PSYC312

Study Unit 1: Introduction to

Psychological Research and Core
Concepts

Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman

Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per Afspraak
Starting Class

• Ensure that you have a QR code reader or a

camera with a QR code reader activated:
• The QR code should take you to a Google Form which
serves as an attendance register.

• Maak seker dat jy 'n QR-kodeleser het of 'n

kamera met 'n geaktiveerde QR-kodeleser:
• Die QR-kode behoort jou na 'n Google-vorm te neem
wat as 'n teenwoordigheidsregister dien.
In the event you cannot access the Google Form

If you cannot access the QR code or don’t have a reader,

then we can add you to the spreadsheet after class.

If significant numbers of students cannot access the code

then we will revert to a paper/pencil register.

As jy nie toegang tot die QR-kode kan verkry nie of nie 'n
leser het nie, kan ons jou na die sigblad byvoeg na klas.

Indien 'n beduidende aantal studente nie toegang tot die

kode kan verkry nie, sal ons oorgaan na 'n papier-en-
potloodregister.
Planned Assessments (Subject to Change)

Assessment Date Marks % Contribution

MCQ: 18th March 2024 20 10%
Study Unit 1
Mid-semester Test TBC 50 15%
Study Unit 1-3
MCQ: 13th May 2024 50 15%
Study Unit 2 and 3
MCQ: 20th May 2024 20 10%
Study Unit 4
Final Summative 24th May 2024 100 50%
Assignment
Study Materials: Study Unit 1
Studiemateriaal
• Focus on the slides and
lecture content, as well as
the reader provided
• Chapter 3 of First Steps in
Research (Planning a
Research proposal) includes
good information about
purpose statements and
the role of research
• Research at Grassroots
contains a number of useful
chapters on conceptualizing
research (recommended)
• Fokus op die skyfies en
klasinhoud
• Hoofstuk 3 van First Steps
in Research (Beplanning
van ’n Navorsingsvoorstel)
bevat goeie inligting
rakende doelstellings en die
rol van navorsing
• Hersien Hoofstuk 10 van
First Steps in Research
(Steekproefneming)
 Lecture 1:
Study Section 1.1: Conceptualizing
Research

Studeer Artikel 1.1:

Konseptualisering van Navorsing
Learning outcomes:
1. Explain the concept and purpose of research in the social sciences /
Verduidelik die konsep en doel van navorsing in die sosiale wetenskappe
2. Identify and describe the general research process / Identifiseer en
beskryf die algemene navorsingsproses.
3. Differentiate between the six dimensions of research and explain how
they are linked to the social sciences research process / Maak onderskeid
tussen die ses dimensies van navorsing en verduidelik hoe hulle gekoppel
is aan die navorsingsproses in die sosiale wetenskappe
What is Research?
Wat is Navorsing?

Research is a systematic process of collecting,

analyzing, and interpreting quantitative or
qualitative data to better understand a
phenomenon and answer a research question

Navorsing is ‘n sistematiese proses van

insameling, analise en interpretasie van
kwantitatiewe of kwalitatiewe data om ‘n
fenomeen/verskynsel beter te verstaan en om ‘n
navorsingsvraag te beantwoord
Characteristics of Research: Achieving the Research Goal
Kenmerke van Navorsing: Bereiking van die Navorsingsdoel

Systematic / Sistematies
• Step by Step / Stap-vir-stap
• Logical Process / Logiese Proses
Data: Collect, Analyze, Interpret / Insamel, Analiseer, Interpreteer
• What data? / Watter data?
• Answer the research question / Beantwoord die navorsingsvraag
Increase Understanding / Verdiep begrip
• New phenomena / Nuwe verskynsels/fenomene
• Known phenomena with limited information / Bekende verskynsels/fenomene
met beperkte inligting
• Replication / Replikasie/herhaling
The Six Dimensions of Research

Why? How? Where?

