used to help calculate the various aforementioned

measurable quantities of voltage, amperage, and resistance, as well as the overall power.

Ohm’s law “details the relationship between the resistance, the current, and the potential

distance” (Spicer, Chapter 3 Lecture). A triangle diagram can be drawn and utilized to work out
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the formula: voltage = amperage x resistance. While there are alternate ways of formatting the

formula the premise remains that with two of the factors known for a circuit one would be able to

calculate the remaining variable. The power formula takes Ohm’s law a step further by

multiplying the amperage and the voltage of a circuit to calculate the overall power, which then

is measured in watts. If either the amperage or voltage increases, so will the power of the

overall circuit.

The final factor to consider regarding the flow of electrons is the direction that the

electrons are traveling. This traveling pattern the electrons use can be defined as either a direct

current or an alternating current. While both forms of current begin starting with the electrons

unmoving they differ in the ways they behave after a switch is activated to open or close the

circuit. When a direct current electron flow begins it will pick up speed from its zero motion

starting point until it has reached its desired speed. It will then continuously maintain that speed

with all electrons flowing in the same direction as one another for as long as the circuit remains

closed. When the switch is activated and the circuit is opened the electrons will lose their speed

until they have slowed back down to a stand still, absent of motion. This process will repeat

itself with every activation of the circuit's switch. In an alternating current, however, electrons will

start at a zero speed and gradually gain until they reach their maximum speed, at which point

the flow of electrons will change their direction and turn around. The turned around electrons

then proceed to slow back down until the zero movement threshold is once again met, at which

point the electrons turn around once more and repeat the process.

While there are many types of circuits that can be utilized to transfer electrons and

therefore electricity they all have variating factors that are important to understand the

differentiations between. Each system and measurable factor will have a great impact on the

way we view the force, power, and eventual effects of the electrification process.
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References

Carlton, R. R., Arlene Mckenna Adler, Vesna Balac, & Griswold, R. (2020). Principles of

radiographic imaging : an art and a science. Cengage.

Spicer, L. (2024). Lectures on Chapter 3 of Principles of Radiographic Imaging. Personal

Collection of Dr. L. Spicer, Northwestern Health Sciences University, Bloomington, MN.