• The scientific • Systematic • The setting
gap or methodology.
question?

What? Who?
• The aim. • The
population When?
Die Ses Dimensies van Navorsing

Hoekom? Hoe? Waar?

• Die wetenskaplike • Sistematiese • Die omgewing.
gaping of vraag? metodologie.

Wat? Wie?
• Die doel. • Die
bevolking/populasie
Wanneer?
Goal of Research / Doel van Navorsing:
To Answer the Research Question
Om die Navorsingsvraag te beantwoord
• Research always begins • Navorsing begin altyd
with a question based met ‘n vraag gebaseer
on… op…
• What is known • Wat bekend is
• What is observed • Wat waargeneem word
• What is important • Wat belangrik is
• Identify the • Identifiseer die
phenomenon of study fenomeen/verskynsel
• Describe, explain, van studie
explore • Beskryf, verduidelik,
verken
What? - The Overall Purposes of Research
Wat? - Die Algemene Doelstellings van
Navorsing
• Answer a research question • Beantwoord 'n
or goal navorsingsvraag of -doel
• Provide insight (explore) • Verskaf insig (verken)
• Describe a phenomenon • Beskryf 'n verskynsel
• Understand cause and • Verstaan oorsaak-en-
effect relationships gevolgverhoudings
• Evaluate social • Evalueer sosiale
interventions intervensies
• Implement social • Implementeer sosiale
interventions intervensies
• Collaborate with • Saamwerk met
communities to bring gemeenskappe om
change verandering te brin
The Research Cycle
Die Navorsingsiklus
• Research follows a • Navorsing volg ‘n sikliese
cyclical process from proses vanaf die
identifying a question to identifikasie van ‘n vraag
reaching a conclusion tot by tot ‘n
• Conclusions usually lead gevolgtrekking kom
to more questions and • Gevolgtrekkings lei
new research gaps gewoonlik na meer vrae
• The steps in the research en nuwe
cycle illustrate the navorsingsgapings
process of research • Die stappe in die
navorsingsiklus illustreer
die proses van navorsing
The Research Cycle
Literature
Review

Purpose
Identifying the Statement of
gap Question and
Contribution

Conclusion Strategy
The
Research
Question

Analysis and
Methodology
Interpretation

Data Ethical
collection Engagement
Die Navorsingsiklus
Literatuur-
oorsig

Doelstelling van
Identifikasie van
Vraag en
die gaping
Bydrae

Gevolgtrekking Strategie

Die
Navorsings-
vraag

Analise en
Metodologie
Interpretasie

Etiese
Data-insameling
betrokkenheid
Identifying Dimensions:
Identifikasie van Dimensies:
Do students in large classes have poorer examination
results than students in small classes?
Het studente in groot klasse swakker eksamenuitslae as
studente in klein klasse?

• Why is the research being conducted? / Hoekom word

die navorsing uitgevoer?
• What is the aim of the research? / Wat is die doel van
die navorsing?
• Who are the participants? / Wie is die deelnemers?
• Where is the setting? / Waar is die omgewing?
Basic Phases of the Research Process
Basiese fases van die navorsingsproses
• Focusing (framing the • Fokus (raming van die
research) – What and Why navorsing) - Wat en
• Planning (designing the Waarom
research) - How • Beplanning (ontwerp van
• Implementing (doing the die navorsing) - Hoe
research) – Who and • Implementering (uitvoering
where? van die navorsing) - Wie en
• Analyzing (interpreting the waar?
research) • Analise (interpreteer die
• Reporting (disseminating navorsing)
the research) • Verslagdoening
(verspreiding van die
navorsing)
Identifying a Topic to Research
Identifisering van 'n Onderwerp om Navorsing
oor te doen
• What do you want to know?
Why?
• Sources of research topics:
• Practice
• Theory
• Previous research
• Personal interest
• Suitable research topics are
scientifically researchable:
• Testable (open to proof or
disproof)
• Require data interpretation
• Speak to significance, not just the
current status
• Contribute to knowledge
• Can be linked to what is known
• Wat wil jy weet? Hoekom?
• Bronne van navorsing
onderwerpe:
• Praktyk
• Teorie
• Vorige navorsing
• Persoonlike belangstelling
• Geskikte navorsing onderwerpe is
wetenskaplik navorsbaar:
• Toetsbaar (oop vir bewys of
weerlê)
• Vereis data-interpretasie
• Spreek tot betekenis, nie net die
huidige status nie
• Dra by tot kennis
• Kan gekoppel word aan wat
bekend is
Lecture 1 & 2
Study Section 1.2.: Literature Reviews:

Studie Afdeling 1.2: Literatuuroorsigte:

Focusing and framing the research project
• Describe the purpose of a literature review;
• Explain and describe the process of conducting a literature review

Fokus en raam die navorsingsprojek

• Beskryf die doel van 'n literatuuroorsig;
• Verduidelik en beskryf die proses van die uitvoering van 'n literatuuroorsig.
Steps to Frame the Proposed Study

Stappe om die Voorgestelde Studie te Raam

1. Identify the topic 1. Identifiseer die onderwerp
2. Formulate the research 2. Formuleer die
question navorsingsvraag
3. Assess the suitability of the 3. Evalueer die geskiktheid
approach van die benadering
4. Develop the proposal 4. Ontwikkel die voorstel
5. Consider the place of 5. Oorweeg die plek van
literature and theory in the literatuur en teorie in die
rationale rasionaal
6. Consider the ethical 6. Oorweeg die etiese
implications implikasies

A thorough literature review 'n Deeglike literatuuroorsig dra

contributes to all six steps by tot alle ses stappe.
Purpose of the Literature Review
Doel van die Literatuuroorsig
Motivate the research
Bemotiveer die navorsing
Provide background context
Verskaf agtergrondkonteks
Basis of comparison for your findings
Grondslag van vergelyking vir jou bevindinge
Justify your method
Regverdig jou metode
Show the gap
Wys die gaping
Importance of the Literature Review
Belangrikheid van die Literatuuroorsig
• Clarifying and refining the topic
and goal
• Rationale for the theoretical
framework of the study
• Identifying where knowledge
gaps exist
• Identifying weaknesses in
existing studies
• Understanding how others have
studied the same topic can help
refine the planned research
methods
• Understanding the likely ethical
implications of similar research
• Verduideliking en verfyning van
die onderwerp en doel
• Rasionaal vir die teoretiese
raamwerk van die studie
• Identifisering van waar
kennisleemtes bestaan
• Identifisering van swakhede in
bestaande studies
• Die begrip van hoe ander
dieselfde onderwerp bestudeer
het, kan help om die beplande
navorsingsmetodes te verfynder
• Begrip van die waarskynlike
etiese implikasies van
soortgelyke navorsing
Literature Reviews Improve the Quality of
Topics
Literatuuroorsigte verbeter die kwaliteit van
onderwerpe.
• Good research topics • Goeie
contribute and can be navorsingonderwerpe dra
linked to what is known – by en kan gekoppel word
based on the literature aan wat bekend is -
review gebaseer op die
• Understand how the study literatuuroorsig
enhances relevant, existing • Verstaan hoe die studie
knowledge relevante, bestaande kennis
• Identify practical needs for verbeter
studies to fill • Identifiseer praktiese
• Demonstrate relevance to behoeftes vir studies om in
current issues te vul
• Demonstreer relevansie tot
huidige kwessies
 The Literature Review Process
Afrikaans

Preparation Retrieval Appraisal Synthesis / Writing

Summarizing
What is the topic? Keywords and terms Skim content Note taking Description
What resources do you Filters Relevance Themes Analysis / Critique
have? Searches Argue your point of view

Wat is die onderwerp? Sleutelwoorde en terme Deur inhoud blader Nota neem Beskrywing Ontleding /
Watter hulpbronne het Filters Relevansie Temas Kritiek Bepleit jou
jy? standpunt
Soektogte
Guided Practical Exercises: Doing a literature search
Afrikaans

• Topic: Metacognitive strategies and memory

• Aim: To find out if metacognitive strategies affect memory performance
• Refined aim?:
• Keywords to search: …
• Looking at results on Google Scholar
Steps to Write a Good Literature Review
Stappe om 'n Goeie Literatuuroorsig te Skryf

Understand the Identify key terms / Evaluate sources /

purpose / Verstaan die Identifiseer Search / Soek
doel sleutelbegrippe Evalueer bronne

Present the opening

Develop an outline /
State the objectives / and background / Dien Organize sources /
Ontwikkel 'n
Stel die doelwitte vas die opening en Organiseer bronne
uiteensetting
agtergrond in

Paraphrase the Conclude and explain

information / the gap / Trek 'n
Herformuleer die gevolgtrekking en
inligting verduidelik die gaping
Lecture 2:
Approaches to Research
Benaderings tot Navorsing
Approaches to research and how reasoning works
• Describe and distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning
• Describe and distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research methods
Benaderings tot navorsing en hoe redenasie werk
• Beskryf en onderskei tussen induktiewe en deduktiewe redenasie
• Beskryf en onderskei tussen kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodes
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Approaches
Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Redenasie Benaderings
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
Induktiewe Redenasie Deduktiewe Redenasie
Likely conclusions based on evidence Conclusion Testing
Waarskynlike gevolgtrekkings op bewyse gebaseer Toetsing van Gevolgtrekkings
Bottom up Top down
Van onder tot bo Van bo tot onder
Principles based on observations Collecting data (observations) to demonstrate
Beginsels gebaseer op waarnemings principles / hypotheses
Insameling van data (waarnemings) om beginsels /
hipoteses te demonstreer
Broad integration Evidence-based conclusions
Breë integrasie Bewysgebaseerde gevolgtrekkings
Open-ended Pre-existing theories
Oop-einde Voorafbestaande teorieë
Exploratory Specific hypothesis
Verkennend Spesifieke hipotese
Researcher is “unknowing” Researcher is the “expert”
Navorser is “onwetend” Navorser is die “kundige”
Explore broad data Collect specific data
Verken breë data Samel spesifieke data in
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Approaches
Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Redenasie Benaderings

Inductive Reasoning: Bottom Up Deductive Reasoning: Top Down

Induktiewe Redenasie: Van Onder tot Bo Deduktiewe Redenasie: Van Bo tot Onder

Conceptualization of Theory or Concepts Theory and Hypothesis

Konseptualisering van Teorie of Konsepte Teorie en Hipotese

Generalization and Grouping Themes Prediction or Likely Outcomes

Veralgemening en Groepering van Temas Voorspelling of Waarskynlike Uitkomstes

Observation Empirical Testing

Waarneming Empiriese Toetsing
Inductive and Deductive Research
Induktiewe en Deduktiewe Navorsing

Phenomenon
Fenomeen/Verskynsel

Observation From Theory

Waarneming Vanaf Teorie

Data Collection
Data-insameling

Detailed Accounts Empirical Observation

Gedetailleerde verslae Empiriese Waarneming

Analysis
Analise

In-depth Ideas / Themes Logical Statistics

In-Diepte Idees / Temas Logiese Statistieke

Conclusions
Gevolgtrekkings
Grouped Ideas and Theory Confirm or Reject Hypothesis
Gegroepeerde Idees en Teorie Bevestig of Verwerp Hipotese
Inductive or Deductive?
Induktief of Deduktief?
Cognitive theories state that people perform better on
tests when temperatures are colder. The researcher
compares people who did the test in the cold to those
who did the test in a hot room. The results show that
people who did the test in the cold room performed
better.

Kognitiewe teorieë hou voor dat mense beter presteer in

toetse wanneer temperature laer is. Die navorser
vergelyk mense wat die toets in die koue afgelê het met
mense wat die toets in ‘n warm kamer afgelê het. Die
uitslae toon dat mense wat die toets in die koue kamer
afgelê het beter presteer het.
Inductive or Deductive?
Induktief of Deduktief?
Students often discuss the importance of their study
guide in how effective their learning is. Many students
mention that the study guide helps them focus their
learning. The institution decides to implement clearer,
more detailed study guides based on the theory that this
will enhance student success.

Studente bespreek dikwels die belang van hulle

studiegids in hoe effektief hulle studeer. Baie studente
noem dat die studiegids hulle bystaan om hulle studies
te fokus. Die instansie besluit om duideliker, meer
gedetailleerde studiegidse te implementeer, gebaseer
op die teorie dat dit die studente se prestasie sal
verbeter.
Types of Research Design or Approach
Tipes Navorsingsontwerp of -benadering
• Qualitative • Kwalitatief
• Inductive • Induktief
• Building theories • Die bou van teorieë
• “Rich” and complex data • “Ryk” en komplekse data
such as interviews soos onderhoude

• Quantitative • Kwantitatief
• Deductive • Deduktief
• Derived from Theory • Afgelei uit Teorie
• Clear hypotheses • Duidelike hipoteses
• Specific data for the • Spesifieke data vir die
question vraag
Qualitative or Quantitative
Kwalitatief of Kwantitatief
The researchers want to explore how women in
Afghanistan feel about Islamic law. Private interviews
are conducted with 9 women to discuss this topic and
many new insights emerge from which the researchers
create a broad conceptualization of how these women
feel.

Die navorsers wil verken hoe vrouens in Afghanistan oor

Islamitiese wet voel. Private onderhoude word gehou
met 9 vrouens om hierdie onderwerp te bespreek en
baie nuwe insigte kom na vore waaruit die navorsers ‘n
breë konseptualisering skep oor hoe hierdie vrouens
voel.
Quantitative (Numerical) Research
Kwantitatiewe (Numeriese) Navorsing

• Describe numerically • Beskryf numeries

Descriptive Beskrywend
• Overview • Oorsig

• Compare different • Vergelyk verskillende

Experimental conditions / interventions Eksperimenteel toestande / intervensies
• Compare outcomes • Vergelyk uitkomstes

• Compare outcomes • Vergelyk uitkomstes

• No interventions • Geen intervensies
Observational Waarnemend
• Observe the state of the • Neem die stand van die
phenomenon fenomeen/verskynsel waar
Qualitative (In-depth) Research
Kwalitatiewe (In-diepte) Navorsing

• Groepbesprekings
• Group discussions Fokusgroepe
Focus Groups • Details rakende ‘n
and Interviews
• Details about a topic en onderwerp
• New ideas explored Onderhoude • Verken nuwe idees

• Personal impressions • Persoonlike indrukke

In-depth • Details In-diepte • Details
Understanding • Open-ended or guided Begrip • Oop-einde of gerig
• Focus on interpretations • Fokus op interpretasies

• Deep investigation of the • Diep ondersoek van die

phenomenon fenomeen/verskynsel
Exploratory
• Exploring new ideas
Verkennend • Verken nuwe idees
• Open to change • Oop vir verandering
Qualitative or Quantitative
Kwalitatief of Kwantitatief
Researchers want to describe the number of students
on a university campus who own cars. This research is
important as many students spend a lot of time travelling
which might impact their studies. The researcher
analyzes the data and concludes that ~60% of students
on campus own a car.

Navorsers wil die hoeveelheid student wat karre besit op

‘n universiteitskampus omskryf. Hierdie navorsing is
belangrik omdat baie studente baie tyd aan reis
spandeer wat dan ‘n impak op hulle studies mag hê. Die
navorser analiseer die data en kom tot die
gevolgtrekking dat ~60% van studente op kampus ‘n kar
besit.
Unique Steps in Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Unieke Stappe in Kwalitatiewe vs Kwantitatiewe
Navorsing:
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Kwalitatiewe Navorsing Kwantitatiewe Navorsing
• Idea acknowledging assumptions and • Idea and hypothesis (theory)
interpretations
• Define variables and how to measure them
• Understand the theoretical paradigm
• Select a research design
• Select a research design or strategy
• Collect and analyze data
• Collect and analyze data
• Deductively draw conclusions
• Interpret conclusions

• Idee en Hipotese (Teorie)

• Ideë Erken van Aannames en Interpretasies
• Verstaan die Teoretiese Paradigma
• Kies 'n Navorsingsontwerp of -strategie
• Versamel en Analiseer Data
• Interpreteer Gevolgtrekkings
• Definieer veranderlikes en hoe om hulle te
meet
• Kies 'n navorsingsontwerp
• Versamel en analiseer data
• Deduktief trek gevolgtrekkings
Case Study

A researcher is considering the reasons that married rural women choose

not to leave abusive husbands. A literature review shows that many of
these women are uneducated and unemployed; therefore, they feel
unable to leave their husbands. Family systems theory understands the
family as a single, emotionally interdependent unit where the emotions
and needs of one family member influence those of the family members
around them. The researcher decides to investigate whether the women
who are unwilling to leave abusive husbands feel that way due to
pragmatic issues such as living costs or due to emotional states of
helplessness which developed within the family unit.

• Qualitative or quantitative?
• How was inductive reasoning used to decide what to investigate?
• Which theory with the discussion and conclusions be based on?
• What type of information should be included in the literature review?
• What assumptions has the researcher made about the study and what
conclusions they might find?
Case Study

In the previous scenario, the researcher made the

following assumptions: a) that family systems theory
is “true”; b) that the women experience pragmatic
difficulties and emotional helplessness; and c) that
these women would be able to express these
challenges honestly to the researcher.

Why are these assumptions and not a hypothesis?

Can this topic be investigated quantitatively by using
deductive reasoning and a hypothesis?
Social Roles of Researchers
Sosiale Rolle van Navorsers
Make sense of social life
Maak sin van sosiale lewe

Contribute to interventions
Dra by tot intervensies

Better communities
Verbeter gemeenskappe

Understand global issues

Verstaan wêreldkwessies

Understand cultures
Verstaan kulture

Find solutions
Vind oplossings
Summary / Opsomming
• Research is a systematic process of
answering a question by collecting and
analyzing data
• The research process can be deductive (top-
down, quantitative) or inductive (bottom-up,
qualitative)
• Research is carried out in a cycle where final
conclusions pose more/new research
questions
• Research must focus on “why,” “what,”
“how,” “who,” “where,” and “when.”
• The “who” is determined by sampling –
identifying representatives of the population
• Researchers have a variety of important
social roles, such as furthering interventions
and contributing to global knowledge
• Navorsing is ‘n sistematiese proses van
die beantwoording van ‘n vraag deur data
in te samel en te analiseer
• Die navorsingsproses kan deduktief (bo
tot onder, kwantitatief) of induktief
(onder tot bo, kwalitatief) wees
• Navorsing word in ‘n siklus uitgevoer
waar finale gevolgtrekkings meer/nuwe
navorsingsvrae stel
• Navorsing moet fokus op “hoekom”,
“wat”, “hoe”, “wie”, “waar” en
“wanneer”.
• Die “wie” word vasgestel deur
steekproefneming – identifisering van
verteenwoordigers van die populasie
• Navorsers beklee ‘n verskeidenheid van
belangrike sosiale rolle, soos die
bevordering van intervensies en bydrae
tot wêreldkennis